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1 | Title | Year | Author (surname, first name) | Institution of Author | Publication Type | Publication | Volume/Issue/Page Numbers/Publisher | Abstract | Link to Publication | Open Access (Yes/No) | ||||||||||||||||||
2 | Preparing for Battle: American news organizations lag behind some of their European counterparts when it comes to providing survival training and drafting safety guidelines for war correspondents. A group of journalists is pushing to narrow the gap | 2002 | Ricchiardi, Sherry | Indiana University | Commentary | American Journalism Review | 24(6) pp. 39-43 | The notion of survival skills and safety guidelines has been slow to catch on with top media managers in the United States. In Europe, the BBC, ITN and Reuters mandate training for foreign correspondents. It has taken an era of international terrorism to spark a stronger push on the home front. | https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA88571532&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=10678654&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7E38166f9 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
3 | The protection of journalists and news media personnel in armed conflict | 2004 | Balguy-Gallois, Alexandre | Paris-Sud | Article | International Review of the Red Cross | 86(853) pp. 37-67 | The recent war in Iraq is a perfect illustration of the growing risks faced by journalists working in conflict zones. It is therefore important to call renewed attention to the fact that attacks against journalists and media equipment are illegal under international humanitarian law, which protects civilian persons and objects, as long as they are not making an effective contribution to military action. The media cannot be considered a legitimate target, even if they are being used for propaganda purposes, unless they are being exploited to instigate grave breaches of humanitarian law. Journalists and media personnel also benefit from precautionary measures – not confined to them alone – such as the principle of proportionality and the obligation to give advance warning. There is nonetheless an evident need for the adoption of a new instrument, on the one hand to reaffirm those elements of humanitarian law that apply to journalists and media personnel, and thus to re-establish the authority of certain basic rules that are all too often flouted, and, on the other hand, to improve existing law and adapt it to the requirements of today, for instance the phenomenon of “embedded” journalists. Such is the goal of the “Declaration on the safety of journalists and media personnel in situations involving armed conflict,” drawn up in 2003 by Reporters without Borders. | https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/irrc_853_gallois.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
4 | Media at War: The Iraq Crisis | 2004 | Tumber, Howard and Palmer, Jerry | City University, London Metropolitan University | Book | Media at War: The Iraq Crisis | SAGE Publications | "Media at War offers a critical overview of the coverage in the context of other preceding wars, including the first Gulf War, and opens up the debate on the key questions that emerged during the crisis. For example, - What did we actually gain from ′live, on the spot′ reporting? - Were journalists adequately trained and protected? - How compromised were the so-called ′embedded′ journalists? Tumber and Palmer′s analysis covers both the pre-war and post war phase, as well as public reaction to these events, and as such provides an invaluable framework for understanding how the media and news organisations operated during the Iraq Crisis." | https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Media_at_War/maUgSE8qZ7sC?hl=en&gbpv=0 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
5 | Dangerous assignment: Iraq has proven to be a particularly hazardous posting for journalists. More media workers have been killed there than during the two-decades-long war in Vietnam. And 15 have died at the hands of American forces | 2005 | Ricchiardi, Sherry | Indiana University | Commentary | American Journalism Review | 27(6) pp. 44-51 | N/A | https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA140443320&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=10678654&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7E1d78cc89 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
6 | The Protection of Journalists in Armed Conflicts | 2005 | Zanghí, Claudia | Università degli Studi La Sapienza di Roma | Chapter | The New Challenges of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts | BRILL, pp. 145-162 | The problem of the protection of journalists is closely linked to that of freedom of information and was first considered as early as 1893/94. In 1927 a conference of press experts held in Geneva adopted various resolutions for their submission to member states. These resolutions addressed a range of issues, including the treatment of foreign journalists and specific proposals for the prevention of violence against journalists. Among these, in particular, was the establishment of an identity card for journalists. Unfortunately these resolutions were of no consequenceand the problem was never addressed again. | https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789047416593/B9789047416593_s009.xml | No | ||||||||||||||||||
7 | The Role of Women Journalists in Conflict Reporting in Sri Lanka | 2005 | Bulathsinghala, Frances | South Asia Free Media Association (SAFMA) | Article | Media Asia | 32(1) pp. 31-33 | N/A | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01296612.2005.11726771?journalCode=rmea20 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
8 | Embedded journalists in the Iraq war: Are they at greater psychological risk? | 2005 | Feinstein, Anthony and Nicolson, Dawn | Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre | Article | Journal of Traumatic Stress | 18(2) pp. 129-132 | The current war in Iraq saw an alliance between the media and the military, a process called embedded journalism. The aim of this study was to explore whether this process affected the journalists' vulnerability to psychological distress. Eighty-five of 100 journalists approached agreed to participate; 38 (44.7%) were embedded. There were no differences between embedded and unilateral (nonembedded) journalists on demographic measures or in their exposure to traumatic events. Similarly, the two groups did not differ on indices of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, psychological distress, and substance use. Based on General Health Questionnaire scores, one third of all journalists were psychologically distressed. There is no evidence from the recent war in Iraq suggesting that embedded journalists are at increased risk for psychological problems. | https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20020 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
9 | Killing the Messenger Journalists at Risk in Modern Warfare | 2006 | Foerstel, Herbert, N. | N/A | Book | Killing the Messenger Journalists at Risk in Modern Warfare | Praeger | "Killing the Messenger reveals the dangerous new face of war and journalism. Covering armed conflicts has always been dangerous business, but in the past, press heroes like Ernie Pyle and Edward R. Murrow faced only the danger of random bullets or bombs. Today’s war correspondent is actually in the cross hairs, a target of combatants on all sides of conflicts. In their own words, correspondents describe the new dangers they face and attempt to explain why they are targeted. Killing the Messenger reveals the dangerous new face of war and journalism. Covering armed conflicts has always been dangerous business, but in the past, press heroes like Ernie Pyle and Edward R. Murrow faced only the danger of random bullets or bombs. Today’s war correspondent is actually in the cross hairs, a target of combatants on all sides of conflicts. In this book, correspondents describe the new dangers they face, and attempt to explain why they are targeted. Is it simply that modern combatants are more brutal than in the past, or has journalism changed, making correspondents players, rather than observers, in modern warfare? Extended interviews with correspondents who have been abducted and tortured during Middle East conflicts shed chilling light on this new face of war. These journalists, who have paid dearly to bring first-hand images of war to the public, offer some surprising insights into the nature and motivation of their kidnappers, and the reasons why reporters are targeted. They display no self-pity and little inclination to blame anyone other than themselves. At the same time, they are candid in describing the violence within Iraq and without. Ways to reduce the risks for reporters are discussed, but these editors and correspondents suggest that, short of withdrawing into isolated and protected enclaves, they may be facing an indefinite escalation of violence against journalists." | https://www.abc-clio.com/products/d1698c/ | No | ||||||||||||||||||
10 | Journalists under Fire The Psychological Hazards of Covering War | 2006 | Feinstein, Anthony | University of Toronto | Book | Journalists under Fire The Psychological Hazards of Covering War | John Hopkins University Press | As journalists in Iraq and other hot spots around the world continue to face harrowing dangers and personal threats, neuropsychiatrist Anthony Feinstein offers a timely and important exploration into the psychological damage of those who, armed only with pen, tape recorder, or camera, bear witness to horror. Based on a series of recent studies investigating the emotional impact of war on the profession, Journalists under Fire breaks new ground in the study of trauma-related disorders. | https://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title/9050/journalists-under-fire | No | ||||||||||||||||||
11 | Journalists in War Zones: Crossing from the Newsroom into the Arena | 2007 | Waschefort, CA | Unknown | Article | De Jure | 40, pp. 379-384 | "The very real danger in which conflict-journalists find themselves is well illustrated by the fact that during the recent conflict in Iraq proportionally more journalists were killed than members of the coalition forces (BalguyGallois March 2004 International Review of the Red Cross 37). The fact that journalists in conflict zones require protection is no new notion to humanitarian law, as is evidenced by the Geneva Convention of 1929-07-27 (relative to the treatment of prisoners of war). However, problems may arise where journalists start choosing sides. Should a journalist enter the arena of hostilities on either side, the situation will be that a person protected, at least to the same degree as a local civilian, will have a bearing on the hostilities. No better example exists than the Nahimana case (The Prosecutor v Ferdinand Nahimana, Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza, Hassan Ngeze case no ICTR-99-52-T (2003) (hereinafter ""Nahimana""))." | https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/dejur40&div=34&id=&page=&collection=journals | No | ||||||||||||||||||
12 | Occupational Stress and Job Satisfaction in Media Personnel Assigned to the Iraq War | 2007 | Greenberg, Neil; Thomas, Samantha, Murphy, Dominic and Dandeker, Christopher | Weston Education Centre, King's College London; Monash University | Article | Journalism Practice | 1(3) pp. 356-371 | This paper investigates occupational stressors amongst media personnel assigned to work on covering the Iraq War via interviews with 54 journalists from the BBC and Reuters, who worked in Iraq between February and April 2003. A range of stressors were identified that could be categorized into three main themes, control over the situation, support from management and grief from the death of colleagues. Journalists not embedded with military units were more likely to report negative physical and emotional health outcomes. The study concludes that hazardous work environments do not, by themselves, cause stress and poor job satisfaction. Rather, organizational factors, the imbalance between the ability to make decisions about how to carry out their job effectively and the perceived rewards of working in such environments appear to have a greater impact on work related stress. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17512780701552160 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
13 | Journalists, war crimes and international justice | 2008 | Tumber, Howard | City University | Article | Media, War & Conflict | 1(3) pp. 261-269 | The examination of the ethical and moral issues surrounding the reporting of war crimes signals one of the outstanding problems facing journalism in the contemporary era. As the nature of war has changed, so has the nature of the journalism mandated to cover it, and the selection of war crimes trials, tribunals and truth commissions are key places in which to analyse these changes. Journalists and news organizations are divided over the merits of testifying at international war crimes tribunals. To some degree, the debate about appearing before war crimes courts has split along European and US lines. A number of European journalists and documentary film makers willingly testified before the war crimes tribunal in The Hague whilst US journalists tend to see the subpoena power of the tribunals as a threat to First Amendment freedoms. Based on interviews conducted with journalists, editors, lawyers and humanitarian aid workers, this article explores questions of journalistic objectivity and impartiality; the verification of journalists' stories; the safety repercussions for journalists participating in international trials; and the implications for the erosion of confidentiality of journalists' sources. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1750635208097051?casa_token=ryThAqz9NtEAAAAA:7rcxihLTNCgnweNxgM2ILdFUE7_JZsmtQX2m5E3S6NBiihfFvFmcmWVRs5BPQwY5VpwrkI28-EU | No | ||||||||||||||||||
14 | The protection of journalists in armed conflicts | 2008 | Geiss, Robin | International Committee of the Red Cross | Article | German Yearbook of International Law | 51, pp. 289-320 | "The first casualty of war is truth. Disinformation and tactical ruses of war have constituted essential components of warfare throughout history. Over time, influencing public opinion - and consequentially securing the prime position to exert such influence - has become ever more significant. In modern armed conflicts various stakeholders compete to communicate their truth. Attempts to instrumentalize journalists, to get a hold on certain information, to censor and erase some, and to promote the distribution of other information constitute the rule rather than the exception. Evidently, accurate and impartial reports conveyed from war zones have become ever more important; they constitute ""a fundamental component in establishing historical truths and allowing post-war reconciliation.""' At the same time, quantum leaps in information technology have facilitated the outreach of the media to military operations even in the most remote corners of the world from where information can nowadays be broadcasted virtually in real-time. Evidently, journalists - and more generally media professionals - play a crucial role as the messengers and shapers of information. The risks they run in the performance of their profession are accordingly high. Images and news can be decisive for the outcome of a conflict and deliberate interference with journalistic work is frequent and increasing." | https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/gyil51&div=12&id=&page=&collection=journals | No | ||||||||||||||||||
15 | The international protection of journalists in armed conflict and other violent situations | 2008 | Saul, Ben | University of Sydney | Article | Australian Journal of Human Rights | 14(1) pp. 99-140 | Media reporting of armed conflict and other situations of heightened violence has become increasingly perilous, with large numbers of journalists and other media personnel killed or deliberately targeted because of their professional work, including by government forces and non-government actors. The serious risks to the safety of media personnel raise questions about the adequacy and enforcement of the international legal frameworks available to protect them. This article examines the range of complicated, interlocking normative and institutional frameworks which govern media personnel and media objects in international and non-international armed conflict, and in violent emergency situations beneath the threshold of conflict, with a focus on international humanitarian law and human rights law. The legal characterisation of a violent situation has important implications for the status and treatment of media personnel, whether they are ‘war correspondents’, ‘embedded’ reporters, or independent journalists. This article reviews and clarifies the circumstances in which journalists and their equipment are protected from hostilities and when they may lose protection from attack; the measures of security, detention or restriction to which they may be subject; issues of professional privilege and confidentiality; and the perennial discussion about whether journalists should receive a special status and emblem in conflict situations. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1323238X.2008.11910847?casa_token=qFVCKotycpEAAAAA:VNwqF9HiByeQ58z78dDvgZQ5cD-d_YzZ49oX13pXaIH2Qq124f7GXqTMxpa05K1nM7ypXwqW09o | No | ||||||||||||||||||
16 | Staying alive in the killing fields | 2009 | Pollard, Nick | Journalist | Commentary | British Journalism Review | 20(1) pp. 27-32 | Reporting on wars has always been a risky business for journalists. But news organisations have transformed their approach to safety in recent years by ensuring that all their staff sent to the front line have as much training as possible to minimise their chances of becoming victims of the conflict they are covering. Despite that, and the virtual industry that has grown up around risk assessment, individual journalists on the ground will go on taking decisions that place them in danger, writes Nick Pollard, the former head of Sky News. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956474809104215?casa_token=p4LMwhwVQNQAAAAA:fW-kx9GAfngCRALTdWSr2CwIZ5PfxwbJa4wZsqvIyxp1B4Nw6ajPw6nL7S1_PhS40B7fMvaVHV0 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
17 | Twenty-First Century Embedded Journalists: Lawful Targets? | 2009 | Moore, Douglas, W. | Major (Army) | Article | The Army Lawyer | pp. 1-32 | "It is now 2012 and an international armed conflict exists between Iran and Iraq. Since U.S. military forces withdrew from Iraq in early 2011, Iranian sentiment has grown increasingly hostile towards Iraq for its rejection of radical Shiite influences in the new Iraqi government. Various international intelligence sources indicate that Iran initiated a coordinated missile attack on several Iraqi towns. Nevertheless, Iran's Military Information Minister emphatically states that Iraq initiated the first strike. The security of the greater Middle East hangs in the balance." | https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/armylaw2009&div=61&g_sent=1&casa_token=&collection=journals | No | ||||||||||||||||||
18 | Don't shoot the messenger: prospects for protecting journalists in conflict situations | 2009 | Lisosky, Joanne, M. and Henrichsen, Jennifer | University of Pennsylvania/Washington State University | Article | Media, War & Conflict | 2(2) pp. 129-148 | One of the greatest threats to freedom of expression around the world is the violence committed against journalists practicing their profession in conflict situations. During the last 20 years, an alarming number of journalists have been targeted or killed when reporting about war. This situation has prompted several international organizations to offer suggestions on how to protect the messengers who report about war. In this study, the authors provide a historical overview of journalist protection. In addition, they explore a number of recent declarations, resolutions and strategies introduced to protect journalists targeted in conflict zones. One particularly controversial strategy, the Press Emblem Campaign, is examined by interviewing various international stakeholders. The authors demonstrate that while no clear comprehensive method to protect journalists has yet to be universally accepted, this global problem has generated increased international attention. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1750635209104651?casa_token=uEfbYsBJAxMAAAAA:ypNd6Dm3xthT_YNdG-Cg9vz_kmZIz8EMM9pMLz2bz29cEhthR3Lq9pbF07mM8uF4NL3tttRbC5M | No | ||||||||||||||||||
19 | Journalists : shielded from the dangers of war in their pursuit of the truth? | 2009 | Bosch, Shannon | University of KwaZulu-Natal | Article | South African Yearbook of International Law | 34(1) pp. 70-100 | This piece seeks to unpack these questions by exploring the current protection afforded journalists under both general international law and IHL (Part I); the IHL status of journalists (both those embedded in the military and those reporting as freelance / independent journalists) (Part II); targeting decisions involving journalists (Part III); and the obligations under IHL upon those who capture and detain journalists (Part IV). | https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC100130 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
20 | The psychological health of contractors working in war zones | 2009 | Feinstein, Anthony and Botes, Maggie | University of Toronto and Department of Psychiatry, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre | Article | Journal of Traumatic Stress | 22(2) pp. 102-105 | This study examines the psychological health of contractors working in war zones. Seventy-nine contractors completed an Internet-based psychiatric assessment. The sample was exclusively male with a mean age of 43 (SD = 7) years. The number of contractors whose scores exceeded the cutoff points for depression, psychological distress, and excessive weekly alcohol consumption were 15 (20%), 21 (28%), and 13 (17%), respectively. A third of contractors had posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) scores in the moderate to severe range. Approximately 10% of contractors had employer-organized access to psychological help following deployment. This study provides the first empirical data showing that a significant minority of contractors working in war zones are psychologically distressed and not receiving therapy. | https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19370698/ | No | ||||||||||||||||||
21 | The Protection of Journalists in Armed Conflicts: How Can They Be Better Safeguarded? | 2013 | Düsterhöft, Isabell | The Hague University of Applied Sciences | Article | International and European Law | 29(76) pp. 4-22 | The years 2011 and 2012 were among the most deadly for journalists reporting from conflict situations worldwide. The numbers of assaults, arrests and attacks have been on a constant rise and portray a dramatic image of the journalistic profession. In light of the increasing threats in armed conflicts, being a war reporter has become an inherently dangerous task. Journalists are not only at risk of becoming so-called collateral damage during military operations, they are also increasingly targeted. Their role as a watchdog and witness to the horrors of war, in addition to the undeniable power of the word and image they spread, has made them popular targets. It is therefore essential that the international community re-evaluate journalists' de jure and de facto protections in armed conflicts to allow for better safeguards and consequently less casualties in the imminent future. This article examines the current protections afforded to journalists and aims at detecting proposals for enhanced safeguards that are most likely to effectively improve journalists' safety in the field. In this regard, this article will argue that the legal protections are in fact sufficient and hardly amendable and that therefore, a more practical, hands-on approach to implementation of those protections must be the focus of future actions. This goal can only be achieved by a comprehensive mission jointly pursued by governments, militaries, journalists, media, NGOs and society. | https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2219189 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
22 | Mexican journalists and journalists covering war: a comparison of psychological wellbeing | 2013 | Feinstein, Anthony | University of Toronto/Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre | Article | Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research | 5(2) pp. 77-85 | Purpose War journalists confront many dangers, leaving them at risk for mental health problems. They are, however, able to take breaks from the hazards of frontline work by periodically leaving conflict zones for the safety of home. This respite is not afforded local journalists who cover conflict situations. An example of this may be found in Mexico where journalists reporting on the drug cartels may under threat. This inability to seek temporary respite from grave danger may theoretically increase levels of psychological distress. The purpose of this paper is to examine this possibility. Design/methodology/approach The study sample comprised 104 Mexican journalists and a control group of 104 war journalists (non‐Mexican, demographically matched). Outcome measures included indices of posttraumatic stress disorder (Impact of Event Scale‐Revised)(IES‐R), depression (Beck Depression Inventory‐Revised (BDI‐II) and psychological distress (General Health Questionnaire‐28 (GHQ‐28). Findings Mexican journalists had higher scores on the avoidance (p=0.01), arousal (p=0.0001), but not intrusion (p=0.29) scales of the IES‐R. They had higher scores on the BDI‐II (p=0.0001) and anxiety (p=0.0001), somatic (p=0.0001) and social dysfunction (p=0.01) subscales of the GHQ‐28. Practical implications Mexican journalists targeted by drug cartels have more psychopathology than journalists who cover war. News organisations that employ journalists in this line of work therefore need to be aware of this and have a mechanism in place to provide treatment, when needed. Originality/value This is the first study to directly explore the psychological effects of violence on local journalists who do not cover war, but nevertheless live and work in areas of grave danger. | https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/17596591311313672/full/html | No | ||||||||||||||||||
23 | War Reporters Under Threat The United States and Media Freedom | 2014 | Paterson, Chris | University of Leeds | Book | War Reporters Under Threat The United States and Media Freedom | Pluto Press | War Reporters Under Threat describes the threat of violence facing war reporters from the United States government and some of its closest allies. Chris Paterson argues that what should have been the lesson for the press following the invasion of Iraq - that they will be treated instrumentally by the US government - has been mostly ignored. As a result, even nominally democratic states cannot be counted upon to protect journalists in conflict, and urgent reform of legal protections for journalists is required. War Reporters Under Threat combines critical scholarship with original investigation to assess the impact of the US government's obsession with information control and protection of its own troops. While the press-military relationship has been well researched, this book is the first to elaborate the US government threat to journalists. | https://www.plutobooks.com/9780745334172/war-reporters-under-threat/ | No | ||||||||||||||||||
24 | Bravery or Bravado? The Protection of News Providers in Armed Conflict | 2015 | Burri, Nina | Unknown | Book | Bravery or Bravado? The Protection of News Providers in Armed Conflict | BRILL | During the last decade, the image of war correspondents in the news has shifted dramatically. Reports are no longer full of cheerleading stories of embedded journalists. Instead, stories of war reporters being attacked, kidnapped or injured prevail. Sadly, the former heroic witnesses to war have become victims of their own story. In this book, Nina Burri provides the first comprehensive analysis on how international law protects professional and citizen journalists, photographers, cameramen and their support staff during times of war. Using examples from recent armed conflicts in Iraq, Libya, Gaza and Syria, Burri explores the means, methods and risks of contemporary war coverage and examines the protection of news providers by international humanitarian law, international criminal law and human rights law. | https://brill.com/view/title/27182 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
25 | Civil War in Syria: the psychological effects on journalists | 2015 | Feinstein, Anthony and Starr, Stephen | University of Toronto and Sunnybrook Research Institute | Article | Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research | 7(1) pp. 57-64 | Purpose: More journalists died in Syria during 2013 than in any other country experiencing conflict. This statistic raises concerns about the psychological wellbeing of journalists covering the internecine violence. The paper aims to discuss this issue. Design/methodology/approach: The study sample was made up of 59 western journalists currently covering the Syrian conflict. To place these results in the broader context of war journalism previously collected data from a group of 84 journalists who had reported the war in Iraq were used as a control sample. Outcome measures included indices of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Impact of Event Scale-revised) and psychological distress (General Health Questionnaire-28 item version (GHQ-28)). Findings: Compared to journalists who covered the Iraq war, the journalists working in Syria were more likely to be female (p = 0.007), single (p = 0.018), freelance (p = 0.0001) and had worked fewer years as a journalist (p = 0.012). They were more depressed according to the GHQ-28 (p = 0.001) and endorsed more individual symptoms of depression including worthlessness (p = 0.012), helplessness (p = 0.02) and suicidal intent (p = 0.003). A linear regression analysis revealed that the group differences in depression data could not be accounted for by demographic factors. Research limitations/implications: An absence of structured interviews. Results not applicable to local Syrian journalists. Practical implications: Western journalists covering Syrian appear to be particularly vulnerable to the development of depression. Journalists and the news organizations that employ them need to be cognizant of data such as these. Given that depression is treatable, there needs to be a mechanism in place to detect and treat those in need. Originality/value: This is the first study that highlights the emotional toll on western journalists covering the Syrian conflict. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved) | https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2015-00146-005 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
26 | The Cyberspace War: Propaganda and Trolling as Warfare Tools | 2015 | Aro, Jessika | Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies | Article | European View | 15(1) pp. 121-132 | Russian President Vladimir Putin’s regime has taken control of the traditional media in Russia: TV, radio and newspapers. As Russian Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu has stated, the Kremlin sees the mass media as a ‘weapon’. Now Russia’s leadership is trying to take control of social media too, and for this massive operation a new information warfare tool has been mobilised—an army of fake social media Putin-fans, known as ‘trolls’. My investigation has discovered that coordinated social media propaganda writers are twisting and manipulating the public debate in Finland, too. Trolls and bots distribute vast amounts of false information in various languages, and target individual citizens for aggressive operations. Aggressive trolls have created a feeling of fear among some of my interviewees, causing them to stop making Russia-related comments online. Trolling has had a serious impact on freedom of speech, even outside Russia. Thus, it should be viewed as a national security threat that needs to be addressed accordingly. The question is: how should the Kremlin’s trolls and disinformation be countered? | https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12290-016-0395-5 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
27 | Outsourcing Authority in the Digital Age: Television News Networks and Freelance War Correspondents | 2015 | Palmer, Lindsay | University of Wisconsin-Madison | Article | Critical Studies in Media Communication | 32(4) pp. 225-239, | This article examines the unique ways in which the figure of the freelance war correspondent is entangled within both the material and discursive logic of the digital in the age of the “war on terror.” Because freelancers increasingly work across media platforms and without large crews, these media producers are lucrative replacements for staff correspondents, especially since news organizations can opt out of paying for their insurance or safety training. Yet, freelancers can also be abused and discarded as soon as they begin to trouble accepted notions of journalistic authority—authority that is both a discursive and a political-economic construction. Following this, I offer two case studies in which a mainstream news network aligns a freelance journalist with the purportedly more interpretive and subjective space of the digital in order to regain control over the political narratives engendered by the freelancer’s experience in the war zone. Ultimately, I argue that these instances reveal the larger ethical poverty of mainstream news reporting in the digital age. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15295036.2015.1033437 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
28 | Women in War. Challenges and Possibilities for female journalists covering wars and conflicts. | 2016 | Orgeret, Kristin Skare | Oslo Metropolitan University | Book Chapter | Freedom of Expression and Media in Transition. Studies and Reflections in the Digital Age | Nordicom, pp. 165-176. | The chapter takes as its starting point the notion that journalists’ safety is a precondition for free expression and free media. Based on interviews and discussions with experienced female war and conflict journalists from seven countries worldwide, the discussion evolves around questions linked to what particular challenges and opportunities women journalists face, and how their security can best be ensured when covering war and conflict zones. The deliberations are believed to have a direct bearing on debates about female journalists’ safety online and offline, the importance of the presence of female journalists covering wars and conflicts, and how their being there may serve as an indicator of freedom of expression, civil rights and media freedom in general. | https://oda.oslomet.no/oda-xmlui/bitstream/handle/10642/4210/WomeninWarFinal.pdf?sequence=2 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
29 | The Role of the United Nations Organization to Ensure the International Protection of Journalists in Non-International Armed Conflicts. | 2016 | Jaffal, Zeyad, M. S. | Al Ain University of Science and Technology, UAE | Article | International Journal of Arts & Sciences | 9(1) pp. 95-110 | The non-international armed conflicts prevailing in the Middle East nowadays, have been witnessing a large number of atrocities committed against journalists.The study examined the extent to which international humanitarian law is able to provide special protection for Non-embedded (independent) journalists when covering non-international armed conflicts, and the initiatives taken by a United Nations organization to enforce the rules of this law and compel the conflict parties to respect it.The study found that United Nations Orgnization is playing a very vital role to enforce the international law of Journalists, especially during armed conflict situations. In recent years, United Nations seriously deal with this issue through a set of resolutions and plans,especially the 2015 UNSC resolution, which endorsed group of effective tools and mechanisms, the most important of them, from our point of view, is the need to end the impunity of the perpetrators of such crimes and prosecuting them before national or national courts as well as to take this issue in consideration with UN peacekeeping and special political missions. In our study, we agree with the view that the Conflict parties that deliberately target journalists will arguably not be deterred by a new treaty that affirms that journalists should not be made the object of attack. Therefore, promoting of understanding of the existing laws through media campaigns to support their enforcement, giving more coverage to International Humanitarian Law (IHL) breaches, and better training for journalists in IHL and International Criminal Court (ICC) processes, will be more effective. " | https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zeyad-Jaffal/publication/329118974_The_Role_of_the_United_Nations_Organization_to_Ensure_the_International_Protection_of_Journalists_in_Non-International_Armed_Conflicts/links/5c5c12e1a6fdccb608ae0985/The-Role-of-the-United-Nations-Organization-to-Ensure-the-International-Protection-of-Journalists-in-Non-International-Armed-Conflicts.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
30 | Shape Shifting in the Conflict Zone The strategic performance of gender in war reporting | 2016 | Palmer, Lindsay and Melki, Jad | University of Wisconsin-Madison and Lebanese American University | Article | Journalism Studies | 19 (1) pp. 126-142 | The war journalist is often portrayed as a ruggedly masculine individual who survives on hard work, self-sufficiency, and heroic dedication to the truth in a stoic culture and dangerous environment. Yet, the growing number of female war journalists subtly complicates this traditional narrative. Female war reporters navigate the precariousness of the conflict zone through the strategy of shape shifting—of switching gender performances depending on the environment and the audience. This article examines the shape-shifting phenomenon in the field, relying on 72 qualitative interviews conducted with English- and Arabic-speaking female journalists who have covered various wars and conflicts in the Arab region and beyond. On one level, interviewees say that they can work in precisely the same way as their male counterparts, downplaying their femininity and accentuating their own masculine qualities. On another rather paradoxical level, women war correspondents also sometimes foreground their feminine accessibility and intuition, especially when engaging female sources and entering private spaces inaccessible to male journalists. Finally, female conflict reporters sometimes perform an exaggerated version of feminine weakness or tacitly accept sexist treatment, especially when shape shifting can save them from danger or help them circumvent obstructions. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1461670X.2016.1161494 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
31 | Kidnapping of Journalists: Reporting from High-Risk Conflict Zones | 2016 | Picard, Robert. G and Storm, Hannah | Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism | Book | Kidnapping of Journalists: Reporting from High-Risk Conflict Zones | I B TAURIS & CO LTD, RISJ | The vulnerability of journalists to kidnappings was starkly illustrated by the killing of James Foley and Steven Sotloff by Islamic militants in 2014. Their murder underscored the risks taken by journalists and news organisations trying to cover developments in dangerous regions of the world and has forced news enterprises to more clearly prepare for and confront issues of safety. This book explores the complex organisational issues surrounding the capture or kidnapping of journalists in areas of conflict and risk. It explores how journalists ‘becoming news’ is covered and the implications of that coverage, how news organisations prepare for and respond to such events, and how kidnapping and ransom insurers, victim recovery firms, journalists’ families, and governments influence the actions of news enterprises. It considers how and why journalists are kidnapped, how employers and journalists’ organisations respond to kidnappings and why freelancers are particularly at risk as well as suggesting best practices for preventing and responding to kidnappings. | https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/our-research/kidnapping-journalists-reporting-high-risk-conflict-zones | No | ||||||||||||||||||
32 | Reporting is becoming a Life Threatening Profession in Pakistan | 2016 | Khan, Urooj | University of Karachi | Article | Ma’arif Research Journal | 12, pp. 103-116. | The study is focusing ‘Reporting is becoming a life threatening profession in Pakistan’ as a topic for research. International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) declared Pakistan as one of the most dangerous countries for Journalists. Amnesty International called Khuzdar ‘a graveyard for Journalists’. Rank of Pakistan in the World Press Freedom Index is going down year by year. However, the number of journalists who lost their lives in Pakistan is on the rise. It would be safe to say that at least 67 journalists lost their lives in Pakistan from 2002 to 2014.It is claimed by Committee to Protect Journalists that from 1992 to 2014 majority of journalists who lost their lives in the line of duty are reporters. The situation in Pakistan has been going worse with each passing day for journalists especially for reporters since 9/11.Government as well as media organizations have failed to provide proper security to reporters resulting an increase in the number of crimes against journalists as well as the impunity in their cases. Although the conviction in the cases of two murdered reporters is a ray of hope and has improved Pakistan’s rank in Global Impunity Index but still there is a lot needed to be done in order to control the increasing rate of crimes against journalists. | http://www.mrjpk.com/index.php/mrjpk/article/view/142 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
33 | A Country without Mercy: Afghan journalists caught in crossfires | 2017 | Eide, Elisabeth | Oslo Metropolitan University | Book Chapter | The Assault on Journalism. Building Knowledge to Protect Freedom of Expression | Nordicom, pp. 81-86 | N/A | http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1168137/FULLTEXT01.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
34 | Digging for Transparency: How African Journalism Only Scratches the Surface of Conflict | 2017 | Saleh, Ibrahim | University of Cape Town | Article | Global Media Journal: African Edition | 9(1) pp. 1-10 | It has become a pattern to find academics, professionals and students of journalism bragging with the scope, techniques and dilemmas of investigative journalism. But there is one gaping hole: nowhere was information collated about the heroic contributions, and often the sacrifices, that were made for the profession by African investigative journalists across Africa. Writing a history or complete account of African investigative journalism is outside the scope of this article. But I am trying to offer here a series of contributions – some current, some historical – on the topic of safety of journalists, that will, hopefully, lay the foundations for further research, and also lay to rest decisively the myth that journalism which exposes social problems and criticizes the powerful is ‘un-African’. | https://globalmedia.journals.ac.za/pub/article/view/187 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
35 | A Story Bigger than Your Life? The safety challenges of journalists reporting on democratization conflicts | 2017 | Lohner, Judith and Banjac, Sandra | University of Hamburg; University of Vienna | Book Chapter | The Assault on Journalism. Building Knowledge to Protect Freedom of Expression | Nordicom, pp. 289-302 | This chapter investigates safety challenges journalists face when reporting on democratization conflicts and their impact on journalistic work. It builds on a comparative case study within the EU-funded project “Media, Conflict and Democratisation” (MeCoDEM), which explores journalistic work practices, ethics, roles, and working conditions across a set of democratization conflicts through interviews with journalists from Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa. Findings show that journalists experience safety threats at personal and organizational levels ranging from insults, intimidation and phone tapping to physical attacks, legal proceedings, and imprisonment. Journalists describe limitations to the professionalization of the working environment, which is perceived as providing neither sufficient training on safety measures nor proper safety equipment. Also highlighted is the psychological safety of journalists experiencing trauma from witnessing violence. The reported safety challenges greatly affect journalistic practices, roles and ethics. Based on these findings, the chapter outlines possible measures to increase the safety of journalists reporting on democratization conflicts. | http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1168137/FULLTEXT01.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
36 | Embedded Journalism and Its Implications in the Field | 2017 | Iturregui Mardaras, Leire; José Cantalapiedra González, María and Moure Peñín, Leire | University of Basque Country | Book Chapter | The Assault on Journalism. Building Knowledge to Protect Freedom of Expression | Nordicom, pp. 255-266 | The Iraq War was a landmark in war reporting. The design and implementation of the embedded system enabled nearly 700 journalists to live and work alongside soldiers of the United States and British armies. Nearly 30 countries took part in the system, including Spain, one of the main supporters of the USA in its decision to start the war. This article discusses the advantages and drawbacks of the embedded system and the risks it entails for the security and protection of journalists. It offers a reflection on the challenges to be faced now that the embedded system has been consolidated as a way of covering a conflict… and has also proved to be the most economical way of doing so. This research focuses on the situation in Spain, where this debate has not been addressed by either academia or journalism. An in-depth interview method was chosen as the principal research tool. | http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1168137/FULLTEXT01.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
37 | What’s Wrong with War Journalism? Why and how legal aspects of conflicts need better reporting | 2017 | Nohrstedt, Stig A. and Ottosen, Rune | Örebro University; Oslo University College | Book Chapter | The Assault on Journalism. Building Knowledge to Protect Freedom of Expression | Nordicom, pp. 241-254 | This chapter deals with whether war journalism in mainstream media is fit to take a fourth estate role in reporting the new wars, from the end of the Cold War in 1989 to the present war against the so-called Islamic State. In particular, it is a critical study of shortcomings when it comes to providing the public with relevant information about the legality and legitimacy of the ways in which the humanitarian operations under the UN declaration on the “Responsibility to Protect (R2P)” are pursued. However, in almost all respects, journalism is a national institution with competence deficits in the field of international law and humanitarian rights. The new and asymmetric wars – in which established distinctions, e.g., between civilians and soldiers, between embedded reporters and combatants as well as between war and peace are blurred – make such shortcomings a growing and severe democratic problem. A global journalism with higher professional standards in this field is important as one of several correctives in order to reverse the current threat spirals that jeopardize our collective security. | http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1168137/FULLTEXT01.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
38 | The Protection of Citizen Journalists During Armed Conflicts | 2017 | Villareal, Mariateresa Garrido | UN, University for Peace | Book Chapter | The Assault on Journalism. Building Knowledge to Protect Freedom of Expression | Nordicom, pp. 267-278 | Digital technologies are changing the way in which journalism is performed. Today, reports by citizen journalists (CJs) are extremely relevant when traditional journalists cannot access hostile and dangerous areas. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, 90% of murdered reporters were locals (CPJ 2015). CJs are among the most affected journalists because they are locally based; therefore, their protection is essential. This article explores the legal instruments available to protect CJs during armed conflicts, and how distortions in the interpretation of norms can put them at risk. First, I present the legal arguments supporting the simultaneous application of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law, and the protection mechanisms available for the legal protection of CJs. Second, I highlight the problems that arise when CJs are identified as combatants (spies), rather than as civilians, and discuss the effects this has on the conflict. | http://www.unesco.se/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/The-Assault-on-Journalism.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
39 | ALL THE NEWS THAT'S WORTH THE RISK: IMPROVING PROTECTION FOR FREELANCE JOURNALISTS IN WAR ZONES | 2017 | Grossman, Lindsay R. | Lawyer | Article | Boston College International & Comparative Law Review | 40(1) pp. 141-166 | Although war journalism has existed for centuries, changes in the nature of armed conflict and its coverage have put the danger for modern journalists at an all time high. The traditional war correspondent has been replaced in recent years by the independent freelance journalist. While the former receives the full protection and financial backing of his respective news organization and the American military, the latter works on his own, often living in dangerous war zones with little or no training, insurance, or equipment. This new mode of journalism has proved especially dangerous in the current conflict in Syria, where terrorist organizations such as the Islamic State intentionally capture journalists for use as propaganda pieces and bargaining chips. The U.S. government and news organizations worldwide have issued policies and entered into agreements aimed at offering better protection to journalists reporting from dangerous conflict zones. Recently, many voices have advocated for legislative amendments to the Geneva Convention that would establish new protections such as a press emblem or a special status. This will not solve the problem, however, as the major players in current conflicts systematically ignore codified law. The most feasible action to mitigate danger and reduce targeted attacks againstjournalists is to put an end to the impunity that has allowed the Islamic State and other violent military groups to carry out these acts unprosecuted. | https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol40/iss1/6/ | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
40 | Reporting from the Danger Zone Frontline Journalists, Their Jobs, and an Increasingly Perilous Future | 2017 | Armoudian, Maria | University of Auckland | Book | Reporting from the Danger Zone Frontline Journalists, Their Jobs, and an Increasingly Perilous Future | Routledge | Journalism is a dangerous business when one’s "beat" is a war zone. Armoudian reveals the complications facing frontline journalists who cover warzones, hot spots and other hazardous situations. It compares yesterday’s conflict journalism, which was fraught with its own dangers, with today’s even more perilous situations—in the face of shrinking journalism budgets, greater reliance on freelancers, tracking technologies, and increasingly hostile adversaries. It also contrasts the difficulties of foreign correspondents who navigate alien sources, languages and land, with domestically-situated correspondents who witness their own homelands being torn apart. | https://www.routledge.com/Reporting-from-the-Danger-Zone-Frontline-Journalists-Their-Jobs-and-an/Armoudian/p/book/9781138840058 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
41 | Freedom of expression and threats to journalists’ safety: an analysis of conflict reporting and peace journalism education in Pakistan | 2017 | Jamil, Sadia | Khalifa University of Science & Technolgy | Article | Journalism Education | 6(2) pp. 7-16 | The threat of violence against journalists in Pakistan is very real. Pakistan is a front line state in the war on terror and media workers and news reporters reporting from the front line therefore face huge risks. According to a United Nation’s estimate, at least 71 journalists and media workers have lost their lives since 2001 while pursuing their duties in Pakistan. Consequently, the country has been named as one of the deadliest places for working journalists in the world, suggesting the necessity of regular evaluation of threats to journalists’ safety in the country (www.IFJ.org). Ironically, it is not just journalists’ lives that are at risk in Pakistan. The country’s educational institutions are also the target of terrorist attacks. In spite of increasing threats to journalists’ safety and educational institutions, the role of academia in promoting journalists’ safety education is not well-investigated and distinct in Pakistan. Therefore, drawing on the new institutionalism theory, this study explores the diverse threats that affect journalists’ routine work and their freedom of expression focussing on Pakistan. The study aims to investigate whether Pakistani journalists receive safety training and education to carry out their routine work. | https://orbicom.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Journal-6.2.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
42 | Tribal Journalists under Fire: Threats, impunity and decision making in reporting on conflict in Pakistan | 2017 | Ashraf, Syed Irfan and Brooten, Lisa | University of Peshawar; Southern Illinois University Carbondale | Book Chapter | The Assault on Journalism. Building Knowledge to Protect Freedom of Expression | Nordicom, pp. 147-158 | This study investigates the challenges faced by local journalists caught between the global “war on terror” and its local consequences in Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). Threats and impunity are commonplace in this buffer zone bordering Pakistan and Afghanistan, compelling scores of native journalists to flee with their immediate families to the relative peace of nearby Peshawar, where they continue to report on issues back home. In-depth interviews with local journalists reveal how threats and impunity work as structural constraints that affect reporting. Working under the logic of neoliberalism, media outlets extract what they can out of these reporters, but the risks are often considered journalists’ personal responsibility and add to their dependence on colleagues. This chapter offers valuable insight into the concerns of local journalists, and demonstrates how they resist the power holders in Pakistan and adapt to the complicated intersections of state, militant and foreign interests. | http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1168137/FULLTEXT01.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
43 | Trauma counseling for journalists: a profession in denial | 2017 | Ananthan, Gowri | Independent Researcher | Article | Media Asia | 44(1) pp. 17-20 | Research suggests between 80 and 90% of journalists have been exposed to a work-related traumatic events such as murder, mass casualties, war and natural disasters. Most journalists exhibit resilience despite repeated exposure to such traumatic events. However, a significant minority are at risk for long-term psychological problems, including Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, and substance abuse. Unsurprisingly, the greater the exposure to violence, suffering and death, in particular involving children, the more likely people are to break down. And those are the situations exactly what many journalists have to deal with as part of their job. Due to the 30 years of war in Sri Lanka, many journalists suffer PTSD as they witnessed many horrible events involving death, violence, bomb attacks and human suffering. Even though the war ended eight years ago, trauma is still there in many minds. Currently, many of the younger journalists are more likely to report occupational dysfunction due to PTSD. This article will analyze what impact such traumatic situations had on journalists and what methods and training can better prepare fresher journalists to face such traumatic events well in advance. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01296612.2017.1379814 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
44 | Freedom of expression and threats to journalists’ safety: an analysis of conflict reporting in journalism education in Pakistan | 2018 | Jamil, Sadia | Khalifa University of Science & Technolgy | Article | Journalism Education | 6(2) pp. 7-10 | The issue of journalists’ safety appears to be growing worse with an increasing number of journalists’ killings, kidnapping and imprisonment worldwide. The situation of Pakistan is noteworthy in terms of freedom of expression and threats to journalists’ safety. The country has a reputation for having a fearless and vocal media. Despite this, or possibly because of it, it is one of the most dangerous countries in the world for journalists, assessed by the extent and severity of threats and other abuse they face (See Amnesty International, IFJ, RSF etc). Statistics gathered by international organisations monitoring press freedom and violence against journalists in Pakistan reveal that threats to their lives and abuses by military, intelligence agencies and militant organisations have “remained high” in the recent years (Freedom House 2015, 2016; Committee to Protect Journalists 2016) In this scenario, I believe that working journalists and journalism students in the country need to be made well aware of the nature of the threats that they may confront, and how to protect themselves in conflict and non-conflict situations. However, it is not known to what extent working journalists in Pakistan are receiving regular safety training, whether journalists’ safety education is being given to journalism students at university level, and whether there is an awareness of awareness of the nature and type of safety threats that can affect journalists’ routine work amongst the journalism academics and journalists’ safety trainers. | https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=GS587OcAAAAJ&citation_for_view=GS587OcAAAAJ:WF5omc3nYNoC | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
45 | Becoming the Story War Correspondents since 9/11 | 2018 | Palmer, Lindsay | University of Wisconsin-Madison | Book | Becoming the Story War Correspondents since 9/11 | University of Illinois Press | Becoming the Story examines the transformation of war reporting in the decade after 9/11. Lindsay Palmer delves into times when print or television correspondents themselves received intense public scrutiny because of an incident associated with the work of war reporting. Such instances include Daniel Pearl’s kidnapping and murder; Bob Woodruff’s near-fatal injury in Iraq; the expulsions of Maziar Bahari and Nazila Fathi from Iran in 2009; the sexual assault of Lara Logan; and Marie Colvin’s 2012 death in Syria. Merging analysis with in-depth interviews of Woodruff and others, Palmer shows what these events say about how post-9/11 conflicts transformed the day-to-day labor of reporting. But they also illuminate how journalists’ work became entangled with issues ranging from digitization processes to unprecedented hostility from all sides to the political logic of the War on Terror. | https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p083211 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
46 | ‘Being the bridge’: News fixers’ perspectives on cultural difference in reporting the ‘war on terror’ | 2018 | Palmer, Lindsay | University of Wisconsin-Madison | Article | Journalism | 19(3) pp. 314-332 | This article examines some of the cultural differences between news ‘fixers’ and foreign reporters, focusing specifically on the expectations and experiences of the fixers, rather than the correspondents whose own perspectives have already been fruitfully explored. Drawing upon qualitative, semi-structured interviews I conducted with 21 news fixers, I will answer three research questions: (1) How do fixers understand and value the work they do? (2) How do fixers view the cultural, ethnic, or racial differences that inevitably play into the professional relationships between local news staff and foreign news outlets? (3) How do these cultural differences impact the safety of foreign correspondents and fixers, most especially at sites of conflict? The study ultimately shows that fixers take issue with foreign journalists’ lack of background on the countries they visit and with journalists’ lack of attention to disparate cultural mores in the newsgathering process. Furthermore, the inattention to cultural difference in the field can endanger the lives of the foreign reporters as well as the lives of the fixers. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1464884916657515 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
47 | The Fixers Local News Workers and the Underground Labor of International Reporting | 2019 | Palmer, Lindsay | University of Wisconsin-Madison | Book | The Fixers Local News Workers and the Underground Labor of International Reporting | Oxford University Press | Reveals the hidden lives and work of news "fixers:" locally based media employees who assist journalists as translators and guides in some of the most dangerous territories in the world The first book to give voice to news fixers' own perspectives, rather than the viewpoints of foreign reporters, and the first to think ethically about the treatment of fixers in the field Contains narratives from 75 interviews with news fixers from 36 countries | https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-fixers-9780190680824?q=the%20fixers&lang=en&cc=us | No | ||||||||||||||||||
48 | Journalism under pressure in conflict zones: A study of journalists and editors in seven countries | 2019 | Høiby, Marte and Ottosen, Rune | Oslo Metropolitan University | Article | Media, War & Conflict | 12(1) pp. 69-86 | Through interviews with 100 journalists and editors in seven countries, the authors examine safety as the main challenge for journalists covering war and conflict in both local and international contexts. The article places a particular focus on the situation for Filipino and Norwegian journalists. The underreporting of legal aspects of international conflict, combined with less security, means less presence and more journalistic coverage based on second-hand observation. The article argues that reduced access to conflict hotspots owing to the tactical targeting of journalists might distort the coverage of wars and conflicts, and affect the quality of journalism in future. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1750635217728092 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
49 | Safety culture changing visual representations of wars? The case of Afghanistan | 2019 | Mitra, Saumava | Dublin City University | Article | Conflict and Communication | 18(1) ISSN 1618-0747 | In international conflict correspondence safety mechanisms are unequally employed to protect local news-staffs in contrast to international staffs. Arguably, this has had the greatest impact on image production from war zones, exposing local photojournalists to increased dangers. But it also raises the possibility that local photographers from conflict-torn countries may represent conflicts to international audiences differently than do international photographers. This possibility is explored in this study using the case of Afghanistan. Based on photojournalists’ perceptions and comparisons of international and locally produced images, we explore potential effects of the shifting reliance on local rather than international photojournalists on how distant wars come to be pictured to international audiences. This study advances an argument for giving increased protection to local photojournalists in conflict zones. | https://regener-online.de/journalcco/2019_1/pdf/mitra2019.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
50 | Emphasizing Journalistic Safety while Reporting in a Conflict Zone: A Case Study of Tribal Areas of Pakistan | 2019 | Khan, Kashmir; Zaman,Bakht and Ullah, Rahman | Journalist/ University of Peshawar/Kohat University of Science and Technology | Article | The Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences | 27(1) pp. 63-80 | This research paper is designed to examine the problems being faced by the journalists in two of the newly merged tribal districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Khyber District and Mohmand District). The researchers used survey method for data collection. A designed structured questionnaire from the respondents (110 journalists from both districts Khyber and Mohmand) working with different international, national and local print, electronic and online media organizations as a convenience sampling. The findings show that a majority of the tribal journalists had been feeling insecure due to possible threats to their lives mainly from the militants and the military. The study revealed relationship between security awareness and level of journalists’ experience and qualification. More experienced and qualified journalists were more aware of their security concerns as compared to less educated and less experienced journalists. | https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349624278_Emphasizing_Journalistic_Safety_while_Reporting_in_a_Conflict_Zone_A_Case_Study_of_Tribal_Areas_of_Pakistan | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
51 | Socio-Psychological Effects on Media Professional Standards during Military Operations in Pakistan | 2019 | Khan, Rooh ul Amin and Yousaf, Zahid | University of Gujrat | Article | Global Social Sciences Review | 4(2) pp. 269-275 | While using qualitative and quantitative techniques, this study analyzes the issues and challenges faced by the journalists while working in the areas going under military operations in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and FATA. Based on the hierarchy of influences model, a survey was conducted in Waziristan, Swat and Peshawar. A total of 185 local journalists from Swat, North Waziristan and Peshawar are selected and interviewed. The research found various psychological and visible impacts on journalists reporting from conflict areas. They face challenges like governmental and organizational pressure, safety hazards and bars on freedom of access to news sources. Low perks and privileges, facilities to perform their professional duties and demanding standards for local journalists. The war journalists were dissatisfied with their professions and many were thinking to quit their jobs. In the qualitative technique of semi-structured interviews, the survey findings were supported and integrated with the large issues of media control and geo-strategic considerations. | https://gssrjournal.com/jadmin/Auther/31rvIolA2LALJouq9hkR/h6VOThx3Gt.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
52 | Human Security as a Conceptual Framework: The Case of Palestinian Journalists | 2019 | Schwalbe, Carol B.; Relly, Jeannine E.; Cruikshank, Sally Ann and Schwalbe, Ethan H. | University of Arizona | Article | Journalism Studies | 13, pp. 1920-1939 | This exploratory study introduces a human security framework to examine the challenges that journalists face from daily professional and societal constraints and pressures when attempting to fulfill their role to inform the public in areas of conflict. The research focuses on the influences on Palestinian journalists in one of the most challenging regions in the world for independently reporting the news. Our framework includes seven dimensions of human security: personal, organizational, community/societal, economic, political, geographic, and infrastructural. Our study found that the Palestinian media are military targets, and journalists face direct and indirect censorship by the Israeli government as well as the Palestinian Authority and Hamas. Although we have adapted this framework for the Palestinian case in particular, the spheres of these influences on human security would likely pertain to other insecure situations for journalists. Applying this framework to journalism studies could open new avenues of academic discovery to analyze human security beyond violence, safety, and risk. Our main contribution, we suggest, is building out a human security framework for academic journalism studies in contested, conflict-prone, and post-conflict areas around the world. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1461670X.2018.1543555?journalCode=rjos20 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
53 | The danger of words: major challenges facing Myanmar journalists on reporting the Rohingya conflict | 2020 | Lynn, Nyan | Unknown | Article | Media Asia | 47(1) pp. 4-22 | Due to the fighting between the Myanmar Army and the Rohingya militant group Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) in August 2017, hundreds of thousands of stateless Rohingya Muslims fled to Bangladesh. The Myanmar Army was accused of committing torture, atrocities, arson and gang-rapes against the Rohingya Muslims during its operations to wipe out the ARSA. When covering this conflict, Myanmar journalists faced criticism from international media and monitoring groups that most of their stories were one-sided and lacked multiple voices. To discover which barriers have impeded Myanmar journalists in their reporting, I conducted in-depth interviews with 17 reporters and editors from 10 media outlets and also drew from my own experiences during 14 years as a Myanmar journalist. The analysis of interviews showed that journalists faced restricted access to the conflict area, limited cooperation from the government and the army, pressures from local Rakhine people, difficulty accessing Rohingya Muslims, barriers in the verification processes, personal safety concerns, and ethical dilemmas. The results suggested that as long as freedom of press is restrained and safety of messengers is threatened, journalists will find it hard to practice peace journalism or conflict sensitive journalism to the fullest. In addition, as previous studies on conflict reporting suggest, this study also revealed that some journalists favored what they believed to be in the national interest whenever they found themselves in an ethical dilemma | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01296612.2020.1824569?journalCode=rmea20 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
54 | Reporting in Conflict Zones in Pakistan: Risks and Challenges for Fixers | 2020 | Baloch, Kiyya and Andresen, Kenneth | University of Agder | Article | Media and Communication | 8(1) pp. 37-46 | As a backbone of reporting in war and conflicts, fixers offer essential assistance to the foreign correspondent in conflict zones, also in Pakistan. With valuable local knowledge and contacts, fixers can arrange travel to secure entry of foreign correspondents into conflict zones in addition to securing interviews with otherwise unattainable figures, while offering reliable translation services. Pakistani media, despite being one of the largest and most developed in South Asia, remains under the strict control of powerful military establishment and government, while seeming to mirror the overarching government sentiment with a distinct lack of research-based news. Challenging this state of affairs, local journalist fixers seek to conduct research and investigative journalism, making them an attractive asset for western correspondents travelling to Pakistan. Based on data from interviews with local fixers and journalists in Pakistan, this article reveals the many security problems for local fixers in the Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa regions in Pakistan. It also shows that the fixers’ rights and interests are not protected by media organizations or the governments. Additionally, fixers face increasing censorship from security agencies and death threats from militants. This study discusses the harsh realities fixers face in the conflict zones of Pakistan where international press lack access due to increasing restrictions imposed by the government, and the violence perpetrated against media workers by the Islamic State and other radical groups, like Taliban and Baloch separatists.. | https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/66735 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
55 | Psychological distress in Afghan journalists: a descriptive study | 2020 | Osmann, Jonas; Khalvatgar, Abdul Mujeeb and Feinstein, Anthony | University of Toronto/Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Nai Supporting Open Media in Afghanistan | Article | Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research | 2(3) pp. 115-123 | Purpose Afghanistan is one of the world’s most dangerous places for journalists. There are, however, no data on the mental health of Afghan journalists covering conflict in their country. The study aims to determine the degree to which Afghan journalists are exposed to traumatic events, their perceptions of organizational support, their rates of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression, their utilization of mental health services and the effectiveness of the treatment received. Design/methodology/approach The entire study was undertaken in Dari (Farsi). Five major Afghan news organizations representing 104 journalists took part of whom 71 (68%) completed a simple eleven-point analog scale rating perceptions of organizational support. Symptoms of PTSD and depression were recorded with the Impact of Event Scale – Revised (IES-R) and the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), respectively. Behavioral comparisons were undertaken between those journalists who had and had not received mental health therapy. Findings The majority of journalists exceeded cutoff scores for PTSD and major depression and reported high rates for exposure to traumatic events. There were no significant differences in IES-R and CES-D scores between journalists who had and had not received mental health therapy. Most journalists did not view their employers as supportive. Originality/value To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to collect empirical data on the mental health of Afghan journalists. The results highlight the extreme stressors confronted by them, their correspondingly high levels of psychopathology and the relative ineffectiveness of mental health therapy given to a minority of those in distress. The implications of these findings are discussed. | https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/JACPR-02-2020-0473/full/html | No | ||||||||||||||||||
56 | Could Combat Stress Affect Journalists’ News Reporting? A Psychophysiological Response | 2020 | Tornero-Aguilera, José Francisco; Robles-Pérez, José Juan and Clemente-Suárez, Vicente Javier | Research Centre in Applied Combat, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Cuartel General de Fuerzas Ligeras, Universidad de La Costa | Article | Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback | 45(4) pp. 231-239 | Covering war conflicts may compromise the psychological and physical health of journalists because chronic exposure to these environments has been related to depression, memory dissociative processes, and post-traumatic stress disorder; however, acute effects have not been studied yet. Thus, a combat simulation was carried out replicating actual warfare scenarios, including personnel and equipment. Psychophysiological response, memory, and information-processing were analysed of 40 professional soldiers (21 males and 19 females) and 19 journalists (12 males and 7 females) with international experience in current conflict areas such as Afghanistan, Iraq, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo, in relation to their experience of a combat intervention. A significant increase (p < 0.05) in metabolic, muscular, cardiovascular, and cortical and psychological anxiety response, as well as a decrease in memory accuracy directly after and 24 h and 72 h post-combat were found; these modifications were modulated by the nature of the stimulus. Journalists presented higher cognitive and memory impairment than soldiers, resulting in a press reporting of real events accuracy of only 27%. | https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32529414/ | No | ||||||||||||||||||
57 | Protection of Journalists in Armed Conflict: An Insight from the Perspective of International Humanitarian Law | 2021 | Dahal, Pukar | Purbanchal University | Article | GPH-International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research | 4(6) pp. 21-30 | War journalism, by the nature of its work, is arguably one of the most dangerous professions in the world. Journalists working in conflict-prone areas are constantly exposed to the inherent threats of the battlefield. Over the period of time, there has been a number of attacks, assaults, and arrests upon journalistic profession who conduct reporting from conflict situations worldwide. What is more serious is that most of these attacks are deliberate in nature. The conflicting parties often fear the undeniable powers of word and image journalists spread. Under the current international regime, there is a number of normative frameworks which guarantees the protection of journalist operating in armed conflicts. However, there is a serious question regarding the adequacy and implementation of the available protection mechanisms. This paper is an attempt to study the current international framework which governs and protects the journalists operating in International and Non-International Armed Conflicts worldwide. Particular focus is given to the protection available under International Humanitarian Law. In addition, the paper clarifies the conditions in which journalists lose their protection and become legitimate targets. The paper also traces out the shortcomings within the current regime of International Humanitarian Law. Finally, the paper discusses some additional proposals that could enhance the safety of journalists in the field. The paper follows the qualitative method of research and uses both primary and secondary sources of information. | http://www.gphjournal.org/index.php/ssh/article/view/438 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
58 | Modeling safety challenges journalists faced in reporting anti-police brutality protests (ENDSARS protests) in Nigeria | 2021 | Talabi, Felix Olajide; Nwokolo, Peter N.; Oloyede, David; Boluwatife, Aiyesimoju Ayodeji; Adefemi, Victor Oluwole and Celestine, Gever Verlumun | University of Nigeria; Redeemer's University; Caleb University; Joseph Ayo Babalola University; Olabisi Onabanjo University; Taraba State University | Article | Information Development | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/02666669211054367 | Limited studies exist on the safety challenges that journalists face in reporting conflict related issues within their localities. This study extends literature in this direction by providing a model that explains the safety challenges that journalists faced in reporting the 2020 END SARS protests in Nigeria. The study is a survey of 470 journalists with questionnaire as the instrument for data collection. Results were analysed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). It was found that legal limitations, lack of training on safety and absence of safety motivational measures constitute the safety challenges that journalists faced in reporting the ENDS SARS protests. This information could be beneficial for policy formulation and advocacy within the context of safety of journalists. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/02666669211054367 | No | No | |||||||||||||||||
59 | Impact of Job Risks on Job Performance and Propensity to Quit Journalism Among Television Camerapersons Covering Conflicts in Nigeria | 2022 | Gever, Verlumun Celestine; Olajide Talabi, Felix; Kayode Okunade, Joshua; Aiyesimoju, Ayodeji Boluwatife; Sanusi, Bernice; Bello, Samson Adedapo and Apuke, Oberiri Destiny | University of Nigeria; Redeemer's University; Caleb University; Joseph Ayo Babalola University; Olabisi Onabanjo University; Taraba State University | Article | Electronic News | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/19312431221143316 | This study examined the impact of job risks on job performance and the propensity to quit journalism among 576 TV camerapersons covering insecurity in Nigeria. The result of the study showed a significant main effect of job risks on job performance, F(2,548) = 241.016, p = .001, eta squared, ηp2 = .468. Also, career longevity significantly affects the relationship between job risks and performance, F(1,548) = 28.372, p = .001. Despite attaining statistical significance, the degree of the relationship was low, ηp2 = .049. A significant statistical relationship exists between job risks and the propensity to quit journalism among TV camerapersons. A further breakdown of the result showed that the more educated, the more propensity to quit journalism and vice versa. Finally, expected rewards such as career advancement, finance, commendations, and passion for journalism are why TV camerapersons have continued to cover security issues despite the known risks involved. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/19312431221143316 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
60 | Covering conflict Safety, sanity and responsibility | 2021 | Munro, Jonathan | Head of Newsgathering at the BBC | Book Chapter | Insights on Peace and Conflict Reporting | Routledge | The chapter reflects upon reporting conflict based on the author’s own experiences from several decades in the field. Exploring the assessments being made around risk and safety as Head of Newsgathering at the BBC, decisions which have echoes in the themes of this book. Through a personal practice-based contribution, the chapter describes covering a conflict as “dirty, dangerous and nerve-wracking” and how, both in covering conflict and in journalism as a whole, grey areas are more common than absolutes. The author reflects upon the opportunities and challenges posed by technology in war zones, the particular tension in covering a conflict in your own home patch and the innate desire – despite all of these concerns – that some journalists have to go to war. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003015628-11/covering-conflict-jonathan-munro | No | ||||||||||||||||||
61 | Syrian journalists covering the war: Assessing perceptions of fear and security | 2021 | Peralta Garcia, Lidia and Ouariachi, Tania | Univ Castilla La Mancha | Article | Media War and Conflict | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635221999377 | This article analyses the dangers and threats faced by Syrian journalists covering the conflict since the pro-democracy protests erupted in March 2011. While most Western research on the Syrian Revolution has focused on the working difficulties faced by correspondents, parachutists or foreign freelancers, this article scrutinizes the working conditions for Syrian content providers. Syrian journalists' testimonials of fear and their perception of danger and vulnerability provide a humanistic lens not only on the scope of what revolution and war mean to many who have lived it and been transformed by it, but also on the reality of informing in dangerous contexts. The study contemplates the practitioners' working risks and perceptions of fear and threats, as well as their personal security measurements. The characterization of fear during the militarization of the rebellion as a semi-normalized way of life, suggested by Pearlman's article, 'Narratives of fear in Syria' (2016), allows the authors to place their study in a conceptual frame. The implementation of a survey answered by 82 Syrian journalists was complemented by semi-structured interviews with a selected group of 12 participants. In a context in which 86.6 percent of the respondents had colleagues who had died while working, the findings illustrate that Syrian reporters and media activists perceive their work as extremely dangerous. In the perception of fear, the adoption of personal safety measures by practitioners does not always contribute to decreasing it; the trauma experience can act both as a paralysing and empowering working factor. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1750635221999377 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
62 | ‘Forced to report’: Affective proximity and the perils of local reporting on Syria | 2022 | Al-Ghazzi, Omar | London School of Economics | Article | Journalism | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920984874 | Based on interviews with Syrian media practitioners, this article uses the notion of affective proximity to make sense of local media practitioners’ reporting and witnessing of suffering in their country and community. I argue that the life-risking, and sometimes deadly, media practices of local reporters and witnesses, as well as their emotional labour, often do not feature in understandings of journalism when it is conceived as a purely professional discursive pursuit. I explain affective proximity in terms of an imagined space (or the lack thereof) between a media practitioner, on the one hand, and the event they are representing and participating in, on the other. In relation to Syria, I use it to analyse the word ‘revolution’ and what it mediates, the shifting boundaries between activism and journalism, and experiences of, and in, violence. I make the case that the study of affect and emotion in global news should be contextualized within the unequal power relations that give shape to journalistic roles and modes of representaiton. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1464884920984874 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
63 | Beyond verification: Flesh witnessing and the significance of embodiment in conflict news | 2022 | Chouliaraki, Lilie and Al-Ghazzi, Omar | London School of Economics | Article | Journalism | 23(3) pp. 649-667 | Platform journalism in the global North is caught within a fragile political economy of emotion and attention, defined, on the one hand, by the proliferation of user-generated, affective news and, on the other, by the risk of fake news and a technocratic commitment to verification. While the field of Journalism Studies has already engaged in rich debates on how to rethink the truth conditions of user-generated content (UGC) in platform journalism, we argue that it has missed out on the ethico-political function of UGC as testimonials of lives-at-risk. If we wish to recognize and act on UGC as techno-social practices of witnessing human pain and death, we propose, then we need to push further the conceptual and analytical boundaries of the field. In this paper, we do this by introducing a view of UGC as flesh witnessing, that is as embodied and mobile testimonies of vulnerable others that, enabled by smartphones, enter global news environments as appeals to attention and action. Drawing on examples from the Syrian conflict, we provide an analysis of the narrative strategies through which flesh witnessing acquires truth-telling authority and we reflect on what is gained and lost in the process. Western story-telling, we conclude, strategically co-opts the affective dimension of flesh witnessing – its focus on child innocence, heroic martyrdom or the data aesthetics of destruction – and selectively minimizes its urgency by downplaying or effacing the bodies of non-western witnesses. This preoccupation with verification should not be subject to geopolitical formulations and needs to be combined with an explicit acknowledgement of the embodied voices of conflict as testimonies of the flesh whose often mortal vulnerability is, in fact, the very condition of possibility upon which western broadcasting rests. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14648849211060628 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
64 | Strict Fanaticism and Radicalism With The Post Battle On Dread Situation In Pakistan: Security Worries For Media Reporters In Kp | 2022 | Jan, Dr. Azam; Sultana, Dr. Irem and Adnan, Dr. Malik | Students Consultancy Home | Article | Pakistan Journal of Linguistics | 4(1) pp. 1-15 | Geo-strategically, Pakistan is placed in the region that has been frayed by wars conflict since the USSR’s (1979) invasion of Afghanistan. Since, Pakistan is sharing one of the longest borders with Afghanistan, hence could not remain impervious. The region, specially, Pakistan had not yet fully recovered from horrors of the stated war when unfortunately, the episode of the September 11, 2001, provoked another war in the area, framed as “war against terrorism”. The said war prompted a wave of religious extremism and radicalism in the region. Tactically, the killing of Osama Bin Laden in 2011brought the war on terror to its ultimate end but its after effects is still seriously hurting Pakistan. This state of affairs paved way for the emergence of war reporting in Pakistan. By now, dozens of journalists have been killed during performing their professional duties. This paper is an effort to explore the issues of religious extremism and radicalism in Pakistan and associated threats for the journalists engaged in reporting the same. The study is Quantitative in nature and makes use of a questionnaire for data collection. The study found that lack of safety protocol such as deficient safety gadgets; training deficiency; and rush to break news endanger war reporter’s lives. | http://www.pjl.com.pk/index.php/PJL/article/view/639 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
65 | Perception of journalists reporting in conflict zones: Labour situation, working conditions and main challenges in information coverage in contexts of violence | 2022 | Tejedor, Santiago; Cervi, Laura and Tusa, Fernanda | Autonomous University of Barcelona and Technical University of Machala | Article | Media, War & Conflict | 15(4) pp. 530–552 | A total of 324 journalists have been killed in the world in the last decade. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the situation is alarming. Based on these statistics, this work presents an investigation with journalists from 10 countries. Based on in-depth interviews and the Delphi method, the study explores professionals’ perspectives about violence against journalists, pointing out the challenges for women, the role of independent media together with journalists’ networks and an increasing concern about governmental control over information. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1750635220971004 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
66 | Modelling the impact of safety threats on professional journalistic reporting of protests by Indigenous People of Biafra among Nigerian journalists | 2023 | Gever, Verlumun Celestine; Olajide Talabi, Felix; Aiyesimoju, Ayodeji Boluwatife; Bello, Samson Adedapo; Zannu; Prosper Nunayon; Kayode Okunade, Joshua and Nwokolo, Peter | University of Nigeria; Redeemer's University; Caleb University; Joseph Ayo Babalola University; Olabisi Onabanjo University; Lagos State University of Science and Technology | Article | The Journal of International Communication | DOI: 10.1080/13216597.2023.2180066 | This study aimed to determine the impact of safety challenges on professional journalistic reporting of IPOB protests in Nigeria. A total of 400 Nigerian journalists who were covering IPOB activities were surveyed. Data were analysed using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) and correlational analysis. The result of the study showed that journalists recovering IPOB activities in South East Nigeria faced safety challenges both online (verbal abuse, threat of attack, personal messages of harassment and reputational threats) and offline (physical attacks, harassment, damage to working devices) safety challenges. Additional results showed that women faced more safety challenges online than men, but men faced more offline safety challenges than women. Put together, women faced both online and offline safety challenges more than men. Also, journalists in private media outfits faced offline challenges than their counterparts in public media stations who faced more online safety challenges. Put together, journalists in private media stations faced more safety challenges than those in public media outfits. Safety challenges impact professional journalistic reporting in the area of routines, orientation and autonomy. Training was found to be an efficient way of assisting journalists to better handle risky assignments. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13216597.2023.2180066?scroll=top&needAccess=true&role=tab | No | ||||||||||||||||||
67 | Reporting Conflict from Afar: Journalists, Social Media, Communication Technologies, and War | 2023 | Christensen, Britt and Khalil, Ali | Notre Dame of Maryland University and Zayed University | Article | Journalism Practice | 17(2) pp. 300-318 | We conducted interviews with conflict journalists who covered the conflicts in Syria, Yemen, Libya, and Iraq and who work for the major international news agencies and media companies. These journalists did most of their reporting from remote locations as the conflict zones were too dangerous to be physically present. We investigated how the journalist did their jobs with the communicative affordances of digital tools and how digital trust-building occurred. The trust-building process between journalists and sources shifted across platforms and according to the technologies’ communicative affordances. We established that reporters had embraced the flow of news material on social media platforms as a valuable source of information, but after exercising extreme caution. Journalists upheld the boundaries that separated them from amateurs by emphasizing their role in making sense of events. They also fortified their gatekeeping role through verifying and vetting information – a task needed to maintain credibility and protect readers and viewers from misinformation and propaganda. Encrypted messaging applications such as WhatsApp played a major role in speeding up communication with and protecting potential sources and verification. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17512786.2021.1908839?casa_token=IU5OH5TkRgAAAAAA%3AuY-XCtZhv1jVb1j-DuVddfHL80pXNRHqqElbS_QZQ_6kb9TFDY94cU3p2DjOhZkQ-OQKqn7HOmkk | No | ||||||||||||||||||
68 | Mitigating Risks to Journalists in the 2014 Gaza War | 2023 | Tasseron, Michael | Independent Researcher | Article | Journalism Studies | DOI: https://doi-org.sheffield.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2173960 | Reporting on the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict poses a significant risk to the physical safety of journalists and other media professionals. At times of heightened conflict between the two sides, the magnitude of the risks journalists face increases exponentially. Journalists reporting from Gaza are particularly at risk from military attacks by the Israeli Defense Forces. In this article, I examine the practices of international news reporters during the 2014 Israeli assault on Gaza. The data for the study comprise interviews with journalists and photographers who reported the war from Gaza. Particular attention is paid to the risks journalists faced during the war, as well as the measures employed to mitigate them. Such practices can be conceived as a form of resistance and resilience in an era of asymmetric war, which has seen risks to journalists increasing significantly. | https://www-tandfonline-com.sheffield.idm.oclc.org/doi/full/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2173960 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
69 | Assessing the risks of journalists reporting in conflict zones: A case study of Somalia | 2023 | Syallow, Anne Maureen | Strathmore University | Article | International Journal of Advanced Mass Communication and Journalism | 4(1) pp.16-20 | This study was conducted to assess the risks journalists face while reporting in Somalia. It was guided by three specific objectives that included; Evaluating the cases of physical attacks on journalists reporting in Somalia, Analyzing the cases of arbitrary arrests and imprisonments of journalists recorded in Somalia and Investigating the cases of journalists being killed in Somalia in three years between 2019 and 2021.The study was qualitative and used secondary data to explore the objectives. It analyzed data from five reports which had information collected between 2019- 2021 that included: The Somali Mechanism for Safety of Journalists (SMSJ) report 2021, The UNESCO observatory report on journalists killed 2021, The National Union of Somalia Journalists (NUSOJ) report of 2021, The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) report of 2020/2021, and The Amnesty International Research report of 2020. Data was classified into three thematic areas according to the study objectives. The data was then uploaded into the coding sheet and analyzed. The study found out that, Media freedoms in Somalia is being suppressed by the Federal state and non-state actors. Evidence from the reports showed that, between 2019 and 2021, eight journalists have been killed, 66 journalists have been arbitrary arrested and 81 journalists have been physically attacked and assaulted. Additionally, The Somali federal and state governments targeted and raided media outlets considered disloyal to the regime and approximately 14 media outlets were struck by government officials and armed soldiers. The study recommends that, according to UN plan of Action on the safety of Journalists and the issue of impunity (2012), The Somali government needs to demonstrate its assurance to the protection and safety of journalists and media freedom by taking significant action to tackle the extensive impunity for crimes against the media, otherwise, The African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights ACHPR having signed a memorandum of understanding with UNESCO to safeguard journalists should step in and manage the risks that journalists working in Somalia face daily. | https://www.masscomjournal.com/article/55/4-1-4-206.pdf | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
70 | Mitigating Risks to Journalists in the 2014 Gaza War | 2023 | Tasseron, Michael | Independent Researcher | Article | Journalism Studies | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2173960 | Reporting on the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict poses a significant risk to the physical safety of journalists and other media professionals. At times of heightened conflict between the two sides, the magnitude of the risks journalists face increases exponentially. Journalists reporting from Gaza are particularly at risk from military attacks by the Israeli Defense Forces. In this article, I examine the practices of international news reporters during the 2014 Israeli assault on Gaza. The data for the study comprise interviews with journalists and photographers who reported the war from Gaza. Particular attention is paid to the risks journalists faced during the war, as well as the measures employed to mitigate them. Such practices can be conceived as a form of resistance and resilience in an era of asymmetric war, which has seen risks to journalists increasing significantly. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2173960 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
71 | Post-traumatic Mental and Physical Consequences of Frontline Reporting in the MENA Region | 2023 | Chadli, Lakhdar; Muhammad Haq, Farooq; Okasha, Ahmed and Attou, Rafik | Canadian University Dubai; University of Liverpoo | Article | The Open Public Health Journal | 15 | Background: A current need in journalistic frontline work is to understand the potential psychological and physical traumatic consequences that may result from on-duty appointments. Journalists are active in frontline zones to report on conflicts, crises, and natural disasters. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, reporters are not equipped or trained mentally or emotionally to handle stressful events. Most journalists suffer from certain degrees of post-traumatic mental and physical disorders associated with their frontline duties. Objective: The objective of this exploratory study is to provide comprehensive insights into challenges faced by journalists reporting in conflict zones in the MENA region. Methods: This research study is based on a qualitative research approach where data was collected by directly interviewing eight journalists who have covered frontline conflicts and disasters in the MENA region. The collected qualitative data was analysed by conducting a thematic analysis to appreciate emerging categories. The ontology of critical realism was adopted to recognise the real feelings and experiences of the responding journalists. Results: This original study presents six themes emerging from the data and researcher triangulation. The health and social issues in MENA are found to be most critical for high-risk reporting. Conclusion: Amidst the psychological and physical problems, all journalists did not give up their jobs or ask for privileges. Media houses could consider a more robust training plan based on health and safety to prepare these journalists. | https://openpublichealthjournal.com/VOLUME/15/ELOCATOR/e187494452212090/FULLTEXT/ | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
72 | Reporting Trauma: Conflict Journalists’ Exposure to Potentially Traumatizing Events, Short- and Long-Term Consequences, and Coping Behavior | 2023 | Obermaier, Magdalena; Wiedicke, Annemarie; Steindl, Nina and Hanitzsch, Thomas | LMU Munich | Article | Journalism Studies | https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2216808 | Due to the nature of their jobs, journalists reporting from theaters of war, destruction, and violence are frequently exposed to potentially traumatizing experience. This study explores how journalists go about trauma exposure, how they deal with its emotional fallout, and what support they get in the process. In doing so, we use 35 qualitative interviews with conflict journalists working for news media in German-speaking countries, and draw on established theories of trauma exposure, its mental consequences, and ways to cope with them. Findings show that conflict journalists run a significant risk of experiencing trauma, either directly as targets of violence, or indirectly as eye-witnesses and as recipients of narrative accounts and vivid images of human suffering. Respondents noted a glaring lack of organizational support and prevention structure, which they connected to a problematic newsroom culture characterized by sexism, machoism, and a fierce competition. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2216808 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
73 | “We always report under pressure”: Professionalism and journalistic identity among regional journalists in a conflict zone | 2023 | Ali Shah.Sayyed Fawad; Ginossar, Tamar and Ittefaq, Muhammad | Jacksonville State University; University of New Mexico and The University of Kansas | Article | Journalism | 24(4), pp. 709–728. | This study explores how regional journalists in Pakistan conceptualize journalistic professionalism, how they perceive their journalistic identities, and how local socio-political and economic realities shape their professional identification. Analysis of interviews with 33 journalists working in Pakistan’s Pakhtunkhwa province indicated a tension between striving for professionalism as defined by Western journalistic standards and meeting the demands of their local conditions. Participants described professionalism as providing clear, accurate, objective, and ethical coverage of issues. However, constraints including unavailability of funding, the need to hold multiple jobs, threats to personal safety, and absence of education and training prevented them from meeting their professional goals. The journalists discursively negotiated and constituted their professional identities in response to the conditions in their respective areas. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/14648849211050442 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
74 | “Let’s Draw a Line between Dos and Don’ts”: Pakistani Journalists’ Perspectives about the Ethics of Conflict-Sensitive Reporting | 2023 | Jamil, Sadia and Appiah-Adjei, Gifty | University of Nottingham and University of Education | Article | Media | 4(1) pp. 177-196 | In conflict-ridden countries, the news media has a pivotal role to perform as an active advocate of human rights and societal peace, as well as a facilitator of conflict mitigation and resolution through the gathering and dissemination of non-partisan information. While today the world witness armed conflicts in more forms than ever before, some countries are more sensitive to conflict and violence—such as Pakistan. The country is recognized as one of the riskiest places for working journalists by virtue of recurrent political, ethnic, and religious conflicts. The Pakistani journalists work in a climate of fear and risks and with opposing groups seeking to influence the news media, which creates more difficulties for them to report unbiased and accurate news to the public. The practice of ethics has become more challenging for the Pakistani journalists because the country lacks an effective and standardized code of conduct to report on conflict. Therefore, drawing on the theory of the conflict triangle by Galtung, this study seeks the Pakistani journalists’ perspectives about the ethics of conflict sensitive reporting. In doing so, this study uses the quantitative method of survey and the qualitative method of in-depth interviews. The study uses descriptive analysis to present the survey findings in the form of percentage and thematic analysis to present the findings of interview data. | https://www.mdpi.com/2673-5172/4/1/13 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
75 | Predictors of psychological distress in frontline journalists: Common denominators across three decades of conflicts. | 2023 | Feinstein, Anthony Osmann, Jonas | University of Toronto | Article | Traumatology | https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000445 | Objective: To determine risk factors for symptoms of PTSD and depression in frontline journalists that traverse type of conflict, degree of exposure to stressors, language, and culture. Methods: A retrospective analysis of 1,103 frontline journalists from 12 datasets (Balkans, 9/11 attacks, Iraq, Mexico, Israel, Syria, Afghanistan, Iran, Kenya, refugee crisis, user-generated content [visually traumatic images], and moral injury project) accumulated between 2000 and 2022. Symptoms of PTSD were assessed, in the first language of participants, with validated versions of the Revised Impact of Event Scale (ω = .96) and PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (ω = .96) and symptoms of depression with validated versions of the Beck Depression Inventory-Revised (ω = .92). Data were analyzed using linear mixed models to take into account inherent between-study differences. Results: Mean age and work duration were 39.12 (SD = 9.58) and 14.64 (SD = 9.13) years, respectively. Most journalists were male (66.27%), university educated (82.23%), and in a relationship (56.12%). While symptom severity scores varied considerably across studies, three variables were found that predicted symptoms of PTSD and depression in all studies, namely being female, single, and having a past history of psychiatric difficulties. Conclusions: News organizations have a moral obligation to care for journalists sent into harm's way. The identification of risk factors for symptoms of PTSD and depression common to journalists irrespective of the nature of the conflict covered, degree of exposure to conflict, and differences in language and culture is an important step in promoting this duty of care. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved) | https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2023-57817-001 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
76 | Reporting Safely in Crisis Zones: Medical First Response for Journalists and Filmmakers | 2023 | Tedeschi, Christopher and Matloff, Judith | Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons and Columbia Journalism School | Book Chapter | Prehospital and Disaster Medicine | Cambridge University Press | Journalists work in dangerous places. In recent years, the risk of illness and injury while reporting has increased, whether in the setting of conflict, protest, extreme weather, or environmental disaster. Journalists are targeted more than ever before. Working safely in remote and dangerous settings, especially without the protection of a large organization, requires a wide range of skills related to safety and security. For several years, the Dart Center for Journalism and Trauma at Columbia University has offered brief, intensive courses focused on personal safety, self defense, cyber-security and medical skills for freelance journalists working in dangerous settings. | https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/prehospital-and-disaster-medicine/article/reporting-safely-in-crisis-zones-medical-first-response-for-journalists-and-filmmakers/00F63F6876203638873454BFA181C10D | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
77 | Journalistic Responsibilities Amid Primordial Pressure in Reporting Conflict in Benue State, Nigeria. | 2023 | Igbashangev, Paul Aondover and Gbasha, Cyprian Terhemba | Bayero University, Kano; Kwararafa University and Benue State University | Article | SSRN | http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4419649 | Conflict is a dangerous situation but when it is properly managed and reported, it becomes a blessing to the parties experiencing it. This study examined the responsibilities of journalists and the pressure they encounter while reporting conflicts in Benue State of Nigeria. The study adopted a qualitative research method with 20 journalists purposefully selected from Radio Benue, Makurdi; NTA Makurdi; Sun Rays FM, Korinya and The Pavilion Newspaper, Makurdi including male and female journalists. Research questions focusing on the purpose of the investigation guided the study. A standardized open-ended interview format was used to collect data. The data collected were analyzed using an explanation building model. The result of the research questions showed that there are factors that influence journalists, pressure that influence framing of news by journalists, strategies journalists employ in reporting conflicts are many. The study revealed that journalists are contributors of peace building before, during, and after crises. The study recommended among others that journalists should be peace-oriented when reporting conflict, especially those of cross-border nature. And journalists can do this by providing a forum for a critical analysis of issues in a conflict through incisive, informed and critical comments from editorialists, columnists, opinion and feature writers among others so as to open up the space for discussion from all fronts which would enlighten the reading public and possibly, the official negotiators in a conflict. | https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4419649 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
78 | ‘They blame the messenger’: Re-examining the critique of journalists reporting on genocide in Rwanda and Srebrenica | 2023 | Knight, Caitlin | University of Roehampton | Article | Journalism | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849231192790 | Reporting on cases of genocide presents distinct complexities and challenges for journalists, who must negotiate practical, professional, and emotional experiences that challenge traditional expectations of their role. Previous research has provided strident critiques of this reporting, arguing Western reporting of genocide in Rwanda and Srebrenica was reductionist and biased and contributed to the lack of Western intervention. Drawing on 22 interviews with print journalists who reported on genocides in Rwanda and Srebrenica, this article challenges this dominant critique by foregrounding the voices of journalists and their experience of reporting. Themes of inaccessibility, the moral imperative to report on these events, and the intersection with emotional labour on emotional effects of this reporting crucially demonstrates and acknowledges the challenges of conflict reporting. This adds to contemporary debates around how emotion, attachment and morality intertwine in journalism practice and the importance of this consideration when assessing the impact of reporting. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14648849231192790 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
79 | Saints and witnesses: Virtue and vocation in the memorialization of the Western conflict journalist | 2023 | Stupart, Richard and Sharp, Rob | University of Liverpool and University of Sussex | Article | Media, War & Conflict | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/17506352231184154 | How are Western journalists who are killed in the course of their work remembered? Using the biographies of journalists killed covering conflict, this article investigates the discursive repertoires through which the memorialization of journalists killed while reporting conflict is accomplished. The authors argue that such journalists are consistently constructed as humanitarian, cosmopolitan witnesses engaged in supererogatory moral projects involving justice and voice for those outside of these journalists’ geopolitical home communities. This particular articulation appears to herald a recent shift in the memorialization of the journalistic dead, although it is continuous with longer discourses in fields such as photojournalism and its idea of the ‘concerned photographer’. We speculate that this shift is consistent with material changes in the field – in particular, the precaritization of conflict reporting driving journalists into the material and social world of professional humanitarianism, whose discourses around the moral worth and cosmopolitan nature of the work have colonized the subfield of conflict reporting. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/17506352231184154 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
80 | Reporting the MENA as Conflict Political Influences, Routine Practices, and Journalists' Struggles in the Field | 2023 | Kozman, Claudia | Lebanese American University | Book Chapter | The Routledge Companion to Journalism in the Global South | Routledge | Working in a conflict-ridden region, journalists in the Middle East have always struggled to report fairly and accurately while keeping in mind the power structures in their countries. For these journalists, practicing journalism in mostly authoritative governments has meant facing additional hurdles fellow journalists in democratic societies rarely experience. Among these are low levels of professionalism, poor education, and lack of proper training, which, combined with political parallelism in an omnipresent governmental style of ruling, have left journalists with little wiggle room to perform their journalistic duties well. In the past decade, these struggles have been further exacerbated by the various episodes of conflict, political turmoil, and war, putting journalists under immediate danger. Besides the physical dangers of reporting in war zones, most journalists in the Arab region are not equipped with proper training or mental health issues, thus increasing their chances at developing PTSD. This chapter seeks to outline the various aspects of journalistic practices in conflict zones, focusing on conflict reporting and foreign correspondence in the Middle East, as well as highlight the numerous obstacles that threaten journalists’ safety not only in war zones but also in daily reporting on politics and public affairs. To accomplish this, the author approaches the topic from a media systems perspective that takes into account the various influences that impact journalistic practices of conflict reporting in the region. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003298144-27/reporting-mena-conflict-claudia-kozman | No | ||||||||||||||||||
81 | Examining Violence against Journalists in Conflict Areas: Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan | 2023 | Ramazan Ahmad, Araz | University of Raparin | Article | The Journal of Communication and Media Studies | 8(2) pp. 49-64 | : Due to the increasing number of journalists being killed, kidnapped, and imprisoned across the globe, the safety of journalists seems to be deteriorating. The level of violence against journalists varies over time and from area to area, even within the same country. This article analyzes the violence faced by journalists in the conflict areas of Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan. The collected data were analyzed thematically using the research question themes, namely threats and challenges affecting journalists; gender-specific risk; the number of affected journalists; types of risk factors involved in conflict reporting; and the recommendations for promoting conflict reporting and peace journalism education. Semi-structured questionnaires were designed, which entailed questions that were best suited in terms of the objectives of the study. Responses from the selected respondents (80) were recorded and then data from 1992 to 2020 were statistically analyzed. In conflict areas (Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan), the highest number of deaths were recorded due to crossfire (45.8%). The findings illustrate that among three countries Iraq had the highest number of male (48.4%) and female (4.2%) journalists in terms of gender-specific risk. Further results show that military officials and political groups are the deepest risk factors causing threats to the lives of journalists. In conclusion, a journalist's geographic location, workplace environment, religion, and culture can influence their moral behavior, sense of judgment, general mindset, and psychological disposition, all of which influence journalists’ overall behavior and attitude. However, adopting safety measures by journalists does not always reduce the challenges of conflict areas. | https://www.proquest.com/docview/2859408612?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
82 | Reality on the Ground: Exploring News Production Practices by Syrian Journalists in Times of Conflict | 2023 | Ouariachi, Tania and Peralta, Lidia | Hanze University of Applied Sciences and Hanze University of Applied Science | Article | Journalism Practice | 17(2) pp. 283-299 | While most research on the Syrian revolution has been focussing on content analysis about how Western mainstream media cover and frame the conflict, this paper aims at exploring journalistic practices by Syrian journalists. We look at three concrete aspects: the socio-labor profile of the practitioners and their circumstances, the dynamics of journalistic practices when covering the war and the perception of “objectivity” when doing so. A mixed method approach is employed in this study through a survey, answered by 86 Syrian journalists, and semi-structured interviews with 12 practitioners to enrich the data. Participants are members or collaborators of SIRAJ (Syrian Investigative Reporting for Accountability Journalism). The concept of “communities of interpretation” has been adopted to fit the role and work of both “professional” and “citizen journalists” within the sample. Findings show that local journalists, a heterogeneous group of different socio-labor backgrounds, have a preference for humanitarian topics, stories about conflicts between the government and the opposition, as well as the international global consequences of the conflict. On the other hand, there is an important gap between practitioners “positive” perceptions about their ability to achieve “objectivity” and the practical constraints they encounter when working in such extraordinarily difficult and risky circumstances. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17512786.2021.1916403#:~:text=Findings%20show%20that%20local%20journalists,global%20consequences%20of%20the%20conflict. | No | ||||||||||||||||||
83 | Journalists and Exposure to Trauma: Exploring Perceptions of PTSD and Resilience among Pakistan’s Conflict Reporters | 2024 | Siddiqua, Ayesha and Zubair Iqbal, Muhammad | National University of Modern Languages | Article | Journalism Practice | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2024.2317827 | The study attempts to understand how Pakistani journalists perceive Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and resilience in the wake of covering traumatic events. Qualitative interviews of 32 Pakistani journalists were conducted who had covered military operations against militants. The findings indicated that most of the journalists were not able to comprehend the impact of covering traumatizing events as they were war-excited. Conflict journalists perceived PTSD as depression, anxiety, insomnia, and intrusive recollection of events after exposure to traumatic events. Journalists who were exposed to beheadings and events involving killing of women and children felt more vulnerable and perceived PTSD as having a numbing effect on them. Dependence on family and friends was considered more crucial for dealing with the after effects of exposure to trauma than seeking therapy. Non-availability of medical insurance and funds from the media organizations were termed as important reasons for avoiding therapy. Resilience for conflict reporters was mostly perceived as the ability to “cope up” and to contribute to the wellbeing of others along with the ability to revisit trauma sites to report follow-up stories. Resilience was considered more achievable in the presence of organizational acknowledgement, compensation, and recognition of work. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17512786.2024.2317827 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
84 | Online Harassment, Psychological Stressors, and Occupational Dysfunction among Journalists Working in a Conflict Zone | 2024 | Ali Shah, Sayyed Fawad; Cvetkovic, Ivana; Ginossar, Tamar; Ullah, Rahman; Baber, Danish and Slaughter, Autumn | Auburn University; California State Polytechnic University Pomona; University of New Mexico; Kohat University of Science and Technology | Article | Digital Journalism | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2024.2308582 | Amid increasing threats and assaults against journalists across the globe, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province in northwest Pakistan remains one of the most dangerous places in the world for journalists. Whereas online harassment is increasingly affecting journalists, experiences of online harassment of KP journalists have not been previously examined. This study explored the experiences of online harassment of regional KP journalists, the psychological ramifications of their exposure, and the association between online harassment and their ability to effectively perform their jobs in digital news environments. Of the recruited 299 journalists, nearly two-thirds reported experiencing online harassment. The experiences were generally infrequent, and were associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and occupational dysfunction. This study underscores the importance of understanding online harassment of journalists in conflicts zones, and how it may impact their ability to perform their professional duties, and proposes possible solutions and directions for future research and interventions. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2024.2308582 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
85 | Effectiveness of art therapy in reducing post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and the propensity to quit journalism among journalists covering banditry activities in Nigeria | 2024 | Olajide Talabi, Felix; Okunade, Joshua Kayode; Talabi ,Joseph Moyinoluwa; Lamidi, Ishola Kamorudeen; Bello, Samson Adedapo; Chinweobo-Onoha, Blessing and Celestine, Gever Verlumun | Redeemer’s University; Caleb University; Lagos State University; Adekunle Ajasin University; Olabisi Onabanjo University; University of Nigeria | Article | Media, War and Conflict | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/17506352231225344 | The goal of this study was to examine the efficacy of art therapy in the treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and the propensity to quit journalism among Nigerian journalists covering banditry attacks. The researchers utilized a quasi-experiment as the design for the study and sampled 327 journalists. The result of the study showed that at baseline, journalists reported high PTSD symptoms and a propensity to quit journalism, but after the intervention, journalists who received the art therapy intervention reported a significant drop in their PTSD symptoms and the propensity to quit the pen profession. This suggests that art therapy is a cost-effective way of treating PTSD among journalists covering dangerous assignments and reducing high labour turnover in the profession. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/17506352231225344 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
86 | Insurgency in northeast Nigeria: Are journalists safe to report? | 2024 | Pate, Umaru A and Jibril, Abubakar | Federal University Kashere and University of Abuja | Article | Journalism | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/14648849241245203 | This article interrogates the effectiveness of the safety measures available for journalists in the challenging operational environment. The researchers conducted in-depth interviews with 16 journalists representing different organisations from the conflict-prone areas in northeast Nigeria. Findings reveal that journalists operate at high risks due to the absence of protective mechanisms, rendering them highly vulnerable in threats situations. Also, journalists go through physical and psychological attacks from insurgents, the military, and the communities. Recommendations are offered to provide safety mechanisms to reduce journalists’ psychological trauma and physical stress, increase their feelings of safety, and improve the quality of their inputs. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/14648849241245203 | No | ||||||||||||||||||
87 | Shattered lives, unbroken stories: journalists’ perspectives from the frontlines of the Israel–Gaza war | 2024 | Fahmy, Shahira S.; Salama, Mohamed and Raafat Alsaba, Mona | The American University in Cairo and The University of Maryland | Article | Online Media and Global Communication | 3(2) | This study sheds light on the unprecedented complexities of the Israel–Gaza war, offering insights into the challenges that journalists face in this conflict zone. It employs the Hierarchy of Influences Model to analyze the factors influencing conflict reporting within the dynamic landscape of contemporary war journalism. | https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/omgc-2024-0012/html | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
88 | Legal Strategies for Protecting Journalists in Conflict Zones | 2024 | Sahdan, Fatimah and Gregorius, Jelena | Diponegoro University | Article | Interdisciplinary Studies in Society, Law, and Politics | 3(2) pp. 25-31 | The safety of journalists in conflict zones remains a critical concern, with myriad risks stemming from both physical and digital threats. This study aims to explore the legal strategies that can effectively protect journalists in these environments, focusing on understanding the existing legal frameworks, the challenges journalists face, and the protective strategies they employ. This qualitative study utilized semi-structured interviews with 25 journalists from diverse global regions to gather in-depth insights into the challenges and strategies related to their legal protection. Theoretical saturation was achieved, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the topic. Data was analyzed using NVivo software to facilitate thematic analysis, allowing for the systematic identification of themes and concepts within the data. Three main themes were identified: Legal Frameworks, Risks and Challenges, and Protective Strategies. Legal Frameworks revealed gaps in the enforcement of international and national laws. Risks and Challenges highlighted the physical, digital, legal, psychological, and informational threats journalists encounter. Protective Strategies emphasized the importance of safety training, legal safeguards, support networks, and advanced technology to mitigate risks. The study concludes that while various legal frameworks and protective measures exist, significant gaps in enforcement and practical application continue to leave journalists vulnerable in conflict zones. Enhanced legal provisions, combined with comprehensive safety training and technological support, are essential to ensure the safety and freedom of journalists reporting from high-risk areas. | https://journalisslp.com/index.php/isslp/article/view/51 | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||
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