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1 | MCATBros AAMC Content Review Checklist | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2 | You should utilize this checklist to keep track of concepts you have studied throughout your prep to help you ensure that you have studied every topic that can be tested on the MCAT by the time your test date comes around. Many prep companies focus on high yield vs. low yield, but here at MCATBros, we emphasize that EVERYTHING that the AAMC mentions in their outline is FAIR GAME for test day. Never assume that because something may be categorized as "low yield" that it be rarely tested, because this is unfortunately not true. In terms of prep, you should always err on the side of caution and be prepared for the hardest exam to be thrown your way. We have made this checklist by using ALL of the information provided by the AAMC outlinem, including descriptions of each foundational concept and categories. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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4 | CHEMICAL & PHYSICAL SCIENCES | FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPT 4 | FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPT 5 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
5 | Complex living organisms transport materials, sense their environment, process signals, and respond to changes using processes that can be understood in terms of physical principles. The processes that take place within organisms follow the laws of physics. They can be quantified with equations that model the behavior at a fundamental level. For example, the principles of electromagnetic radiation, and its interactions with matter, can be exploited to generate structural information about molecules or to generate images of the human body. So, too, can atomic structure be used to predict the physical and chemical properties of atoms, including the amount of electromagnetic energy required to cause ionization. With these building blocks, medical students will be able to utilize core principles of physics to learn about the physiological functions of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological systems in health and disease. | The principles that govern chemical interactions and reactions form the basis for a broader understanding of the molecular dynamics of living systems. The chemical processes that take place within organisms are readily understood within the framework of the behavior of solutions, thermodynamics, molecular structure, intermolecular interactions, molecular dynamics, and molecular reactivity. With these building blocks, medical students will be able to utilize core principles of human chemistry to learn about molecular and cellular functions in health and disease. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
6 | Chemical & Physical Content Category 4A = Translational motion, forces, work, energy and equilibrium in living systems | Chemical & Physical Content Category 4B = Importance of fluids for the circulation of blood, gas movement, and gas exchange | Chemical & Physical Content Category 4C = Electrochemistry and electrical circuits and their elements | Chemical & Physical Content Category 4D = How light and sound interact with matter | Chemical & Physical Content Category 4E = Atoms, nuclear decay, electronic structure, and atomic chemical behavior | Chemical & Physical Content Category 5A = Unique nature of water and its solutions | Chemical & Physical Content Category 5B = Nature of molecules and intermolecular interactions | Chemical & Physical Content Category 5C = Separation and purification methods | Chemical & Physical Content Category 5D = Structure, function, and reactivity of biologically-relevant molecules | Chemical & Physical Content Category 5E = Principles of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
7 | The motion of any object can be described in terms of displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Objects accelerate when subjected to external forces and are at equilibrium when the net force and the net torque acting upon them are zero. Many aspects of motion can be calculated with the knowledge that energy is conserved, even though it may be converted into different forms. In a living system, the energy for motion comes from the metabolism of fuel molecules, but the energetic requirements remain subject to the same physical principles. | Fluids are featured in several physiologically important processes, including the circulation of blood, gas movement into and out of the lungs, and gas exchange with the blood. The energetic requirements of fluid dynamics can be modeled using physical equations. A thorough understanding of fluids is necessary to understand the origins of numerous forms of disease. | Charged particles can be set in motion by the action of an applied electrical field, and can be used to transmit energy or information over long distances. The energy released during certain chemical reactions can be converted to electrical energy, which can be harnessed to perform other reactions or work. Physiologically, a concentration gradient of charged particles is set up across the cell membrane of neurons at considerable energetic expense. This allows for the rapid transmission of signals using electrical impulses — changes in the electrical voltage across the membrane — under the action of some external stimulus. | Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation — waves of electric and magnetic fields that transmit energy. The behavior of light depends on its frequency (or wavelength). The properties of light are exploited in the optical elements of the eye to focus rays of light on sensory elements. When light interacts with matter, spectroscopic changes occur that can be used to identify the material on an atomic or molecular level. Differential absorption of electromagnetic radiation can be used to generate images useful in diagnostic medicine. Interference and diffraction of light waves are used in many analytical and diagnostic techniques. The photon model of light explains why electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths interacts differently with matter. When mechanical energy is transmitted through solids, liquids, and gases, oscillating pressure waves known as “sound” are generated. Sound waves are audible if the sensory elements of the ear vibrate in response to exposure to these vibrations. The detection of reflected sound waves is utilized in ultrasound imaging. This non-invasive technique readily locates dense subcutaneous structures, such as bone and cartilage, and is very useful in diagnostic medicine. | Atoms are classified by their atomic number: the number of protons in the atomic nucleus, which also includes neutrons. Chemical interactions between atoms are the result of electrostatic forces involving the electrons and the nuclei. Because neutrons are uncharged, they do not dramatically affect the chemistry of any particular type of atom, but do affect the stability of the nucleus itself. When a nucleus is unstable, decay results from one of several different processes, which are random, but occur at well-characterized average rates. The products of nuclear decay (alpha, beta, and gamma rays) can interact with living tissue, breaking chemical bonds and ionizing atoms and molecules in the process. The electronic structure of an atom is responsible for its chemical and physical properties. Only discrete energy levels are allowed for electrons. These levels are described individually by quantum numbers. Since the outermost, or valence, electrons are responsible for the strongest chemical interactions, a description of these electrons alone is a good first approximation to describe the behavior of any particular type of atom. Mass spectrometry is an analytical tool that allows characterization of atoms or molecules, based on well recognized fragmentation patterns and the charge to mass ratio (m/z) of ions generated in the gas phase. | In order to fully understand the complex and dynamic nature of living systems, it is first necessary to understand the unique nature of water and its solutions. The unique properties of water allow it to strongly interact with and mobilize many types of solutes, including ions. Water is also unique in its ability to absorb energy and buffer living systems from the chemical changes necessary to sustain life. | Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between atoms. If the result of such interactions is not a network solid, then the covalently bonded substance will be discrete and molecular. The shape of molecules can be predicted based on electrostatic principles and quantum mechanics since only two electrons can occupy the same orbital. Bond polarity (both direction and magnitude) can be predicted based on knowledge of the valence electron structure of the constituent atoms. The strength of intermolecular interactions depends on molecular shape and the polarity of the covalent bonds present. The solubility and other physical properties of molecular substances depend on the strength of intermolecular interactions. | Analysis of complex mixtures of substances ― especially biologically relevant materials ― typically requires separation of the components. Many methods have been developed to accomplish this task, and the method used is dependent on the types of substances which comprise the mixture. All of these methods rely on the magnification of potential differences in the strength of intermolecular interactions. | The structure of biological molecules forms the basis of their chemical reactions including oligomerization and polymerization. Unique aspects of each type of biological molecule dictate their role in living systems, whether providing structure or information storage, or serving as fuel and catalysts. | The processes that occur in living systems are dynamic, and they follow the principles of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics. The position of chemical equilibrium is dictated by the relative energies of products and reactants. The rate at which chemical equilibrium is attained is dictated by a variety of factors: concentration of reactants, temperature, and the amount of catalyst (if any). Biological systems have evolved to harness energy, and utilize it in very efficient ways to support all processes of life, including homeostasis and anabolism. Biological catalysts, known as enzymes, have evolved to allow all of the relevant chemical reactions required to sustain life to occur both rapidly and efficiently, and under the narrow set of conditions required. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
8 | Translational Motion (PHY) | Fluids (PHY) | Electrostatics (PHY) | Sound (PHY) | Atomic Nucleus (PHY,GC) | Acid/Base Equilibria (GC, BC) | Covalent Bond (GC) | Separations and Purification (OC, BC) | Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids (BC, BIO) | Enzymes (BC, BIO) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
9 | Units and dimension Vectors, components Vector addition Speed, velocity Acceleration | Density, specific gravity Buoyancy, Archimedes’ Principle Hydrostatic pressure Pascal’s Law Hydrostatic pressure; P = ρgh (pressure vs. depth) Viscosity: Poiseuille Flow Continuity equation (A⋅v = constant) Concept of turbulence at high velocities Surface tension Bernoulli’s equation Venturi effect, pitot tube | Charge, conductors, charge conservation Insulators Coulomb’s Law Electric field E Field lines Field due to charge distribution Electrostatic energy, electric potential at a point in space | Production of sound Relative speed of sound in solids, liquids, and gases Intensity of sound, decibel units, log scale Attenuation (Damping) Doppler Effect: moving sound source or observer, reflection of sound from a moving object Pitch Resonance in pipes and strings Ultrasound Shock waves | Atomic number, atomic weight Neutrons, protons, isotopes Nuclear forces, binding energy Radioactive decay α, β, γ decay Half-life, exponential decay, semi-log plots Mass spectrometer | Brønsted–Lowry definition of acid, base Ionization of water Kw, its approximate value (Kw = [H+][OH−] = 10−14 at 25°C, 1 atm) Definition of pH: pH of pure water Conjugate acids and bases (e.g., NH4+ and NH3) Strong acids and bases (e.g., nitric, sulfuric) Weak acids and bases (e.g., acetic, benzoic) Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salt Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or bases Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases Equilibrium constants Ka and Kb: pKa, pKb Buffers Definition and concepts (common buffer systems) Influence on titration curves | Lewis Electron Dot formulas Resonance structures Formal charge Lewis acids and bases Partial ionic character Role of electronegativity in determining charge distribution Dipole Moment σ and π bonds Hybrid orbitals: sp3, sp2, sp and respective geometries Valence shell electron pair repulsion and the prediction of shapes of molecules (e.g., NH3, H2O, CO2) Structural formulas for molecules involving H, C, N, O, F, S, P, Si, Cl Delocalized electrons and resonance in ions and molecules Multiple bonding Effect on bond length and bond energies Rigidity in molecular structure Stereochemistry of covalently bonded molecules (OC) Isomers Structural isomers Stereoisomers (e.g., diastereomers, enantiomers, cis/trans isomers) Conformational isomers Polarization of light, specific rotation Absolute and relative configuration Conventions for writing R and S forms Conventions for writing E and Z forms | Extraction: distribution of solute between two immiscible solvents Distillation Chromatography: Basic principles involved in separation process Column chromatography Gas-liquid chromatography High pressure liquid chromatography Paper chromatography Thin-layer chromatography Separation and purification of peptides and proteins (BC) Electrophoresis Quantitative analysis Chromatography Size-exclusion Ion-exchange Affinity Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers (OC) | Nucleotides and nucleosides: composition Sugar phosphate backbone Pyrimidine, purine residues Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA; double helix Chemistry (BC) Other functions (BC) | Classification by reaction type Mechanism Substrates and enzyme specificity Active site model Induced-fit model Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins Kinetics General (catalysis) Michaelis–Menten Cooperativity Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity Inhibition Regulatory enzymes Allosteric Covalently modified | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
10 | Force (PHY) | Circulatory System (BIO) | Circuit Elements (PHY) | Light, Electromagnetic Radiation (PHY) | Electronic Structure (PHY, GC) | Ions in Solutions (GC, BC) | Liquid Phase- Intermolecular Forces (GC) | Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins (OC, BC) | Principles of Bioenergenetics (BC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
11 | Newton's 1st law, inertia Newton's 2nd law Newton's 3rd law Friction, static and kinetic Center of Mass | Arterial and venous systems; pressure and flow characteristics | Current I = ΔQ/Δt, sign conventions, units Electromotive force, voltage Resistance Ohm’s Law: I = V/R Resistors in series Resistors in parallel Resistivity: ρ = R⋅A / L Capacitance Parallel plate capacitor Energy of charged capacitor Capacitors in series Capacitors in parallel Dielectrics Conductivity Metallic Electrolytic Meters | Concept of Interference; Young Double-slit Experiment Thin films, diffraction grating, single-slit diffraction Other diffraction phenomena, X-ray diffraction Polarization of light: linear and circular Properties of electromagnetic radiation Velocity equals constant c, in vacuo Electromagnetic radiation consists of perpendicularly oscillating electric and magnetic fields; direction of propagation is perpendicular to both Classification of electromagnetic spectrum, photon energy E = hf Visual spectrum, color | Orbital structure of hydrogen atom, principal quantum number n, number of electrons per orbital (GC) Ground state, excited states Absorption and emission line spectra Use of Pauli Exclusion Principle Paramagnetism and diamagnetism Conventional notation for electronic structure (GC) Bohr atom Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Effective nuclear charge (GC) Photoelectric effect | Anion, cation: common names, formulas and charges for familiar ions (e.g., NH4+ ammonium, PO43− phosphate, SO42− sulfate) Hydration, the hydronium ion | Hydrogen bonding Dipole Interactions Van der Waals’ Forces (London dispersion forces) | Amino acids: description Absolute configuration at the α position Dipolar ions Classification Acidic or basic Hydrophilic or hydrophobic Synthesis of α-amino acids (OC) Strecker Synthesis Gabriel Synthesis Peptides and proteins: reactions Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins Hydrolysis (BC) General Principles Primary structure of proteins Secondary structure of proteins Tertiary structure of proteins Isoelectric point | Bioenergetics/thermodynamics Free energy/Keq Concentration Phosphorylation/ATP ATP hydrolysis ΔG << 0 ATP group transfers Biological oxidation–reduction Half-reactions Soluble electron carriers Flavoproteins | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
12 | Equilibrium (PHY) | Gas Phase (GC, PHY) | Magnetism (PHY) | Molecular Structure and Absorption Spectra (OC) | Periodic Table- Classification of Elements into Groups by Electronic Structure (GC) | Solubility (GC) | The Three Dimensional Protein Structure (BC) | Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions- Thermochemistry and Thermodynamics (GC, PHY) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
13 | Vector analysis of forces acting on a point object Torque, lever arms | "Absolute temperature, (K) Kelvin Scale Pressure, simple mercury barometer Molar volume at 0°C and 1 atm = 22.4 L/mol Ideal gas Definition Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT Boyle’s Law: PV = constant Charles’ Law: V/T = constant Avogadro’s Law: V/n = constant Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases Heat capacity at constant volume and at constant pressure (PHY) Boltzmann’s Constant (PHY) Deviation of real gas behavior from Ideal Gas Law Qualitative Quantitative (Van der Waals’ Equation) Partial pressure, mole fraction Dalton’s Law relating partial pressure to composition" | Definition of magnetic field B Motion of charged particles in magnetic fields; Lorentz force | Infrared region Intramolecular vibrations and rotations Recognizing common characteristic group absorptions, fingerprint region Visible region (GC) Absorption in visible region gives complementary color (e.g., carotene) Effect of structural changes on absorption (e.g., indicators) Ultraviolet region π-Electron and non-bonding electron transitions Conjugated systems NMR spectroscopy Protons in a magnetic field; equivalent protons Spin-spin splitting | Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals: their chemical characteristics Halogens: their chemical characteristics Noble gases: their physical and chemical characteristics Transition metals Representative elements Metals and non-metals Oxygen group | Units of concentration (e.g., molarity) Solubility product constant; the equilibrium expression Ksp Common-ion effect, its use in laboratory separations Complex ion formation Complex ions and solubility Solubility and pH | Conformational stability Hydrophobic interactions Solvation layer (entropy) Quaternary structure Denaturing and Folding | Thermodynamic system – state function Zeroth Law – concept of temperature First Law - conservation of energy in thermodynamic processes PV diagram: work done = area under or enclosed by curve (PHY) Second Law – concept of entropy Entropy as a measure of “disorder” Relative entropy for gas, liquid, and crystal states Measurement of heat changes (calorimetry), heat capacity, specific heat Heat transfer – conduction, convection, radiation (PHY) Endothermic/exothermic reactions (GC) Enthalpy, H, and standard heats of reaction and formation Hess’ Law of Heat Summation Bond dissociation energy as related to heats of formation (GC) Free energy: G (GC) Spontaneous reactions and ΔG° (GC) Coefficient of expansion (PHY) Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization Phase diagram: pressure and temperature | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
14 | Work (PHY) | Electrochemistry (GC) | Geometrical Optics (PHY) | Periodic Table- Variations of Chemical Properties with Group and Row (GC) | Titration (GC) | Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BC) | Rate Processes in Chemical Reactions- Kinetics & Equilibrium (GC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
15 | Work done by a constant force: W = Fd cosθ Mechanical advantage Work Kinetic Energy Theorem Conservative forces | Electrolytic cell Electrolysis Anode, cathode Electrolyte Faraday’s Law relating amount of elements deposited (or gas liberated) at an electrode to current Electron flow; oxidation, and reduction at the electrodes Galvanic or Voltaic cells Half-reactions Reduction potentials; cell potential Direction of electron flow Concentration cell Batteries Electromotive force, Voltage Lead-storage batteries Nickel-cadmium batteries | Reflection from plane surface: angle of incidence equals angle of reflection Refraction, refractive index n; Snell’s law: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 Dispersion, change of index of refraction with wavelength Conditions for total internal reflection Spherical mirrors Center of curvature Focal length Real and virtual images Thin lenses Converging and diverging lenses Use of formula 1/p + 1/q = 1/f, with sign conventions Lens strength, diopters Combination of lenses Lens aberration Optical Instruments, including the human eye | Valence electrons First and second ionization energy Definition Prediction from electronic structure for elements in different groups or rows Electron affinity Definition Variation with group and row Electronegativity Definition Comparative values for some representative elements and important groups Electron shells and the sizes of atoms Electron shells and the sizes of ions | Indicators Neutralization Interpretation of the titration curves Redox titration | Binding Immune system Motor | Reaction rate Dependence of reaction rate on concentration of reactants Rate law, rate constant Reaction order Rate-determining step Dependence of reaction rate upon temperature Activation energy Activated complex or transition state Interpretation of energy profiles showing energies of reactants, products, activation energy, and ΔH for the reaction Use of the Arrhenius Equation Kinetic control versus thermodynamic control of a reaction Catalysts Equilibrium in reversible chemical reactions Law of Mass Action Equilibrium Constant Application of Le Châtelier’s Principle Relationship of the equilibrium constant and ΔG° | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
16 | Energy of Point Object System (PHY) | Specialized Cell- Nerve Cell (BIO) | Stoichiometry (GC) | Lipids (BC, OC) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
17 | Kinetic Energy: KE = ½ mv2; units Potential Energy PE = mgh (gravitational, local) PE = ½ kx2 (spring) Conservation of energy Power, units | Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon | Molecular weight Empirical versus molecular formula Metric units commonly used in the context of chemistry Description of composition by percent mass Mole concept, Avogadro’s number NA Definition of density Oxidation number Common oxidizing and reducing agents Disproportionation reactions Description of reactions by chemical equations Conventions for writing chemical equations Balancing equations, including redox equations Limiting reactants Theoretical yields | Description, Types Storage Triacyl glycerols Free fatty acids: saponification Structural Phospholipids and phosphatids Sphingolipids (BC) Waxes Signals/cofactors Fat-soluble vitamins Steroids Prostaglandins (BC) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
18 | Periodic Motion (PHY) | Carbohydrates (OC) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
19 | "Amplitude, frequency, phase Transverse and longitudinal waves: wavelength and propagation speed" | Description Nomenclature and classification, common names Absolute configuration Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses Epimers and anomers Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage Keto-enol tautomerism of monosaccharides Disaccharides (BC) Polysaccharides (BC) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
20 | Aldehydes and Ketones (OC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
21 | Description Nomenclature Physical properties Important reactions Nucleophilic addition reactions at C=O bond Acetal, hemiacetal Imine, enamine Hydride reagents Cyanohydrin Oxidation of aldehydes Reactions at adjacent positions: enolate chemistry Keto-enol tautomerism (α-racemization) Aldol condensation, retro-aldol Kinetic versus thermodynamic enolate General principles Effect of substituents on reactivity of C=O; steric hindrance Acidity of α-H; carbanions | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
22 | Alcohols (OC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
23 | Description Nomenclature Physical properties (acidity, hydrogen bonding) Important reactions Oxidation Substitution reactions: SN1 or SN2 Protection of alcohols Preparation of mesylates and tosylates | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
24 | Carboxylic Acids (OC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
25 | Description Nomenclature Physical properties Important reactions Carboxyl group reactions Amides (and lactam), esters (and lactone), anhydride formation Reduction Decarboxylation Reactions at 2-position, substitution | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
26 | Acids Derivatives (Anhydrides, Amides, Esters) (OC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
27 | Description Nomenclature Physical properties Important reactions Nucleophilic substitution Transesterification Hydrolysis of amides General principles Relative reactivity of acid derivatives Steric effects Electronic effects Strain (e.g., β-lactams) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
28 | Phenols (OC, BC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
29 | Oxidation and reduction (e.g., hydroquinones, ubiquinones): biological 2e− redox centers | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
30 | Polycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds (OC, BC) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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