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1 | Information added by | Period 1 | Period 2 | Period 3 | From Year | To Year | Event | Details | Umm el-Qanatir = Em HaKeshatot (Mother of the Arches) | Usha | Emmaus | Apollonia = Arsuf = Tel Arshaf | Ashdod | Ashkelon | Be’er Sheva | Beit Guvrin | Beit She’an | Beit Shemesh (tell, neighborhood, locality) | Beit She’arim | Banias | al-Bassa = Kafr Bassa = Bassa | Betzet = Moshav Betzet, Nahal Betzet | Julis | Gibeon | Gedera | Golan – the Golan – Golan Heights Sites in the Golan Heights also appear in their own category | Gezer | Mount Gilboa | Gamla | Gesher = Old Gesher Naharayim – power station, Rutenberg | Gath = Tell es-Safi (Tel Zafit) | Dor = Ein Dor | Dan = Tel Dan, stream, kibbutz | Dafna, kibbutz | Hebron | Haifa | Haluza | Hanaton | Hatzeva | Hazor | Tiberias | Tabgha – see Kinneret | Yavne – Yavne and its Sages | Yad Mordechai | Yodfat | Jezreel (tell and valley) | Yotvata | Yodfat | Jaffa | Jerusalem | Jericho | Kokhav HaYarden (Belvoir) | Kinneret – the moshava – Kinneret Farm – Sea of Galilee – the lake – Tel Kinnerot Tabgha = churches on the Sea of Galilee | Kafr Kanna = Cana = Qana = Kanna | Capernaum | Lod | Lachish | Migdal | Megiddo | Judean Desert (Jericho has its own column) Includes Mishor Adumim and Ma’ale Adumim | El-Muhraqa = the Muhraqa | Makhtesh, makhteshim – see Mitzpe Ramon | Mamshit | Mizpah (not Mitzpe Ramon) | Mitzpe Ramon (the town and the Ramon Makhtesh) + Large Makhtesh + Small Makhtesh | Maresha | Nahariya | Nahal Me’arot | Nitzana = Nessana (settlement, tell) | Nazareth | Hippos (Sussita) | Samar | Avdat = Oboda | Evrona – chain wells – foggara | Azekah | Ein Bokek | Acre | Jezreel Valley | Afula | Arad | Atlit | Sepphoris (Tzippori) | Tzemah | Safed | Caesarea | Rosh HaAyin | Rehov | Ramla | Ramat Rachel | Shivta | Sde Boker (kibbutz, educational campus, and Ben-Gurion's grave) | Shechem (Nablus) | Shefa-Amr | Tabor = the Tabor = Kfar Tavor = Mount Tabor | Tel Aviv | Tel Hai | Timna + Solomon’s Pillars | Biblical Tamar = Ir Ovot = Ein Hatzeva | |||
2 | Nir Topper | Prehistory | -2,500,000 | -11,500 | The Prehistoric Periods | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
3 | Nir Topper | Paleolithic | Lower Paleolithic | -2,500,000 | -250,000 | Small-scale hunter-gatherer societies Small mobile bands | Cultures: Acheulo-Yabrudian — 400,000–300,000 years ago Late Acheulian — c. 780,000 years ago Early Acheulian in the Land of Israel — c. 1.5 million years ago Flake industries at Dmanisi — c. 1.8 million years ago Flake industries in Africa — c. 2.5 million years ago | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
4 | Nir Topper | Paleolithic | Lower Paleolithic | -500,000 | -250,000 | Nahal Me’arot | Lower Paleolithic, at least 500,000–250,000 years before present [12]: The Acheulian culture is represented in Tabun Cave, and the Acheulo-Yabrudian culture in both Tabun Cave and Jamal Cave. Excavations uncovered large quantities of characteristic flint tools, including handaxes, as well as accumulations of animal bones, mainly fallow deer. No human remains from this stage were discovered. | Lower Paleolithic, at least 500,000–250,000 years before present [12]: The Acheulian culture is represented in Tabun Cave, and the Acheulo-Yabrudian culture in both Tabun Cave and Jamal Cave. Excavations uncovered large quantities of characteristic flint tools, including handaxes, as well as accumulations of animal bones, mainly fallow deer. No human remains from this stage were discovered. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
5 | Nir Topper | Paleolithic | Middle Paleolithic | -250,000 | -50,000 | Small-scale hunter-gatherer societies Small mobile bands | Cultures: Late Mousterian (Tabun B) — c. 50,000–47,000 years ago Middle Mousterian (Tabun C) — c. 85,000–80,000 years ago Early Mousterian (Abu Sifian; Tabun D) — c. 250,000 years ago | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
6 | Nir Topper | Paleolithic | Middle Paleolithic | -250,000 | -50,000 | Nahal Me’arot | Middle Paleolithic, c. 250,000–50,000 years before present [12]: Tabun Cave, Skhul Cave, and el-Wad Cave preserve a very long and diverse sequence of Mousterian culture. An exceptionally long sequence, including all stages of the period, was discovered in Tabun Cave. Notable findings include the burial of a Neanderthal woman in Tabun Cave and a concentration of anatomically modern human burials in Skhul Cave [13]. These are among the world’s earliest known burials, some of the earliest evidence for the presence of Homo sapiens outside Africa, and possible evidence of an early encounter between Homo sapiens migrating out of Africa and Eurasian Neanderthals. | Middle Paleolithic, c. 250,000–50,000 years before present [12]: Tabun Cave, Skhul Cave, and el-Wad Cave preserve a very long and diverse sequence of Mousterian culture. An exceptionally long sequence, including all stages of the period, was discovered in Tabun Cave. Notable findings include the burial of a Neanderthal woman in Tabun Cave and a concentration of anatomically modern human burials in Skhul Cave [13]. These are among the world’s earliest known burials, some of the earliest evidence for the presence of Homo sapiens outside Africa, and possible evidence of an early encounter between Homo sapiens migrating out of Africa and Eurasian Neanderthals. During this period, Nahal Me’arot marked the southernmost known occurrence of Neanderthal remains (together with Kebara Cave in the southern Carmel) and the northernmost known occurrence of Homo sapiens remains (together with Qafzeh Cave in Lower Galilee) [14]. Members of both species regularly lit fires [15] and systematically hunted adult ungulates, mainly mountain gazelles and Persian fallow deer. Bones of extinct species, including aurochs, a rhinoceros species, and a camel species, were also discovered [16]. Skhul Cave yielded shell beads and ochre remains obtained from distant places, among the world’s earliest evidence for the symbolic use of objects [17]. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
7 | Nir Topper | Paleolithic | Middle Paleolithic | -100,000 | -85,000 | Qedumim Cave = Mount Precipice Cave = Qafzeh Cave | Qafzeh Cave, also known as Qedumim Cave or Mount Precipice Cave, is a prehistoric archaeological site located at the foot of Mount Precipice (Mount Qedumim), south of Nazareth. Important early human remains were found at the site. It is one of the earliest known examples in the world of anatomically modern humans. Excavations at the site were conducted in 1933–1936 by Moshe Stekelis and René Neuville, and intermittently between 1965 and 1979 under the direction of Bernard Vandermeersch. | Qafzeh Cave, also known as Qedumim Cave or Mount Precipice Cave, is a prehistoric archaeological site located at the foot of Mount Precipice (Mount Qedumim), south of Nazareth. Important early human remains were found at the site. It is one of the earliest known examples in the world of anatomically modern humans. Excavations at the site were conducted in 1933–1936 by Moshe Stekelis and René Neuville, and intermittently between 1965 and 1979 under the direction of Bernard Vandermeersch. Findings Hearths, Mousterian stone tools, human bones, and animal bones were discovered at the site, indicating that the cave served both as a dwelling place and as a burial site [1][2]. The finds included 13 complete skeletons, six belonging to adults and the rest to children. Five individuals were deliberately buried in the cave floor; two of the burials included deer antlers, for reasons that remain unclear. The remains are dated to 85,000–100,000 years before present. Another important finding was the presence of ochre remains, both on bones and in 71 concentrations of unused ochre. This indicates that a ritual burial practice with symbolic meaning was already present about 100,000 years ago [3]. Research on the ochre remains was led in the early 2000s by Erella Hovers of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, after she returned to examine excavation finds stored at the university’s Institute of Archaeology [4]. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
8 | Nir Topper | Paleolithic | Upper Paleolithic | -50,000 | -22,000 | Small-scale hunter-gatherer societies Small mobile bands | Cultures: Masraqan Atlitian Late Ahmarian Aurignacian Early Ahmarian Emiran culture | Upper Paleolithic, c. 50,000–20,000 years before present: The Aurignacian and Atlitian cultures are represented in el-Wad Cave [7]. Rich assemblages of characteristic flint tools were found. No human remains were discovered. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
9 | Nir Topper | Paleolithic | Epipaleolithic | -22,000 | -11,500 | Increasing social complexity Beginnings of permanent settlement | Cultures: Late Natufian and Harifian Early Natufian Late Mushabian (Ramonian) Early Mushabian Geometric Kebaran Kebaran (Nitzanian, Qalkhan, Nebekian) | Late Epipaleolithic, c. 15,000–11,500 years before present [18]: The Natufian culture at el-Wad Cave. A permanent or semi-permanent settlement was uncovered, including, for the first time in prehistory, dwelling structures and stone-built retaining walls, more than one hundred burials in several concentrations, mortars, art objects, and a massive amount of settlement refuse in a long sequence of Natufian occupations. Findings from the Natufian layers at el-Wad Cave played a central role in Garrod’s definition of this culture as an important stage between the earlier simple nomadic Paleolithic cultures and the agricultural Neolithic cultures that followed [19]. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
10 | Nir Topper | Neolithic | -11,500 | -5,800 | Transition to agriculture Domestication of plants and animals Emergence of permanent agricultural settlements (Tel Megiddo) | Cultures: Pottery Neolithic (Yarmukian, Jericho IX) Pre-Pottery Neolithic C Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Pre-Pottery Neolithic A The Leopard Temple — from the Neolithic period onward | At Megiddo, the tell contains 30 strata, from the Neolithic period—the beginning of agriculture—through the Persian period, when settlement on the tell ended about 2,500 years ago. Altogether, the tell preserves about 2,500 years of settlement. The inhabitants used mudbricks (as in the reconstruction at Tel Be’er Sheva). After a settlement was abandoned, rain dissolved the mudbricks, covered the existing structures, and the next settlement was built above them. Clay tablets discovered at el-Amarna in Egypt mention Megiddo among the cities listed there. A massive hoard of elephant ivory, probably brought from Africa or Asia, indicates trade and the arrival of merchants from afar. Abandonment of the tell — after the Persian period, the city moved down to the plain. Kefar Othnay — a Jewish settlement below, near Tel Megiddo (years to be completed). Legio — named after the Roman Sixth Legion, which was stationed at the foot of the tell. Lajjun — an Arab village at the foot of the tell, destroyed in 1948. 1949 — Holocaust survivors established Kibbutz Megiddo. Settlement on the tell continued until about 2,500 years ago. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
11 | Nir Topper | Chalcolithic | -5,800 | -3,600 | Copper-Stone Age Beginnings of metallurgy Emergence of complex societies at the dawn of history | Cultures: Late Chalcolithic (Ghassulian) Middle Chalcolithic (Beit She’an XVIII, Qatifian) Early Chalcolithic (Wadi Rabah) | Unlike Tel Arad, Tel Be’er Sheva is a multi-layered tell; above the remains of earlier periods, it preserves a settlement sequence from the Chalcolithic period to the Roman period, layer upon layer. Throughout the years, settlement at Tel Be’er Sheva was drawn by one essential purpose: water. Book of Genesis: “And Abraham journeyed... and came to Beersheba... and encountered the people of Gerar...” Abimelech: “God is with you...” The dispute between Abraham and Abimelech over the water wells. | Chalcolithic = Stone + Copper A period in which stone tools were still used to extract copper. Here at Timna, the remains of quarrying with stone tools for the extraction of copper can be seen directly — literally embodying the meaning of the period’s name. About two thousand years later, in the Bronze Age, miners continued the mine on the basis of the Chalcolithic mine. A Chalcolithic mine and a Bronze Age mine in the same place. Two climbing methods can be identified on the wall: protrusions, and niches for hands and feet. In the vast majority of the shafts, only niches are identified, without protrusions. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
12 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | -3,600 | -1,200 | The Bronze Age | Period boundaries: 3800–1200 BCE, spanning 2,600 years. Scholarly literature conventionally divides the period into four subperiods: Early Bronze Age, Intermediate Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, and Late Bronze Age. During this period, people used bronze, an alloy combining copper and tin (or, more rarely, copper and zinc). Bronze is stronger than copper and therefore made it possible to produce more effective tools and weapons. 3300–2200 BCE: Migration of nomadic groups into the Land of Israel. Consolidation of fortified city-states; use of bronze. 2200–2000 BCE: Abandonment of the cities; return to a nomadic way of life. 2000–1550 BCE: Influx of peoples from the north and from Syria, including the Hyksos, into the country. Major cities included Shechem, Hazor, Rehov, and Laish. Beginnings of writing. c. 1700 BCE: The period of the Patriarchs (according to the Bible). 1550–1200 BCE: Late Bronze Age — an era of international trade, Egyptian rule over Canaan, and the invention of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet. c. 1457 BCE: Battle of Megiddo between the Egyptians and the Canaanites. 1250–1020 BCE (according to the biblical chronology, after deducting the missing years): Settlement of the Israelite tribes and the period of the Judges. | Remains of a desert kite dated to approximately 5,000 years ago, around 3000 BCE. Location: https://maps.app.goo.gl/uwXZpVckp2FRBF4x8 | Chalcolithic = Stone + Copper A period in which stone tools were still used to extract copper. Here at Timna, the remains of quarrying with stone tools for the extraction of copper can be seen directly — literally embodying the meaning of the period’s name. About two thousand years later, in the Bronze Age, miners continued the mine on the basis of the Chalcolithic mine. A Chalcolithic mine and a Bronze Age mine in the same place. Two climbing methods can be identified on the wall: protrusions, and niches for hands and feet. In the vast majority of the shafts, only niches are identified, without protrusions. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
13 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Early Bronze Age | Early Bronze Age | -3,600 | -2,200 | Early Bronze Age | Period boundaries: 3800–2400 BCE, spanning 1,400 years. Although writing developed in Mesopotamia and Egypt during this period, no written finds from the period have been discovered in the Land of Israel apart from a small number of inscriptions bearing the names of Egyptian kings. Egypt saw the emergence of the first state governed by a royal dynasty—the First Dynasty, under Narmer. City-states such as Ur, Nahor, and others appeared in the Fertile Crescent. In the Land of Israel, the period was characterized by Egyptian influence and the consolidation of city-states. The decline of these city-states marks the end of the period and a return to a nomadic way of life. | The earliest Haifa was located where Rambam Medical Center now stands: Shikmona, Tel Shikmona. Acre was the major port city, connected to the principal routes and protected by a natural breakwater. Haifa was a small fishing village. 1st–2nd centuries BCE — evidence of settlement at Haifa. Shikmona — Early Bronze Age. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
14 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Early Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -2,850 | -2,200 | Settlement at Tel Arad | Tel Arad — the Aradian house; settlement on the tell: 3300–2200 BCE. Settlement in the Canaanite city: 2850–2200 BCE. | 2850–2200 BCE — Canaanite Arad. Tel Arad lies precisely along the transition zone between the permanent settlements of the Hebron Hills and the nomadic expanses of the Negev. The weaker the central government, the more widely nomadic cultures expanded. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
15 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Intermediate Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -2,200 | -2,000 | Intermediate Bronze Age | This was a transitional period between the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age. During the early effort to establish the archaeology and chronology of the Land of Israel, scholars considered calling it the Copper Age. The archaeologist Flinders Petrie was the first to identify this new settlement pattern in the tombs around Tell el-Ajjul. He named it the Copper Age after the many copper objects found in the tombs. Albright was the first to call it Middle Bronze I (MB I), with Middle Bronze II (MB II) beginning in 2000 BCE. Some scholars, however—especially American archaeologists—extended Early Bronze IV (EB IV) until 2000 BCE. The British archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon revived the term “Intermediate Bronze Age,” which is now accepted by most Israeli archaeologists. At the end of the Early Bronze Age, the cities were abandoned and the region entered a period of decline lasting about 200 years, during which no urban settlements were established in the Land of Israel. Proposed explanations include climate change, demographic change, repeated raids from Egypt, and even the exhaustion of cities from continual warfare among themselves. The Intermediate Bronze Age was characterized by a population that did not live in major cities but instead followed a nomadic way of life. Against the background of sparse settlement, the numerous cemeteries associated with this period are particularly prominent. (See tombs and burial practices in the Intermediate Bronze Age.) Current estimates place the population of the Land of Israel west of the Jordan during the Intermediate Bronze Age at approximately 40,000–50,000 people. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
16 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Middle Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -2,000 | -1,550 | Middle Bronze Age | Period boundaries: 2000–1550 BCE, spanning 450 years. During this period, the population of the Land of Israel returned to permanent settlements, and fortifications eventually reappeared. This change followed the influx of peoples from the north and from Syria, as well as the revival of ancient Egypt under the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties at the beginning of the period. Settlement Urbanization returned to the Land of Israel. Major cities included Shechem, Hazor, Rehov, and Laish. Society also shifted from a tribal arrangement in which three or four rulers governed a city to monarchical rule by a single ruler, as revealed by the study of the Execration Texts. These texts, divided into three chronological groups, show a negative correlation between the number of rulers and the number of cities: as the number of cities increased, the number of kings named in the texts declined. By the end of the period, there is evidence of rulers’ palaces at Hazor and Megiddo. This was followed by another systemic collapse. It is estimated that during Middle Bronze II B–C there were more than 700 urban and rural settlements throughout the country—not all occupied simultaneously—from the Iyon Valley in the north to Nahal Be’er Sheva in the south. This settlement system represents the peak of settlement processes in the country during the Bronze Age. The population of the Land of Israel during Middle Bronze II is estimated at approximately 140,000. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
17 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Middle Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -2,000 | -1,750 | Jerusalem Beit She’an Afula Shechem Rehov Dan appears as Laish | The Execration Texts 19th–18th centuries BCE | The Execration Texts — the pottery sherds bear the names of approximately twenty cities or regions in the Land of Israel and Syria, including Ashkelon, Lachish, Aphek, Beit Shemesh, Ashmam (Jerusalem), Ashan (Beit She’an), Aphel (Afula), Shechem, and Rehov. In Lebanon, they mention the people of Byblos and the cities of Ullaza and Arqa. Two to four rulers’ names are associated with each city listed. In total, the texts contain more than thirty names of governors. The sherds have been dated to the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or the middle of the Twelfth Dynasty. | The Execration Texts — 19th–18th centuries BCE — Dan appears as Laish. | The Execration Texts — the pottery sherds bear the names of approximately twenty cities or regions in the Land of Israel and Syria, including Ashkelon, Lachish, Aphek, Beit Shemesh, Ashmam (Jerusalem), Ashan (Beit She’an), Aphel (Afula), Shechem, and Rehov. In Lebanon, they mention the people of Byblos and the cities of Ullaza and Arqa. Two to four rulers’ names are associated with each city listed. In total, the texts contain more than thirty names of governors. The sherds have been dated to the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or the middle of the Twelfth Dynasty. | The Execration Texts — the pottery sherds bear the names of approximately twenty cities or regions in the Land of Israel and Syria, including Ashkelon, Lachish, Aphek, Beit Shemesh, Ashmam (Jerusalem), Ashan (Beit She’an), Aphel (Afula), Shechem, and Rehov. In Lebanon, they mention the people of Byblos and the cities of Ullaza and Arqa. Two to four rulers’ names are associated with each city listed. In total, the texts contain more than thirty names of governors. The sherds have been dated to the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or the middle of the Twelfth Dynasty. | The Execration Texts — the pottery sherds bear the names of approximately twenty cities or regions in the Land of Israel and Syria, including Ashkelon, Lachish, Aphek, Beit Shemesh, Ashmam (Jerusalem), Ashan (Beit She’an), Aphel (Afula), Shechem, and Rehov. In Lebanon, they mention the people of Byblos and the cities of Ullaza and Arqa. Two to four rulers’ names are associated with each city listed. In total, the texts contain more than thirty names of governors. The sherds have been dated to the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or the middle of the Twelfth Dynasty. | The Execration Texts — the pottery sherds bear the names of approximately twenty cities or regions in the Land of Israel and Syria, including Ashkelon, Lachish, Aphek, Beit Shemesh, Ashmam (Jerusalem), Ashan (Beit She’an), Aphel (Afula), Shechem, and Rehov. In Lebanon, they mention the people of Byblos and the cities of Ullaza and Arqa. Two to four rulers’ names are associated with each city listed. In total, the texts contain more than thirty names of governors. The sherds have been dated to the end of the Eleventh Dynasty or the middle of the Twelfth Dynasty. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
18 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Middle Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -1,800 | The Period of Abraham the Patriarch | Abraham Gate = the Canaanite Gate, Tel Dan | Mentioned in the following periods: the Patriarchs, the settlement of the land, the monarchy, and the Return to Zion. The city of the Patriarchs in the southern territory of Judah and within the allotment of Simeon. It is now identified with the area of the market in modern Be’er Sheva (see Ishtori Haparchi); some identify it with Tel Sheva. It is mentioned as the southern boundary of settlement in the Land of Israel: “from Dan to Beersheba.” South of Be’er Sheva, permanent settlement was impossible because of the harsh desert conditions. Abraham and Isaac dug wells there and made a covenant with Abimelech (Genesis 21:31–33; Genesis 26:33). Jacob encamped there on his way to Egypt (Genesis 46:1). The place where the sons of the prophet Samuel served as judges (1 Samuel 8:2). During the later monarchy, Be’er Sheva served as a center of idolatrous worship (2 Kings 23:8; Amos 8:14). Be’er Sheva was resettled during the Return to Zion (Nehemiah 11:27). | The Canaanite Gate (Abraham Gate) The ancient settlement’s problem was an excess of water, which had to be drained outside the city. An earthen rampart — characteristic of the Middle Bronze Age; verify. This was the entrance to the Middle Bronze Age city. The gate is dated to approximately 1800 BCE. How do we know that this settlement is Dan? In 1837, Edward Robinson—the scholar associated with Robinson’s Arch—identified the site as Dan. The fourth-century CE Onomasticon, or Book of Place Names — details to be completed; Eusebius. Banias had a continuous sequence of settlement, so its location was known; the reference to Banias is therefore reliable. Tell el-Qadi — “the judge,” Dan. Preservation of the name. The overall assemblage, the geographical context, references to other places in the region, and preservation of the name led Robinson to identify the settlement as Dan. The archaeological findings support Robinson’s identification. In addition, an inscription was discovered in the 1970s near the cultic precinct: “Zoilos made a vow to the god who is in Dan.” The inscription is written in both Aramaic and Greek. It dates to the Hellenistic period. Professor Avraham Biran conducted the site’s major excavations beginning in 1964–1965. The Paulet–Newcombe boundary runs directly through this area. Until 1967, the site could not be reached; excavations were possible only on its southern side, which lay within Israeli territory. In 1979, Biran described excavators digging through sand and encountering a different kind of sand beneath it. He realized that this was the archaeological remain. Arches constructed of mudbrick provided evidence supporting the existing hypothesis that gate arches had indeed been built of mudbrick. The arched gate has two towers, one on either side. The gate joins a wall surrounded by a rampart. From the beginning of the steps to their end on the far side of the gate: 60 meters. Biran’s hypothesis is that the blocking of the gate occurred in antiquity. Pottery remains in the fill date to the Middle Bronze Age. The assumption is that the gate was blocked for some reason—perhaps because it was no longer needed, or for engineering or other considerations. Genesis, chapter [to be completed]: Lot, Abraham’s nephew, is taken captive. Abraham pursues Lot’s captors. Abraham took men with him and pursued the kings who had captured Lot as far as Dan. The Abraham narratives are dated to the 18th century BCE. According to the story, he reached Dan and may have entered the city through the gate before us. No other gate from this period has been discovered. With great caution, one may suggest that Abraham the Patriarch could indeed have entered through this gate. According to Islamic tradition, the story of the birds took place here (Surat al-Baqarah, 268), at the location where Jewish tradition also places the Covenant between the Pieces. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
19 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Middle Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -1,720 | -1,570 | Hyksos Kingdom | Period of the Hyksos Kingdom = Hyksos | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
20 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Late Bronze Age | Late Bronze Age | -1,550 | -1,200 | Late Bronze Age | Chronology: 1550–1200 BCE, spanning 350 years. This period, the last phase of the Bronze Age, was marked by Egypt’s renewed rise under the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties and its clear control of the land of Canaan until Egyptian power declined at the end of the period. During this era, Egypt under Amenhotep conquered Canaan and also fought the Hittites for control of Syria. Despite several impressive campaigns—the most successful being the first, in which Egypt conquered the north of the country after a decisive victory at Megiddo—and grand lists of booty and captives, Egypt failed to conquer Syria. Canaan nevertheless remained under Egyptian control until the end of the period. Toward the period’s close, Egypt could not prevent new peoples from settling in the land. These included “Israel,” a people first mentioned in writing during this period, and the “Sea Peoples,” who apparently came from the Aegean and Mediterranean islands; the Philistines were their principal group. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
21 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Late Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -1,482 | Megiddo, Beit She’an, Kinneret (Tel Kinnerot) | Campaigns of Thutmose III 1482 BCE | Megiddo, Beit She’an, Kinneret (Tel Kinnerot) — Thutmose III — “Tuthmosis” in English. He set out on a military campaign in the Land of Israel because Canaanite kings had rebelled and were not paying taxes. 1482 BCE. An account of the battle appears at Karnak, Egypt. An inscription found near his tomb records it, and it is regarded as the earliest battle in history to be described in detail. It records the route he took and the cities that were conquered. He had to choose between Wadi Ara and Wadi Milh, and decided to achieve surprise by taking Wadi Ara. | Megiddo, Beit She’an, Kinneret (Tel Kinnerot) — Thutmose III — “Tuthmosis” in English. He set out on a military campaign in the Land of Israel because Canaanite kings had rebelled and were not paying taxes. 1482 BCE. An account of the battle appears at Karnak, Egypt. An inscription found near his tomb records it, and it is regarded as the earliest battle in history to be described in detail. It records the route he took and the cities that were conquered. He had to choose between Wadi Ara and Wadi Milh, and decided to achieve surprise by taking Wadi Ara. | Thutmose III — 1490–1425 BCE A ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty and one of the most prominent kings of ancient Egypt. During his reign, the kingdom’s borders extended from present-day Sudan to the Euphrates River. He built many temples. Thutmose III’s first campaign — 1482 BCE He launched the campaign after a broad coalition of Canaanite kings, led by the king of Kadesh, confronted him. The rebellion was supported by the kingdom of Mitanni. Thutmose himself wrote that the revolt had spread throughout Canaan, “from the city of Yurza to the ends of the earth.” (Yurza was probably located at present-day Tel Gamma.) Thutmose conducted a total of sixteen military campaigns. On his eighth campaign, he defeated Mitanni and conquered Syria, but failed to consolidate his rule there. In Canaan, by contrast, control passed entirely to Egypt. The Battle of Megiddo became the first battle in history to be described in detail. Thutmose marched his army toward Megiddo, stopping on the way at Gaza, which had remained loyal. The account is inscribed on one of the temples at Karnak in Egypt. According to the description, which is considered fairly reliable, Thutmose advanced along the Via Maris toward Megiddo until he reached Yehem, south of Gath—present-day Jatt, south of Hadera. At Yehem, three routes to Megiddo, and onward to Mitanni, lay before him: The northern route — Wadi Milh, separating Mount Carmel from the Menashe Hills; today’s Route 70, passing a city called “Zefti” that stood there. The central route — Wadi Ara, separating the Umm al-Fahm ridge from the Menashe Hills; today’s Route 65 (Hadera–Afula), passing a city called “Aruna.” The southern route — the Dothan Valley, separating the Samarian Hills from the Menashe Hills, by way of the city of Taanach. According to his account, Thutmose stopped in the area of present-day Hadera and convened his advisers to choose a route. His advisers recommended Wadi Milh, arguing that Wadi Ara led directly to Megiddo and that the king of Megiddo would certainly anticipate such a move. They also argued that Wadi Ara was much narrower and therefore easier to use for an ambush. Thutmose rejected their advice. He reasoned that if his advisers understood the potential of Wadi Ara, the king of Megiddo surely understood it as well; the ambush would therefore be waiting in Wadi Milh. Thutmose passed through Wadi Ara and surprised the Canaanite army, which was indeed waiting at the entrance to Wadi Milh, near present-day Yokneam Illit. Thutmose positioned his army between the Canaanite force and the city of Megiddo. The king described the battle as follows: “Then His Majesty prevailed at the head of his army. When they saw that His Majesty was prevailing, they fled in haste to Megiddo with terrified faces. They abandoned their horses and their chariots of gold and silver. The people of Megiddo had already shut the city against them, and to pull them up they lowered a rope made of clothing. Had the soldiers not turned their attention to the possessions they had left behind, they would have taken Megiddo in the assault.” According to the account, Thutmose’s army utterly defeated the army of Megiddo. Thutmose added a somewhat derisive description of the enemy soldiers fleeing and being hauled up Megiddo’s wall with improvised ropes made from clothing. He concluded that he failed to capture Megiddo immediately because his soldiers began looting, giving Megiddo’s army time to enter the city and close its gates. After a seven-month siege, Megiddo fell, and with it the coalition of Canaanite kings. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
22 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Late Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | 14th century BCE | 9th century BCE | Solomon's Pillars The Temple of Hathor and the Miners' Shrine Who were the local miners with whom the Egyptians joined forces? To be completed. Rock engraving of Hathor and Ramesses At the bottom of the engraving is an inscription: "The justified royal servant Ramesses-em-per-Re" To be completed. Fish bones were found here: freshwater fish from the Nile; saltwater fish from the Mediterranean Sea; and blue and purple textiles produced from mollusks gathered along the Mediterranean coast in the Dor–Tantura area. The assessment is that the Edomite polity present here maintained organized, structured relations—including trade and other ties—with another kingdom. Trade was already taking place in this area in the 10th century BCE. The Egyptians remained here until the decline at the end of the Late Bronze Age. They were apparently followed by the Edomites, people of the desert; from a coalition of desert tribes, the Kingdom of Edom emerged in the 10th century BCE. By the 9th century BCE, all activity here had ceased. In total, the site was active for approximately 500 years—from the 14th through the 9th century BCE. The best source of copper at that time was Cyprus. The Romans recognized this and called the metal aes Cyprium—"copper from Cyprus." Over time, the name of the metal came to derive from the name Cyprus. After a decline of about two hundred years, as part of a broader regional downturn, Cyprus once again expanded its copper production. This was one reason for the decline of the site here. A second reason was the depletion of local fuel sources. Finds indicate that, beginning in the 9th century BCE, timber had to be brought from distant mountain regions, and the resulting production costs may no longer have been economically viable. Tafoni—an architectural and geological term sometimes described as "stone caries"—are cavities created by weathering within the rock. The rock erodes from the inside until the outer crust breaks apart, forming hollows or niches. They occur chiefly in sandstone under desert conditions. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
23 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Late Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -1,400 | -1,350 | Ashkelon Beit Shemesh Gezer Hazor Jerusalem Lachish Megiddo Acre Shechem | The Amarna Letters 14th century BCE Late Bronze Age | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim The Amarna Letters (sometimes incorrectly called the "Tell el-Amarna Letters" [1]) are letters dating from the mid-14th century BCE. They were written by various rulers—most of them Canaanite rulers—and sent to the king of Egypt over a period of approximately twenty years, during the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. A small number of the letters were written by Amenhotep III to other rulers. Discovered at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt, these letters are a principal source for the study of the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age. Letters 227–339, 362, 364–367, 369–371, and 378 concern southern Canaan and include letters from Hazor, Megiddo, Acre, Gezer, Jerusalem, Ashkelon, Lachish, Shechem, Pella, and other cities. | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim The Amarna Letters (sometimes incorrectly called the "Tell el-Amarna Letters" [1]) are letters dating from the mid-14th century BCE. They were written by various rulers—most of them Canaanite rulers—and sent to the king of Egypt over a period of approximately twenty years, during the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. A small number of the letters were written by Amenhotep III to other rulers. Discovered at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt, these letters are a principal source for the study of the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age. Letters 227–339, 362, 364–367, 369–371, and 378 concern southern Canaan and include letters from Hazor, Megiddo, Acre, Gezer, Jerusalem, Ashkelon, Lachish, Shechem, Pella, and other cities. | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim The Amarna Letters (sometimes incorrectly called the "Tell el-Amarna Letters" [1]) are letters dating from the mid-14th century BCE. They were written by various rulers—most of them Canaanite rulers—and sent to the king of Egypt over a period of approximately twenty years, during the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. A small number of the letters were written by Amenhotep III to other rulers. Discovered at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt, these letters are a principal source for the study of the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age. Letters 227–339, 362, 364–367, 369–371, and 378 concern southern Canaan and include letters from Hazor, Megiddo, Acre, Gezer, Jerusalem, Ashkelon, Lachish, Shechem, Pella, and other cities. | Tel Hanaton—mentioned in the Amarna Letters, in two letters describing events that occurred along the road. This route was evidently important even then; today it is Highway 784. The name may possibly be connected with Pharaoh Akhenaten. Hanaton appears again in the account of the division of the land among the tribes of Israel. It lay within the territory of the tribe of Zebulun and is mentioned in the description of Zebulun's boundary together with the Valley of Iphtahel. | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim The Amarna Letters (sometimes incorrectly called the "Tell el-Amarna Letters" [1]) are letters dating from the mid-14th century BCE. They were written by various rulers—most of them Canaanite rulers—and sent to the king of Egypt over a period of approximately twenty years, during the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. A small number of the letters were written by Amenhotep III to other rulers. Discovered at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt, these letters are a principal source for the study of the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age. Letters 227–339, 362, 364–367, 369–371, and 378 concern southern Canaan and include letters from Hazor, Megiddo, Acre, Gezer, Jerusalem, Ashkelon, Lachish, Shechem, Pella, and other cities. | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim The Amarna Letters (sometimes incorrectly called the "Tell el-Amarna Letters" [1]) are letters dating from the mid-14th century BCE. They were written by various rulers—most of them Canaanite rulers—and sent to the king of Egypt over a period of approximately twenty years, during the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. A small number of the letters were written by Amenhotep III to other rulers. Discovered at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt, these letters are a principal source for the study of the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age. Letters 227–339, 362, 364–367, 369–371, and 378 concern southern Canaan and include letters from Hazor, Megiddo, Acre, Gezer, Jerusalem, Ashkelon, Lachish, Shechem, Pella, and other cities. | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim The Amarna Letters (sometimes incorrectly called the "Tell el-Amarna Letters" [1]) are letters dating from the mid-14th century BCE. They were written by various rulers—most of them Canaanite rulers—and sent to the king of Egypt over a period of approximately twenty years, during the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. A small number of the letters were written by Amenhotep III to other rulers. Discovered at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt, these letters are a principal source for the study of the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age. Letters 227–339, 362, 364–367, 369–371, and 378 concern southern Canaan and include letters from Hazor, Megiddo, Acre, Gezer, Jerusalem, Ashkelon, Lachish, Shechem, Pella, and other cities. | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim The Amarna Letters (sometimes incorrectly called the "Tell el-Amarna Letters" [1]) are letters dating from the mid-14th century BCE. They were written by various rulers—most of them Canaanite rulers—and sent to the king of Egypt over a period of approximately twenty years, during the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. A small number of the letters were written by Amenhotep III to other rulers. Discovered at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt, these letters are a principal source for the study of the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age. Letters 227–339, 362, 364–367, 369–371, and 378 concern southern Canaan and include letters from Hazor, Megiddo, Acre, Gezer, Jerusalem, Ashkelon, Lachish, Shechem, Pella, and other cities. | The Amarna Letters—14th century BCE, Late Bronze Age: Urusalim The Amarna Letters (sometimes incorrectly called the "Tell el-Amarna Letters" [1]) are letters dating from the mid-14th century BCE. They were written by various rulers—most of them Canaanite rulers—and sent to the king of Egypt over a period of approximately twenty years, during the reigns of Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun. A small number of the letters were written by Amenhotep III to other rulers. Discovered at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt, these letters are a principal source for the study of the Land of Israel during the Late Bronze Age. Letters 227–339, 362, 364–367, 369–371, and 378 concern southern Canaan and include letters from Hazor, Megiddo, Acre, Gezer, Jerusalem, Ashkelon, Lachish, Shechem, Pella, and other cities. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
24 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Late Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -1,354 | -1,244 | The Period of Joshua Son of Nun | Joshua belonged to the tribe of Ephraim and was the grandson of Elishama son of Ammihud, the leader of the tribe of Ephraim [4]. According to tradition, Joshua was born in Egypt as Hoshea son of Nun in the year 2406 from Creation [5] (1354 BCE), and was forty-two years old at the time of the Exodus. He was eighty-two when the Israelites entered the Land of Israel and led Israel for twenty-eight years [6], until his death at the age of 110 [7], in the year 2516 from Creation [8] (1244 BCE). | The city of Gamla is mentioned in the Mishnah as one of the walled cities dating from the time of Joshua son of Nun [2]. The Tosefta states that it served as a city of refuge in Joshua's time until the conquest of Kedesh [3]. An earlier settlement apparently stood at the site during the Early Bronze Age and was later destroyed. In the 1st century BCE, the Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus captured the city from Hellenized inhabitants or Hellenistic governors and settled Jews there, intending to populate the frontier regions of his kingdom. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
25 | Nir Topper | Bronze Age | Late Bronze Age | Canaanite Period | -1,209 | The Merneptah Stele—campaign of conquest in Canaan, 1209–1208 BCE Of paramount importance: its reference to "Israel" is the earliest known mention in an external source. | The Merneptah Stele—campaign of conquest in Canaan, 1209–1208 BCE Of paramount importance: its reference to "Israel" is the earliest known mention in an external source. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
26 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | -1,200 | -586 | Iron Age—including the Canaanite and Israelite periods | Chronological boundaries: c. 1200/1150 BCE to 586 BCE (the destruction of the First Temple). This period is divided into two principal phases: Iron Age I: c. 1200/1150–1000 BCE. Iron Age II: c. 1000–586 BCE. A commonly accepted subdivision of Iron Age II is: Iron Age IIA: c. 1000–900 BCE—the 10th century BCE. Iron Age IIB: c. 900–800 BCE—the 9th century BCE. Iron Age IIC: c. 800–701 BCE—the 8th century BCE. This phase ended with the widespread destruction of most sites in Judah during Sennacherib's campaign. Iron Age IID (III): c. 700–586 BCE—the 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. This phase likewise ended with the destruction of numerous sites in Judah during Nebuchadnezzar's campaign. The beginning of the period was marked by the Late Bronze Age collapse, characterized by the waning power of the great Egyptian, Hittite, and Mycenaean states and by the arrival in the Land of Israel of new peoples, cultures, and small kingdoms, including the Israelite tribes and the Philistines, who formed part of the migratory movement known as the "Sea Peoples." With no single ruler controlling the land, most of it was divided among the Israelites, the Philistines, and the Canaanites who had lived there previously. In scholarly literature, this period is also called the "Israelite period." The latter part of the Iron Age was marked by the rise of Assyria and the threat of conquest, followed by the destruction of the First Temple by Babylonia—which had become the dominant empire of the age—and culminating in the Babylonian Exile. 1180–1150 BCE: The Philistines entered the land and established themselves on the southern coastal plain. 1020–930 BCE (according to the biblical chronology, after deducting the "missing years"): the United Monarchy of Israel—the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon. 930 BCE (according to the biblical chronology, after deducting the "missing years"): Jeroboam son of Nebat's revolt led to the division of the kingdom into the Kingdom of Israel in the north and the Kingdom of Judah, including Jerusalem, in the south. 722 BCE: The Assyrian Empire conquered the northern Kingdom of Israel and destroyed its capital, Samaria. Shalmaneser V deported part of the population to Assyria. 627 BCE: Following the death of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, Nabopolassar rebelled against Assyria and established the Neo-Babylonian Empire. 609 BCE: The Land of Israel came under Egyptian control following the Battle of Megiddo. 605 BCE: The Land of Israel returned to Babylonian control following the Battle of Carchemish. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
27 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age I | -1,200 | -1,000 | The beginning of the period was marked by the Late Bronze Age collapse, characterized by the waning power of the great Egyptian, Hittite, and Mycenaean states and by the arrival in the Land of Israel of new peoples, cultures, and small kingdoms, including the Israelite tribes and the Philistines, who formed part of the migratory movement known as the "Sea Peoples." With no single ruler controlling the land, most of it was divided among the Israelites, the Philistines, and the Canaanites who had lived there previously. In scholarly literature, this period is also called the "Israelite period." The latter part of the Iron Age was marked by the rise of Assyria and the threat of conquest, followed by the destruction of the First Temple by Babylonia—which had become the dominant empire of the age—and culminating in the Babylonian Exile. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
28 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age I | Israelite Period | -1,200 | Deborah's War | Deborah's War—late 13th to early 12th century BCE Jabin, king of Hazor; Sisera | Deborah's War—late 13th to early 12th century BCE Jabin, king of Hazor; Sisera | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
29 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age I | Israelite Period | -1,150 | -1,000 | Collared-Rim Jars | The collared-rim jar is a vessel commonly found at archaeological sites identified as Israelite settlements from Iron Age I, c. 1150–1000 BCE—a period often defined as the era of the tribes' settlement in the land. The jar was used to store wine, oil, or water. Its base was conical rather than flat, so it had to be embedded in the ground to prevent it from tipping and spilling. This design also allowed the vessel to be set among stones for cooking. Its neck narrowed and then flared slightly at the rim. To archaeologists, this form resembled a clerical collar, giving rise to the name "collared-rim jar." The collared-rim jar is an important element of material culture used to help identify a site as Israelite rather than Canaanite. It is generally found mainly at Israelite sites in the central hill country, rather than throughout the rest of the land. However, collared-rim jars have also been found in areas not inhabited by Israelites; the vessel's close association with the early Israelites may therefore be overstated. This type of vessel is characteristic of Iron Age I, particularly of settlement sites in the highlands. A similar contemporary variant found in the mountains of Galilee is known as the "Galilean jar." | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
30 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age I | Israelite Period | -1,071 | -1,012 | Lifetime of the Prophet Samuel | Mentioned in the following periods: the Patriarchs, the settlement of the land, the monarchy, and the Return to Zion. The city of the Patriarchs in the southern territory of Judah and within the allotment of Simeon. It is now identified with the area of the market in modern Be’er Sheva (see Ishtori Haparchi); some identify it with Tel Sheva. It is mentioned as the southern boundary of settlement in the Land of Israel: “from Dan to Beersheba.” South of Be’er Sheva, permanent settlement was impossible because of the harsh desert conditions. Abraham and Isaac dug wells there and made a covenant with Abimelech (Genesis 21:31–33; Genesis 26:33). Jacob encamped there on his way to Egypt (Genesis 46:1). The place where the sons of the prophet Samuel served as judges (1 Samuel 8:2). During the later monarchy, Be’er Sheva served as a center of idolatrous worship (2 Kings 23:8; Amos 8:14). Be’er Sheva was resettled during the Return to Zion (Nehemiah 11:27). | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
31 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age I | Israelite Period | -1,025 | -1,005 | King Saul | Saul son of Kish is a biblical figure described in the Hebrew Bible as the first king of the United Monarchy of Israel. His reign is dated to the second half of the 11th century BCE. According to the chronology commonly used in biblical scholarship, he may have reigned from approximately 1025 to 1005 BCE. | Saul died on Mount Gilboa. As a warning, the Philistines fastened Saul's body and the bodies of his sons to the wall by the gate of Beit She'an. They placed his weapons in the temple of Ashtoreth—probably one of the two temples from this period whose remains were uncovered at Beit She'an. | The five lords of the Philistines. The Philistines expanded into the Jezreel Valley and reached Mount Gilboa. Saul decided to consult a medium. The medium lived at Endor. Saul disguised himself and went to her. (To complete the story.) David recited his lament: "Your glory, O Israel..." "Neither dew nor rain..." The five Philistine cities—the domains of the five Philistine lords: Ashkelon Ashdod Gath Gaza Ekron | The medium of Endor, whom Saul consulted before his final battle with the Philistines, in which he died on Mount Gilboa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
32 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | -1,004 | -586 | The Beginning of the Monarchy in Israel The Book of Kings (Tel Be'er Sheva, Tel Megiddo) The period was marked by the rise of Assyria and fear of conquest, followed by the destruction of the First Temple by Babylonia—which had grown into the dominant empire of its time—and culminating in the Babylonian Exile. | Tel Arad—the upper tell, Kingdom of Judah, 910–850 BCE, the period of the fortress Source: https://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=4309&kwd=2152 The monarchy in Israel began in the days of Saul, the first king of Israel (1040 BCE). When David succeeded him, the House of David was established, together with the concept that the king of Israel, chosen by God, would come from David's dynasty. The reigns of David and his son Solomon constituted the period of the "United Monarchy." Following Solomon's death in 928 BCE, however, the kingdom divided into the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. Kingdom of Israel: The northern "Kingdom of Ephraim" was established with Shechem as its first capital. Jeroboam son of Nebat was the first king of Israel after the division of the monarchy. Omri (882–871 BCE) transferred the capital to Samaria, and the names "Kingdom of Samaria" and "Kingdom of Israel" became established. Nine royal dynasties succeeded one another in the northern kingdom, and no single cultural-religious tradition became firmly consolidated. Kingdom of Judah: The Kingdom of Judah was established in the south, with Jerusalem as its capital. All the kings of Judah belonged to the tribe of Judah and to the dynasty of the House of David. The Kingdom of Israel and its capital, Samaria, were destroyed in 722 BCE by Shalmaneser V, king of Assyria. The Israelites were exiled to Assyria; this deportation is known as the "Exile of the Ten Tribes." On the ruins of the Kingdom of Israel, the Samaritans settled—new inhabitants whom the Assyrians brought to the land as part of their policy of population transfers among conquered territories. The newcomers assimilated and merged with the local population that remained in the land. King Josiah of Judah later extended his rule into these regions as well. The Kingdom of Judah continued to exist for approximately another 150 years, from 928 BCE until the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. In that destruction, the land was devastated, Jerusalem and the Temple were destroyed, and the people of Judah were taken into the Babylonian Exile. Relations between the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah changed repeatedly over the course of two centuries: at times they formed alliances, and at other times they fought wars. | The altar is dated to the 9th century BCE. Unlike Tel Arad, Tel Be'er Sheva is a multi-period tell, preserving a continuous sequence of settlement from the Chalcolithic period through the Roman period—layer upon layer. Throughout the centuries, settlement at Tel Be'er Sheva was drawn here for one principal reason: water. The Book of Genesis recounts: "Abraham went to Beersheba and met the people of Gerar..." Abimelech: "God is with you in everything you do..." The dispute between Abraham and Abimelech concerned the water wells. Beersheba—from the Hebrew word shevu'ah, meaning "oath," because there the two of them swore an oath. Genesis 21:31. The same story is repeated with Isaac. Tel Be'er Sheva was excavated down to the Iron Age. The patriarch Abraham is traditionally dated to the Bronze Age—a difference of approximately 700 years. Tel Be'er Sheva—Prof. Yohanan Aharoni. At the city gate is a well known as Abraham's Well. The present well is Ottoman and was probably built over an earlier well. The water system—late 8th century BCE —During the excavations, soil, refuse, and debris were removed until the enormous shaft of the water system was revealed. The system enabled the city to maintain a water supply during a siege. As part of preparations for an Assyrian siege, Hezekiah, king of Judah, ordered defensive measures and constructed water systems in Jerusalem, at other sites, and at Tel Be'er Sheva. The water system consists of underground excavations extending toward Nahal Hebron, channeling water into settling basins and then into a reservoir within the system. Capacity: 700 cubic meters of water. | "This is the account of the forced labor that King Solomon levied..." Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer King Solomon established a kingdom and governed it with a firm hand. "Twelve district governors over all Israel..." The land was divided into administrative districts, each headed by a governor—Solomon's district-governor system. Each district provided the royal levy for one month of the year. Coined money was not in use during this period; the levy was paid in grain. Large granaries were therefore required to store the grain before it was sent to Jerusalem. How much was levied? The required quantities to be supplied to the king are described in the biblical account. Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer were grouped together as a UNESCO cluster of sites. | "This is the account of the forced labor that King Solomon levied..." Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer King Solomon established a kingdom and governed it with a firm hand. "Twelve district governors over all Israel..." The land was divided into administrative districts, each headed by a governor—Solomon's district-governor system. Each district provided the royal levy for one month of the year. Coined money was not in use during this period; the levy was paid in grain. Large granaries were therefore required to store the grain before it was sent to Jerusalem. How much was levied? The required quantities to be supplied to the king are described in the biblical account. Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer were grouped together as a UNESCO cluster of sites. | "This is the account of the forced labor that King Solomon levied..." Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer King Solomon established a kingdom and governed it with a firm hand. "Twelve district governors over all Israel..." The land was divided into administrative districts, each headed by a governor—Solomon's district-governor system. Each district provided the royal levy for one month of the year. Coined money was not in use during this period; the levy was paid in grain. Large granaries were therefore required to store the grain before it was sent to Jerusalem. How much was levied? The required quantities to be supplied to the king are described in the biblical account. Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer were grouped together as a UNESCO cluster of sites. Also known as Megiddon. Mentioned in connection with the periods of settlement and monarchy. A fortified city in the territory of Manasseh, on the bank of the Kishon River. Today it is identified with Tel Megiddo, following Edward Robinson's identification. A fortified city of Solomon (1 Kings 9:15). Ahaziah, king of Judah, died there after being struck by Jehu, king of Israel (2 Kings 9:27). There Pharaoh Neco defeated Josiah, king of Judah (2 Kings 23:29–30; 2 Chronicles 35:22). | Tel Arad—the upper tell, Kingdom of Judah, 910–850 BCE, the period of the fortress | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
33 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -1,000 | -960 | King Solomon | The Period of Solomon's Kingdom | "This is the account of the forced labor that King Solomon levied..." Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer King Solomon established a kingdom and governed it with a firm hand. "Twelve district governors over all Israel..." The land was divided into administrative districts, each headed by a governor—Solomon's district-governor system. Each district provided the royal levy for one month of the year. Coined money was not in use during this period; the levy was paid in grain. Large granaries were therefore required to store the grain before it was sent to Jerusalem. How much was levied? The required quantities to be supplied to the king are described in the biblical account. Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer were grouped together as a UNESCO cluster of sites. | "This is the account of the forced labor that King Solomon levied..." Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer King Solomon established a kingdom and governed it with a firm hand. "Twelve district governors over all Israel..." The land was divided into administrative districts, each headed by a governor—Solomon's district-governor system. Each district provided the royal levy for one month of the year. Coined money was not in use during this period; the levy was paid in grain. Large granaries were therefore required to store the grain before it was sent to Jerusalem. How much was levied? The required quantities to be supplied to the king are described in the biblical account. Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer were grouped together as a UNESCO cluster of sites. | The Gihon Spring— Solomon was anointed king here, at the Gihon Spring, marking the beginning of the Davidic dynasty. | "This is the account of the forced labor that King Solomon levied..." Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer King Solomon established a kingdom and governed it with a firm hand. "Twelve district governors over all Israel..." The land was divided into administrative districts, each headed by a governor—Solomon's district-governor system. Each district provided the royal levy for one month of the year. Coined money was not in use during this period; the levy was paid in grain. Large granaries were therefore required to store the grain before it was sent to Jerusalem. How much was levied? The required quantities to be supplied to the king are described in the biblical account. Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer were grouped together as a UNESCO cluster of sites. Also known as Megiddon. Mentioned in connection with the periods of settlement and monarchy. A fortified city in the territory of Manasseh, on the bank of the Kishon River. Today it is identified with Tel Megiddo, following Edward Robinson's identification. A fortified city of Solomon (1 Kings 9:15). Ahaziah, king of Judah, died there after being struck by Jehu, king of Israel (2 Kings 9:27). There Pharaoh Neco defeated Josiah, king of Judah (2 Kings 23:29–30; 2 Chronicles 35:22). | Solomon's Fortress 10th century BCE—a small fortress with a small chamber, attributed to the reign of Solomon. Tamar appears for the first time in the Bible in a passage attributed to Solomon's reign. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
34 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | 10th century BCE | 9th century BCE | The Gezer Calendar | The Gezer Calendar is a limestone tablet dated to between the 10th and 8th centuries BCE. It was discovered at Tel Gezer in 1908 by the British archaeologist R. A. Stewart Macalister. The inscription engraved on it is classified by most epigraphers as written in the Phoenician alphabet and is commonly interpreted as an agricultural calendar. After its discovery, the Ottoman authorities transferred it to the Istanbul Archaeological Museums. For many years, the Gezer Calendar was considered the oldest archaeological inscription written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, although its dating remains approximate. | The Gezer Calendar is a limestone tablet dated to between the 10th and 8th centuries BCE. It was discovered at Tel Gezer in 1908 by the British archaeologist R. A. Stewart Macalister. The inscription engraved on it is classified by most epigraphers as written in the Phoenician alphabet and is commonly interpreted as an agricultural calendar. After its discovery, the Ottoman authorities transferred it to the Istanbul Archaeological Museums. For many years, the Gezer Calendar was considered the oldest archaeological inscription written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, although its dating remains approximate. | Ir Ovot = biblical Tamar = Ein Hatzeva Admission is free. Location: https://maps.app.goo.gl/jUm775Vw21H9NGhs8 Today the site is an archaeological park. It is currently maintained by Blossoming Rose, an Evangelical Christian nonprofit organization whose members decided as early as the 1960s to come to Israel and do what they could to help the people of Israel return, prosper, and flourish. The tell—occupied from the 10th century BCE onward The road network in this region developed around its water sources. A large perennial spring is located here. The next springs lie approximately 100 kilometers away: three days' walk to the north—Ein Gedi; three days' walk to the south—Ein Radian, shown on the Peutinger Map, a Roman road map, as a town with two temples and therefore an important location. This explains the site's great importance and why it was inhabited from the 10th century BCE to the present day. Fortresses at the site: 1. Solomon's Fortress 10th century BCE—a small fortress with a small chamber, attributed to the reign of Solomon. 2. A Judahite fortress, 50 × 50 meters 9th–8th centuries BCE, Iron Age II, the period of the Kingdom of Judah. 3. A massive fortress covering approximately ten dunams (100 × 100 meters) 7th–6th centuries BCE. It had a four-chambered gate, a casemate wall, projecting and recessed sections, and corner towers. 4. A small Nabataean fortress 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE. 5. A Roman-Byzantine fortress. Solomon: Tamar first appears in the Bible in a passage attributed to the reign of Solomon. The prophet Amos—c. 780 BCE—describes the great earthquake in the land. Amos was active during the periods associated here with Jehoshaphat, Amaziah, and Uzziah. 2 Chronicles—Uzziah also built in the wilderness. Uzziah may have built the second fortress. The third fortress: An Edomite cult site was discovered beyond the walls. It included an open-air altar, while broken ritual vessels were found concealed in a chamber. Ritual activity at the site was brought to an end, probably as part of Hezekiah's governmental and religious reform. Abandonment of the third fortress: The people of Judah were exiled and the fortress was abandoned. It was rebuilt only in the Nabataean period. The fifth fortress was destroyed in an earthquake, together with Petra. The next known structure is a British building that still stands at the site. On the Madaba Map, a small town called Tamara appears here—Tamar—together with other places in this region. Two military operations passed through the site: Operation Lot Operation Uvda The British building is the sole survivor of eleven British structures that once stood here. Remains of wheat and barley were discovered in the earliest fortress. Olive remains and implements for crushing olives were also found, probably indicating the production of oil for lighting. Water well—used by the British at the site. It is no longer in use, and no water is visible in the well today. The jujube tree: The tree is approximately 300 years old. Its age can be estimated from a photograph and description made a century ago, including its recorded diameter. Comparing its condition and diameter then with those observed today suggests an age of about three hundred years. The Roman bathhouse: A Roman legion moved south from Aelia Capitolina and established Aila, at present-day Aqaba. Along the route, the Romans built camps and settlements. Eilat-Aqaba—Aila was the regional city founded by the Romans as a forward position facing the tribes to the east. Emperor Trajan and the Via Nova Traiana—the easternmost frontier road of the Roman Empire. Trajan conquered territory and expanded the Roman Empire southward and eastward. He established the southern province, created a new Roman province, and annexed the Nabataean kingdom to it. He established the limes system—a frontier zone and security belt: 1. Roads, outposts, and military fortresses within the security belt. 2. Establishment of settlements and support for the people living along this line, including the Nabataeans. 3. Development of relationships with the tribes of the region for information and intelligence. Diocletian, in the 4th century—to be completed. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
35 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -930 | Division of the Monarchy—the Kingdoms of Judah and Israel | Kingdom of Judah: 930–586 BCE; Kingdom of Israel: 930–722 BCE | The Israelite gate: A heavily fortified gate complex protected the city, which stood on a frontier. Dan was a border city throughout its history. Outside the gate lay the "gate plazas," a biblical term familiar from the Hebrew Bible. Shops and ritual precincts stood there. Numerous shrines were established, and the gate shrines—the cultic high places found outside the city gates—were later dismantled. Connection to the precise biblical passage—to be completed. Dan is mentioned dozens of times in the Hebrew Bible. The entire complex here is dated to the 10th century BCE. Jeroboam son of Nebat—after the division of the monarchy. After Solomon's death, the kingdom divided into Israel and Judah. The two kingdoms were more often enemies than sisters. Judah—King Rehoboam, Solomon's son. Israel—King Jeroboam son of Nebat, who sought to distance the people of his kingdom from Jerusalem. He established cult centers at Bethel and Dan. The large gate here is associated with the 9th century BCE and the time of Ahab, who married Jezebel, daughter of the king of the Sidonians. The Bible viewed Ahab negatively, stating that he did what was evil in the sight of the Lord. Another gate farther uphill is dated to the reign of Jeroboam II. Inside the gatehouse: A royal canopy or ceremonial seat suggests that a senior official or person of high status may have sat here. This may be connected with 2 Samuel 19:9. The subject of the city gate in general—to be completed. Tal's presentation—the House of David inscription, 9th century BCE, written in Aramaic with Phoenician letters. The inscription contradicts the biblical account concerning the deaths of the two kings named in it. How can the contradiction be resolved? To be completed. Beyond the discrepancy between the inscription and the Bible, the appearance of the name "House of David" is of exceptional significance: "King of the House of David." The era of Dan as a major city ended in the Hellenistic period. Another city rose to prominence: Banias. Dan was abandoned. A small settlement remained, but the city as a whole was deserted. Dan's decline followed the Assyrian conquest by Tiglath-Pileser and, in the Hellenistic period, the broader process of settlement moving down from the tells. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
36 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -930 | -907 | King Jeroboam Son of Nebat—Kingdom of Israel | Jeroboam son of Nebat was a biblical figure from the tribe of Ephraim and the first king of the Kingdom of Israel following the division of the United Monarchy. According to biblical chronology, he reigned from 928 to 907 BCE. His story is told in the Book of Kings (1 Kings 11–14) and the Book of Chronicles (2 Chronicles 12–13). | It took the people of Israel many centuries to internalize the concept that the Temple in Jerusalem was the sole legitimate place of worship and that no other altars or temples were to be established. The ritual complex began in the reign of Jeroboam and remained in use until the Hellenistic period. | Granary—used for storing grain. A round, stone-lined reservoir that was not plastered. It is dated to the reign of Jeroboam. Wheat kernels discovered inside supported the interpretation that it was a granary. A palace was discovered beside the granary. Its remains are no longer visible because they were removed during the American excavations. A seal bearing the image of a lion and the inscription "Belonging to Shema, servant of Jeroboam" was found here. The image was reproduced on a five-shekel coin. The object was a signet mounted in a ring and used to impress bullae. It was discovered by Gottlieb Schumacher, who presented it as a gift to the Ottoman sultan. The seal subsequently disappeared. It had been photographed, and that photograph preserves the record of the object. The lion also appears on the emblem of the Megiddo Regional Council. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
37 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | 9th century BCE | Ir Ovot = biblical Tamar = Ein Hatzeva Admission is free. Location: https://maps.app.goo.gl/jUm775Vw21H9NGhs8 Today the site is an archaeological park. It is currently maintained by Blossoming Rose, an Evangelical Christian nonprofit organization whose members decided as early as the 1960s to come to Israel and do what they could to help the people of Israel return, prosper, and flourish. The tell—occupied from the 10th century BCE onward The road network in this region developed around its water sources. A large perennial spring is located here. The next springs lie approximately 100 kilometers away: three days' walk to the north—Ein Gedi; three days' walk to the south—Ein Radian, shown on the Peutinger Map, a Roman road map, as a town with two temples and therefore an important location. This explains the site's great importance and why it was inhabited from the 10th century BCE to the present day. Fortresses at the site: 1. Solomon's Fortress 10th century BCE—a small fortress with a small chamber, attributed to the reign of Solomon. 2. A Judahite fortress, 50 × 50 meters 9th–8th centuries BCE, Iron Age II, the period of the Kingdom of Judah. 3. A massive fortress covering approximately ten dunams (100 × 100 meters) 7th–6th centuries BCE. It had a four-chambered gate, a casemate wall, projecting and recessed sections, and corner towers. 4. A small Nabataean fortress 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE. 5. A Roman-Byzantine fortress. Solomon: Tamar first appears in the Bible in a passage attributed to the reign of Solomon. The prophet Amos—c. 780 BCE—describes the great earthquake in the land. Amos was active during the periods associated here with Jehoshaphat, Amaziah, and Uzziah. 2 Chronicles—Uzziah also built in the wilderness. Uzziah may have built the second fortress. The third fortress: An Edomite cult site was discovered beyond the walls. It included an open-air altar, while broken ritual vessels were found concealed in a chamber. Ritual activity at the site was brought to an end, probably as part of Hezekiah's governmental and religious reform. Abandonment of the third fortress: The people of Judah were exiled and the fortress was abandoned. It was rebuilt only in the Nabataean period. The fifth fortress was destroyed in an earthquake, together with Petra. The next known structure is a British building that still stands at the site. On the Madaba Map, a small town called Tamara appears here—Tamar—together with other places in this region. Two military operations passed through the site: Operation Lot Operation Uvda The British building is the sole survivor of eleven British structures that once stood here. Remains of wheat and barley were discovered in the earliest fortress. Olive remains and implements for crushing olives were also found, probably indicating the production of oil for lighting. Water well—used by the British at the site. It is no longer in use, and no water is visible in the well today. The jujube tree: The tree is approximately 300 years old. Its age can be estimated from a photograph and description made a century ago, including its recorded diameter. Comparing its condition and diameter then with those observed today suggests an age of about three hundred years. The Roman bathhouse: A Roman legion moved south from Aelia Capitolina and established Aila, at present-day Aqaba. Along the route, the Romans built camps and settlements. Eilat-Aqaba—Aila was the regional city founded by the Romans as a forward position facing the tribes to the east. Emperor Trajan and the Via Nova Traiana—the easternmost frontier road of the Roman Empire. Trajan conquered territory and expanded the Roman Empire southward and eastward. He established the southern province, created a new Roman province, and annexed the Nabataean kingdom to it. He established the limes system—a frontier zone and security belt: 1. Roads, outposts, and military fortresses within the security belt. 2. Establishment of settlements and support for the people living along this line, including the Nabataeans. 3. Development of relationships with the tribes of the region for information and intelligence. Diocletian, in the 4th century—to be completed. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
38 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -900 | The House of David Inscription = the Tel Dan Stele | House of David, Tel Dan | The Tel Dan Stele, also known as the House of David Inscription, is an Aramaic monumental inscription written in Old Aramaic using the Phoenician alphabet. It is dated to the 9th–8th centuries BCE and was erected at the gate of the ancient city of Dan, now Tel Dan, in the northern Hula Valley. The inscription was discovered in 1993–1994 by the Tel Dan excavation expedition directed by Prof. Avraham Biran, head of the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology at Hebrew Union College. The first fragment was discovered on July 21, 1993, by Gila Cook, the expedition's surveyor [1], and immediately attracted considerable attention. Two additional fragments were found in 1994 in the paving of the gate plaza. The Israel Antiquities Authority transferred the inscription to the Israel Museum, where it is displayed in the museum's archaeology wing. Dated to the reigns of David's descendants, during the First Temple period (Iron Age II), the Tel Dan Stele is the most important—and perhaps the only—extra-biblical archaeological evidence that explicitly mentions the House of David. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
39 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -871 | -852 | King Ahab—Kingdom of Israel | Tel Jezreel, Jezebel, Naboth's Vineyard, Tel Dan | A monumental cultic platform dating to the reign of Ahab. It was reconstructed using the original stones found immediately beside the platform. | Tel Jezreel—King Ahab had a palace here, although his principal palace was in Samaria. An Arab village named Zir'in once stood here, preserving the name Jezreel. Tel Jezreel, Ahab, and Naboth's vineyard: Jezebel, Ahab's wife, fabricated a charge against Naboth, who was executed. Elijah confronted Ahab with the words, "Have you murdered and also taken possession?" Ahab's dynasty was condemned to extinction; all his sons died. Jezebel was also killed, and so forth. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
40 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -858 | -824 | The Military Campaigns of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria | The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria. It records foreign kings—including Jehu, or possibly Jehoram son of Ahab—bringing tribute to the Assyrian king. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
41 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -853 | The Battle of Qarqar | The Battle of Qarqar took place in 853 BCE, the sixth year of Shalmaneser's reign. It is documented extensively on the Kurkh Monolith and is also associated with the record presented on the Black Obelisk. Twelve regional kings, including Ahab king of Israel, participated in the battle, which was fought near the city of Qarqar and took its name from that location. Despite Shalmaneser's account, the battle was not decisive and halted Assyrian expansion in the region for a time. Later sections of the Assyrian record describe subsequent battles between Assyria and the regional coalition. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
42 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -840 | The Mesha Stele The first extra-biblical evidence for an account also described in the Bible | The Mesha Stele is a commemorative monument dating to approximately 840 BCE. It was erected on behalf of Mesha, king of Moab, in the city of Dibon, in present-day northern Jordan. The stele recounts that Chemosh, the god of Moab, was angry with his people and therefore allowed the Kingdom of Israel to conquer them. Eventually, however, Chemosh enabled Mesha to rebel against Israel during the rule of the kings of the House of Omri, defeat it, and restore the territory to the Kingdom of Moab. Mesha also describes many of the structures he built. The inscription is written in the Phoenician alphabet, which is closely related to the Paleo-Hebrew script. Discovered in 1868, the stele is one of the most important finds in the archaeology of the biblical period because it constitutes the earliest extra-biblical evidence for an account also described in the Hebrew Bible. It is now held in the Louvre Museum in Paris. Description of the stele The monument is made of basalt and its surface was expertly dressed. It is approximately one meter high and 60–70 centimeters wide. Thirty-four of the thirty-six lines thought to have formed the original inscription have survived. The text is written in the Phoenician-Hebrew alphabet [1] and in the Moabite language, which is closely related to Biblical Hebrew. Words are separated by dots and sentences by strokes. During the reigns of Omri and Ahab, Mesha was subject to Israel. After Ahab's death, the biblical account states: "Mesha king of Moab was a sheep breeder, and he rendered to the king of Israel one hundred thousand lambs and the wool of one hundred thousand rams. But after Ahab died, the king of Moab rebelled against the king of Israel" [2]. The inscription likewise tells of the period in which Moab was subjugated to Israel, its liberation from that rule, the conquest of cities within the Kingdom of Israel, and the major building projects Mesha undertook in his own country. Discovery of the stele The stele was first brought to the attention of the Western scholarly community and the wider world in 1868 by the German pastor and missionary Frederick Augustus Klein. During his travels east of the Jordan River, Klein became acquainted with local Bedouins, who told him of an ancient inscribed stone that no one could read. They led him to a site near the village of Dhiban, east of the Jordan—approximately thirty kilometers east of the Dead Sea, opposite Ein Gedi. There he saw a polished basalt monument measuring about one meter by seventy centimeters. Although it stood exposed in the open air, its existence had remained unknown to the other European travelers who passed through the region. News of the discovery reached the French archaeologist Charles Clermont-Ganneau, who arranged to obtain a paper squeeze of the inscription. While the impression was being made, a dispute broke out among the Bedouins, and Ganneau's agents fled for their lives; the squeeze was damaged during their escape. Ganneau subsequently involved the Ottoman authorities in an effort to pressure the Bedouins to sell him the inscription. Angered by Ottoman intervention, the Bedouins shattered the monument into fragments. Ganneau managed to acquire some of the pieces, while Charles Warren obtained two additional fragments. Using these together with the damaged squeeze, Ganneau reconstructed most of the inscription, and the restored stone was transferred to the Louvre in Paris. Significance of the discovery The discovery of the stele and decipherment of its text are considered a milestone in the scholarly study of the Bible: this was the first extra-biblical evidence for an account also found in the biblical text. The Mesha Stele also contains precise names from the period that appear in the Bible, including the expression "ar'el dodo," which some interpret as a reference to King David in connection with the Kingdom of Judah. The discovery challenged an assumption then current in certain circles that the Bible was a late Hasmonean composition—a Jewish tale with no basis in historical reality. It also encouraged further efforts to identify archaeological evidence relating to biblical narratives. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
43 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -824 | The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria | The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria. It records foreign kings—including Jehu, or possibly Jehoram son of Ahab—bringing tribute to the Assyrian king. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
44 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | 8th century BCE | The Prophet Amos | Amos was a biblical prophet who lived during the reigns of Jeroboam II, king of Israel, and Uzziah, king of Judah, in the first half of the 8th century BCE. Chronologically, he is the earliest of the literary prophets, although his book appears third among the Twelve Minor Prophets. Amos was active chiefly in the Kingdom of Israel, which in his time enjoyed economic and political prosperity. That prosperity also produced sharp social divisions: a small wealthy class lived in luxury and indulgence, while masses of farmers lived in poverty and distress. The poor were forced to borrow from the wealthy at high interest rates. When they could not repay their debts, the rich seized what remained of their property and even sold them into slavery. In his prophecies, Amos spoke forcefully against social injustice and the moral corruption it produced; for this reason, some have called him "the socialist prophet" [1]. The Sages held that he was named Amos because he stammered—that is, his speech was "burdened." | The prophet Amos—c. 780 BCE—describes the great earthquake in the land. Amos was active during the periods associated here with Jehoshaphat, Amaziah, and Uzziah. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
45 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -769 | -733 | King Uzziah | Uzziah, also known as Azariah (Akkadian: az-ri-ya-ú [1] or az-ri-ya-a-ú [2]), was a biblical figure and king of Judah, the son of Amaziah. He served as regent from 785 to 769 BCE and as king from 769 to 733 BCE. Nearly all the biblical information about his reign comes from the Book of Chronicles. | 2 Chronicles—Uzziah also built in the wilderness. Uzziah may have built the second fortress. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
46 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -732 | The First Exile of Samaria under Tiglath-Pileser—the Assyrian deportation from the Kingdom of Israel, which was not yet completely destroyed | The 8th century BCE—in the shadow of Assyrian dominance • The reign of Uzziah—the 8th century BCE. He fortified Jerusalem and the desert fortresses as well—Kadesh Barnea? Arad? the Ein Gedi region? He is apparently mentioned in an inscription of the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III. • The Assyrians advanced against Aram and Israel and subjugated Israel in 732 BCE, devastating its cities, including Tel Kinneret, Tel Yokneam (to be verified), Beit She'an, Megiddo, and others. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
47 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -727 | -697 | The Reign of Hezekiah, King of Judah | Hezekiah was a biblical figure and king of Judah, reigning either from 727 or 715 BCE until 698 or 686 BCE [1]. During his reign, the Neo-Assyrian Empire destroyed the neighboring Kingdom of Israel and conquered parts of his own kingdom. The Bible describes Hezekiah as a king who fought the Philistines, rebelled against Assyria, abolished idol worship, and prohibited worship outside the Temple in Jerusalem. | 2 Kings, chapter 18—the story of Hezekiah: he removed the high places and so forth. The chapter describes the religious reform Hezekiah carried out, prohibiting worship outside Jerusalem. This text corresponds closely with the archaeological evidence that the cultic area in the fortress at Arad was sealed. Commentators argue that the shrine at Arad was not destroyed but sealed and filled with sand, perhaps so that the altar and temple could be restored immediately should royal policy change under a succeeding king. | The third fortress: An Edomite cult site was discovered beyond the walls. It included an open-air altar, while broken ritual vessels were found concealed in a chamber. Ritual activity at the site was brought to an end, probably as part of Hezekiah's governmental and religious reform. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
48 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | 8th century BCE | The Siloam Inscription | The Siloam Inscription, discovered in 1880, is an inscription in Paleo-Hebrew script carved into the wall of the Siloam Tunnel. It commemorates the moment when two teams of quarrymen met as they broke through the tunnel, which carried the waters of the Gihon Spring—from east of and outside the wall of the City of David—to the Pool of Siloam southwest of the City of David, within the wall with which Hezekiah enclosed Jerusalem. Radiocarbon analysis indicates that the channels associated with the inscription originated in the Iron Age. Although the inscription was long attributed to the reign of Hezekiah on the basis of the biblical account, scholars have proposed various dates, and its precise chronology remains disputed. | The Siloam Inscription, discovered in 1880, is an inscription in Paleo-Hebrew script carved into the wall of the Siloam Tunnel. It commemorates the moment when two teams of quarrymen met as they broke through the tunnel, which carried the waters of the Gihon Spring—from east of and outside the wall of the City of David—to the Pool of Siloam southwest of the City of David, within the wall with which Hezekiah enclosed Jerusalem. Radiocarbon analysis indicates that the channels associated with the inscription originated in the Iron Age. Although the inscription was long attributed to the reign of Hezekiah on the basis of the biblical account, scholars have proposed various dates, and its precise chronology remains disputed. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
49 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | The Reign of King Hezekiah | LMLK Storage Jars The reign of King Hezekiah 8th century BCE | Lachish Jerusalem Ramat Rachel Gibeon Mizpah Beit Shemesh Moresheth-Gath (Tel Goded) Gezer Khirbet el-Burj (within Ramot) Maresha Azekah Timnah (Tel Batash) Gibeah Tel 'Erani, near Kiryat Gat Hebron Socoh, Valley of Elah Beit Zur Tel Arad Nahal Tut, in the Elyakim area Gath (Tell es-Safi) | "LMLK seals" is the name given to the impressions stamped on the handles of storage jars with seals bearing the inscription lmlk—"belonging to the king"—in Paleo-Hebrew script. The impressions have been found on a large number of storage jars, representing approximately 2,000 vessels, discovered throughout Judah and especially around Jerusalem. Most scholars date them to the reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah, in the 8th and early 7th centuries BCE. The jars are thought to have contained oil or wine collected as taxes for the royal treasury and then dispatched to different locations for military requirements or for use by the administrations based in those cities [1]. An LMLK impression with a two-winged sun disk. First line: lmlk, "belonging to the king"; second line: "HBRN," meaning Hebron. The original seals themselves have not been found, but approximately 2,000 impressions survive on jar handles. Analysis of these impressions suggests that about twenty-one individual seals were used. In common usage, however, the word "seal" is often applied to the impressions themselves. Types of impressions The word lmlk was stamped on the jars. On some handles, a second line bears one of four place names: Socoh, Hebron, Ziph in the southern Hebron Hills, and MMST. All these locations have been identified except MMST, for which several interpretations have been proposed. At the center of the impression, between lmlk and the place name, appears a winged disk, sometimes with two outspread wings and sometimes with four. Some scholars identify the motif as a winged scarab; others see it as a flying scroll. Similar motifs are known as royal symbols, including the four-winged emblem associated with Cyrus and the two-winged emblem associated with Darius. A large group of contemporary seals bears personal names. Their impressions were generally found near LMLK impressions, indicating that they belong to the same period. Distribution of the impressions, as of February 2006 The impressions were found chiefly within the territory of the Kingdom of Judah—at sixty-eight sites. Only a small number were found at four sites in Galilee and the valleys. The twenty sites that produced the greatest numbers of LMLK impressions are: Lachish Jerusalem Ramat Rachel Gibeon Mizpah Beit Shemesh Moresheth-Gath (Tel Goded) Gezer Khirbet el-Burj (within Ramot) Maresha Azekah Timnah (Tel Batash) Gibeah Tel 'Erani, near Kiryat Gat Hebron Socoh, Valley of Elah Beit Zur Tel Arad Nahal Tut, in the Elyakim area Gath (Tell es-Safi) | "LMLK seals" is the name given to the impressions stamped on the handles of storage jars with seals bearing the inscription lmlk—"belonging to the king"—in Paleo-Hebrew script. The impressions have been found on a large number of storage jars, representing approximately 2,000 vessels, discovered throughout Judah and especially around Jerusalem. Most scholars date them to the reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah, in the 8th and early 7th centuries BCE. The jars are thought to have contained oil or wine collected as taxes for the royal treasury and then dispatched to different locations for military requirements or for use by the administrations based in those cities [1]. An LMLK impression with a two-winged sun disk. First line: lmlk, "belonging to the king"; second line: "HBRN," meaning Hebron. The original seals themselves have not been found, but approximately 2,000 impressions survive on jar handles. Analysis of these impressions suggests that about twenty-one individual seals were used. In common usage, however, the word "seal" is often applied to the impressions themselves. Types of impressions The word lmlk was stamped on the jars. On some handles, a second line bears one of four place names: Socoh, Hebron, Ziph in the southern Hebron Hills, and MMST. All these locations have been identified except MMST, for which several interpretations have been proposed. At the center of the impression, between lmlk and the place name, appears a winged disk, sometimes with two outspread wings and sometimes with four. Some scholars identify the motif as a winged scarab; others see it as a flying scroll. Similar motifs are known as royal symbols, including the four-winged emblem associated with Cyrus and the two-winged emblem associated with Darius. A large group of contemporary seals bears personal names. Their impressions were generally found near LMLK impressions, indicating that they belong to the same period. Distribution of the impressions, as of February 2006 The impressions were found chiefly within the territory of the Kingdom of Judah—at sixty-eight sites. Only a small number were found at four sites in Galilee and the valleys. The twenty sites that produced the greatest numbers of LMLK impressions are: Lachish Jerusalem Ramat Rachel Gibeon Mizpah Beit Shemesh Moresheth-Gath (Tel Goded) Gezer Khirbet el-Burj (within Ramot) Maresha Azekah Timnah (Tel Batash) Gibeah Tel 'Erani, near Kiryat Gat Hebron Socoh, Valley of Elah Beit Zur Tel Arad Nahal Tut, in the Elyakim area Gath (Tell es-Safi) | "LMLK seals" is the name given to the impressions stamped on the handles of storage jars with seals bearing the inscription lmlk—"belonging to the king"—in Paleo-Hebrew script. The impressions have been found on a large number of storage jars, representing approximately 2,000 vessels, discovered throughout Judah and especially around Jerusalem. Most scholars date them to the reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah, in the 8th and early 7th centuries BCE. The jars are thought to have contained oil or wine collected as taxes for the royal treasury and then dispatched to different locations for military requirements or for use by the administrations based in those cities [1]. An LMLK impression with a two-winged sun disk. First line: lmlk, "belonging to the king"; second line: "HBRN," meaning Hebron. The original seals themselves have not been found, but approximately 2,000 impressions survive on jar handles. Analysis of these impressions suggests that about twenty-one individual seals were used. In common usage, however, the word "seal" is often applied to the impressions themselves. Types of impressions The word lmlk was stamped on the jars. On some handles, a second line bears one of four place names: Socoh, Hebron, Ziph in the southern Hebron Hills, and MMST. All these locations have been identified except MMST, for which several interpretations have been proposed. At the center of the impression, between lmlk and the place name, appears a winged disk, sometimes with two outspread wings and sometimes with four. Some scholars identify the motif as a winged scarab; others see it as a flying scroll. Similar motifs are known as royal symbols, including the four-winged emblem associated with Cyrus and the two-winged emblem associated with Darius. A large group of contemporary seals bears personal names. Their impressions were generally found near LMLK impressions, indicating that they belong to the same period. Distribution of the impressions, as of February 2006 The impressions were found chiefly within the territory of the Kingdom of Judah—at sixty-eight sites. Only a small number were found at four sites in Galilee and the valleys. The twenty sites that produced the greatest numbers of LMLK impressions are: Lachish Jerusalem Ramat Rachel Gibeon Mizpah Beit Shemesh Moresheth-Gath (Tel Goded) Gezer Khirbet el-Burj (within Ramot) Maresha Azekah Timnah (Tel Batash) Gibeah Tel 'Erani, near Kiryat Gat Hebron Socoh, Valley of Elah Beit Zur Tel Arad Nahal Tut, in the Elyakim area Gath (Tell es-Safi) | Inscriptions and Stelae'!A1 LMLK Jars | "LMLK seals" is the name given to the impressions stamped on the handles of storage jars with seals bearing the inscription lmlk—"belonging to the king"—in Paleo-Hebrew script. The impressions have been found on a large number of storage jars, representing approximately 2,000 vessels, discovered throughout Judah and especially around Jerusalem. Most scholars date them to the reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah, in the 8th and early 7th centuries BCE. The jars are thought to have contained oil or wine collected as taxes for the royal treasury and then dispatched to different locations for military requirements or for use by the administrations based in those cities [1]. An LMLK impression with a two-winged sun disk. First line: lmlk, "belonging to the king"; second line: "HBRN," meaning Hebron. The original seals themselves have not been found, but approximately 2,000 impressions survive on jar handles. Analysis of these impressions suggests that about twenty-one individual seals were used. In common usage, however, the word "seal" is often applied to the impressions themselves. Types of impressions The word lmlk was stamped on the jars. On some handles, a second line bears one of four place names: Socoh, Hebron, Ziph in the southern Hebron Hills, and MMST. All these locations have been identified except MMST, for which several interpretations have been proposed. At the center of the impression, between lmlk and the place name, appears a winged disk, sometimes with two outspread wings and sometimes with four. Some scholars identify the motif as a winged scarab; others see it as a flying scroll. Similar motifs are known as royal symbols, including the four-winged emblem associated with Cyrus and the two-winged emblem associated with Darius. A large group of contemporary seals bears personal names. Their impressions were generally found near LMLK impressions, indicating that they belong to the same period. Distribution of the impressions, as of February 2006 The impressions were found chiefly within the territory of the Kingdom of Judah—at sixty-eight sites. Only a small number were found at four sites in Galilee and the valleys. The twenty sites that produced the greatest numbers of LMLK impressions are: Lachish Jerusalem Ramat Rachel Gibeon Mizpah Beit Shemesh Moresheth-Gath (Tel Goded) Gezer Khirbet el-Burj (within Ramot) Maresha Azekah Timnah (Tel Batash) Gibeah Tel 'Erani, near Kiryat Gat Hebron Socoh, Valley of Elah Beit Zur Tel Arad Nahal Tut, in the Elyakim area Gath (Tell es-Safi) | Inscriptions and Stelae'!A1 | Inscriptions and Stelae'!A1 | Inscriptions and Stelae'!A1 | Inscriptions and Stelae'!A1 | Inscriptions and Stelae'!A1 | "LMLK seals" is the name given to the impressions stamped on the handles of storage jars with seals bearing the inscription lmlk—"belonging to the king"—in Paleo-Hebrew script. The impressions have been found on a large number of storage jars, representing approximately 2,000 vessels, discovered throughout Judah and especially around Jerusalem. Most scholars date them to the reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah, in the 8th and early 7th centuries BCE. The jars are thought to have contained oil or wine collected as taxes for the royal treasury and then dispatched to different locations for military requirements or for use by the administrations based in those cities [1]. An LMLK impression with a two-winged sun disk. First line: lmlk, "belonging to the king"; second line: "HBRN," meaning Hebron. The original seals themselves have not been found, but approximately 2,000 impressions survive on jar handles. Analysis of these impressions suggests that about twenty-one individual seals were used. In common usage, however, the word "seal" is often applied to the impressions themselves. Types of impressions The word lmlk was stamped on the jars. On some handles, a second line bears one of four place names: Socoh, Hebron, Ziph in the southern Hebron Hills, and MMST. All these locations have been identified except MMST, for which several interpretations have been proposed. At the center of the impression, between lmlk and the place name, appears a winged disk, sometimes with two outspread wings and sometimes with four. Some scholars identify the motif as a winged scarab; others see it as a flying scroll. Similar motifs are known as royal symbols, including the four-winged emblem associated with Cyrus and the two-winged emblem associated with Darius. A large group of contemporary seals bears personal names. Their impressions were generally found near LMLK impressions, indicating that they belong to the same period. Distribution of the impressions, as of February 2006 The impressions were found chiefly within the territory of the Kingdom of Judah—at sixty-eight sites. Only a small number were found at four sites in Galilee and the valleys. The twenty sites that produced the greatest numbers of LMLK impressions are: Lachish Jerusalem Ramat Rachel Gibeon Mizpah Beit Shemesh Moresheth-Gath (Tel Goded) Gezer Khirbet el-Burj (within Ramot) Maresha Azekah Timnah (Tel Batash) Gibeah Tel 'Erani, near Kiryat Gat Hebron Socoh, Valley of Elah Beit Zur Tel Arad Nahal Tut, in the Elyakim area Gath (Tell es-Safi) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
50 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -722 | Destruction of the Kingdom of Israel—the deportations under Shalmaneser and Sargon: the Assyrian exile that brought the Kingdom of Israel to an end | Hoshea son of Elah, the last king of Israel, rebelled against Assyria while relying on ties with Egypt, the major regional power to the south. • Shalmaneser V advanced against Samaria and besieged it. The city was apparently captured by his successor, Sargon II, and by 720 BCE the kingdom had come to an end. • The Assyrian policy of reciprocal deportations and population transfers. • The question of the Samaritans—the biblical narrative compared with the Samaritan narrative. • The Kingdom of Israel was destroyed, but the Assyrians rebuilt its cities. The territory of the former kingdom was divided into provinces: Samaria became the capital of the province of Samaria, and Megiddo the capital of the province of Megiddo. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
51 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -701 | Sennacherib's Campaign | In 701 BCE, Sennacherib launched a military campaign to suppress a broad rebellion involving numerous kingdoms in Syria and the Land of Israel. While preparing for the revolt, Hezekiah conquered and subdued the Philistine cities that opposed him. To prepare Jerusalem for the expected siege, he hewed the Siloam Tunnel and reinforced Jerusalem's wall using stones taken from houses in the city. The revolt failed. Sennacherib subdued the rebel kingdoms one after another, captured the fortified cities of Judah—including Lachish—and laid siege to Jerusalem. | Jerusalem during the First Temple period For many years, the extent of First Temple-period Jerusalem was a matter of debate. We are standing on the western hill. In the past, only a small number of scholars—the "maximalists"—argued that First Temple Jerusalem had not been so small, but their position lacked archaeological evidence. Excavations conducted here eventually demonstrated that the maximalists were correct. When the Jewish Quarter was rebuilt after 1967, buildings were removed and infrastructure prepared. Archaeological excavations carried out at the same time exposed the remains of an exceptionally broad and impressive fortification wall. The surviving remains are the wall's foundation; the wall itself originally rose much higher. A scale mounted on the adjacent wall indicates its estimated original height. To construct the present buildings, the area was excavated down to bedrock so that foundations could be laid for the houses now visible in the Jewish Quarter. The plastic sheets covering the ancient wall protect it while the area is prepared as a tourist site. At the time of writing, the site was expected to open during the following year. When the wall was discovered after the Six-Day War, it caused a sensation. Its excavator, Prof. Nahman Avigad, identified it as a wall dating to the end of the First Temple period—the 8th century BCE and the reign of King Hezekiah. Avigad concluded that the maximalists had been correct. In 701 BCE, Sennacherib launched a military campaign to suppress a broad rebellion involving numerous kingdoms in Syria and the Land of Israel. While preparing for the revolt, Hezekiah conquered and subdued the Philistine cities that opposed him. To prepare Jerusalem for the expected siege, he hewed the Siloam Tunnel and reinforced Jerusalem's wall using stones taken from houses in the city [9]. The revolt failed. Sennacherib subdued the rebel kingdoms one after another, captured the fortified cities of Judah—including Lachish—and laid siege to Jerusalem. The Speech of the Rabshakeh During the siege of Jerusalem, three Assyrian officials—the Tartan, the Rab-saris, and the Rabshakeh—were sent to persuade Jerusalem's inhabitants to surrender to Assyria and, should Hezekiah resist, even to rebel against him. The principal speaker was the Rabshakeh, a title probably meaning "chief cupbearer." He delivered a lengthy speech urging the people not to heed Hezekiah's encouragement and to surrender to the king of Assyria. The Rabshakeh knew the language spoken by the people of Jerusalem, "Judean"—Biblical Hebrew—and insisted on speaking it rather than Aramaic, the international language of the period. He was also familiar with Hezekiah's religious reform, centered on removing the high places, and with opinions apparently current among the people that regarded this action as an injury to the worship of the Lord and an act of desecration. When Hezekiah heard the speech from his officials, he went up to pray in the Temple and sent messengers to the prophet Isaiah son of Amoz, asking him to pray for deliverance as well. Isaiah reassured him and prophesied that Sennacherib would return to his own land and die there. The Rabshakeh again sent messengers to Hezekiah with letters repeating the argument of his speech, and Hezekiah once more prayed in the Temple. In response to his prayer, Isaiah sent him a message prophesying that Sennacherib's army would be miraculously defeated and would not harm Jerusalem. The account states that during that night an angel went out and struck down 185,000 soldiers in the Assyrian camp. Sennacherib returned to his land after his failure against Hezekiah, king of Judah, and was assassinated by his sons around 680 BCE. Jerusalem's deliverance from the Assyrian king, while the other cities of the land were destroyed, strengthened the popular belief—encouraged by Isaiah—that God protected Jerusalem and His Temple and would not allow them to be harmed. This idea was cultivated for many years. During the destruction approximately 150 years later, the prophet Jeremiah struggled against those who cried, "The Temple of the Lord," claiming that God would never damage His Temple. Jeremiah called on them to remember the destruction of the sanctuary at Shiloh [10]. | In 701 BCE, Sennacherib launched a military campaign to suppress a broad rebellion involving numerous kingdoms in Syria and the Land of Israel. While preparing for the revolt, Hezekiah conquered and subdued the Philistine cities that opposed him. To prepare Jerusalem for the expected siege, he hewed the Siloam Tunnel and reinforced Jerusalem's wall using stones taken from houses in the city. The revolt failed. Sennacherib subdued the rebel kingdoms one after another, captured the fortified cities of Judah—including Lachish—and laid siege to Jerusalem. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
52 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -700 | Sennacherib's Prism | The Siloam Inscription, discovered in 1880, is an inscription in Paleo-Hebrew script carved into the wall of the Siloam Tunnel. It commemorates the moment when two teams of quarrymen met as they broke through the tunnel, which carried the waters of the Gihon Spring—from east of and outside the wall of the City of David—to the Pool of Siloam southwest of the City of David, within the wall with which Hezekiah enclosed Jerusalem. Radiocarbon analysis indicates that the channels associated with the inscription originated in the Iron Age. Although the inscription was long attributed to the reign of Hezekiah on the basis of the biblical account, different readers and scholars have proposed various dates, and its precise chronology remains disputed. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
53 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | 7th century BCE | Ketef Hinnom, Jerusalem—Tombs from the First Temple Period | Tombs from the First Temple period—Ketef Hinnom Cave 24—the burial cave in which the Priestly Blessing scrolls were discovered. Burial during the First Temple period: The body was laid on a stone bench. About a year later, the bones were gathered into a repository or collection pit. Burial during the Second Temple period: Bodies were placed in loculi, and bones were later gathered into ossuaries. The transition to ossuaries probably reflects a change in the status and perception of the individual. An intact repository containing an enormous quantity of objects was discovered in Cave 24. Among the finds were two silver amulets inscribed with the Priestly Blessing, dated to the 7th century BCE. Mishnah and Talmud—sarcophagi. In later periods—burial directly in the ground. | Ir Ovot = biblical Tamar = Ein Hatzeva Admission is free. Location: https://maps.app.goo.gl/jUm775Vw21H9NGhs8 Today the site is an archaeological park. It is currently maintained by Blossoming Rose, an Evangelical Christian nonprofit organization whose members decided as early as the 1960s to come to Israel and do what they could to help the people of Israel return, prosper, and flourish. The tell—occupied from the 10th century BCE onward The road network in this region developed around its water sources. A large perennial spring is located here. The next springs lie approximately 100 kilometers away: three days' walk to the north—Ein Gedi; three days' walk to the south—Ein Radian, shown on the Peutinger Map, a Roman road map, as a town with two temples and therefore an important location. This explains the site's great importance and why it was inhabited from the 10th century BCE to the present day. Fortresses at the site: 1. Solomon's Fortress 10th century BCE—a small fortress with a small chamber, attributed to the reign of Solomon. 2. A Judahite fortress, 50 × 50 meters 9th–8th centuries BCE, Iron Age II, the period of the Kingdom of Judah. 3. A massive fortress covering approximately ten dunams (100 × 100 meters) 7th–6th centuries BCE. It had a four-chambered gate, a casemate wall, projecting and recessed sections, and corner towers. 4. A small Nabataean fortress 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE. 5. A Roman-Byzantine fortress. Solomon: Tamar first appears in the Bible in a passage attributed to the reign of Solomon. The prophet Amos—c. 780 BCE—describes the great earthquake in the land. Amos was active during the periods associated here with Jehoshaphat, Amaziah, and Uzziah. 2 Chronicles—Uzziah also built in the wilderness. Uzziah may have built the second fortress. The third fortress: An Edomite cult site was discovered beyond the walls. It included an open-air altar, while broken ritual vessels were found concealed in a chamber. Ritual activity at the site was brought to an end, probably as part of Hezekiah's governmental and religious reform. Abandonment of the third fortress: The people of Judah were exiled and the fortress was abandoned. It was rebuilt only in the Nabataean period. The fifth fortress was destroyed in an earthquake, together with Petra. The next known structure is a British building that still stands at the site. On the Madaba Map, a small town called Tamara appears here—Tamar—together with other places in this region. Two military operations passed through the site: Operation Lot Operation Uvda The British building is the sole survivor of eleven British structures that once stood here. Remains of wheat and barley were discovered in the earliest fortress. Olive remains and implements for crushing olives were also found, probably indicating the production of oil for lighting. Water well—used by the British at the site. It is no longer in use, and no water is visible in the well today. The jujube tree: The tree is approximately 300 years old. Its age can be estimated from a photograph and description made a century ago, including its recorded diameter. Comparing its condition and diameter then with those observed today suggests an age of about three hundred years. The Roman bathhouse: A Roman legion moved south from Aelia Capitolina and established Aila, at present-day Aqaba. Along the route, the Romans built camps and settlements. Eilat-Aqaba—Aila was the regional city founded by the Romans as a forward position facing the tribes to the east. Emperor Trajan and the Via Nova Traiana—the easternmost frontier road of the Roman Empire. Trajan conquered territory and expanded the Roman Empire southward and eastward. He established the southern province, created a new Roman province, and annexed the Nabataean kingdom to it. He established the limes system—a frontier zone and security belt: 1. Roads, outposts, and military fortresses within the security belt. 2. Establishment of settlements and support for the people living along this line, including the Nabataeans. 3. Development of relationships with the tribes of the region for information and intelligence. Diocletian, in the 4th century—to be completed. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
54 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -609 | Josiah Is Defeated and Killed by Pharaoh Necho at the Battle of Megiddo | The 7th century BCE • The reign of Josiah, at the end of the 7th century BCE—the decline of Assyria and the rise of Babylonia. • In 609 BCE, Pharaoh Necho set out to fight the Babylonians. Josiah took a position in the conflict and attempted to halt the Egyptian army, but Pharaoh Necho defeated him at the Battle of Megiddo, where Josiah died. • Josiah also carried out religious reforms, and his officials found a scroll of the Torah—possibly the Book of Deuteronomy. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
55 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -609 | -598 | The Reign of King Jehoiakim—The Jerusalem Bullae | In 1982, Yigal Shiloh discovered a cache of bullae in the destruction layer dating to the end of the First Temple period. The cache was found in a building beside our excavation that probably served as a public archive. Forty-five bullae from the assemblage bear dozens of Hebrew names, including that of Gemariah son of Shaphan, who is also mentioned in the Bible and served as an official and scribe during the reign of King Jehoiakim (608–597 BCE). | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
56 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | 6th century BCE | The Period of the Prophet Jeremiah | Jeremiah, or Jeremias, son of Hilkiah, was a prophet and priest who prophesied at the end of the First Temple period and after the Temple's destruction. Jeremiah is known as the prophet of destruction, although some of his prophecies offer comfort and hope. His prophecies are contained in the Book of Jeremiah, and tradition also attributes to him the authorship of the Book of Kings and the Book of Lamentations [1]. See also: the Judean Desert. Historical background The prophet's period of activity According to the heading of the book, Jeremiah began to prophesy in the thirteenth year of Josiah [2], corresponding to 627 BCE—Josiah having ascended the throne in 639 BCE. According to the traditional chronology in Seder Olam, however, the final year of Jeremiah's prophecy was 411 BCE, the Hebrew year 3350 [3]. He continued to prophesy until Judah was destroyed by the Babylonians. He delivered his prophecies in Judah, although several were spoken in Egypt. According to the book's heading, Jeremiah's prophetic career extended through the reigns of Josiah (639–609 BCE), Jehoahaz (609 BCE), Jehoiakim (608–598 BCE), Jehoiachin (597 BCE), and Zedekiah (596–586 BCE). References to events from Josiah's reign, such as the centralization of worship, appear only in the Book of Kings. The first king of Judah mentioned by name in the Book of Jeremiah is Shallum son of Josiah (Jeremiah 22:11). Jeremiah began to prophesy shortly after the prophet Zephaniah and was a contemporary of Ezekiel. Other prophets active in his time included Nahum, around 612 BCE, as well as Huldah and Habakkuk, probably also around 612 BCE—the period of Assyria's fall and Babylonia's rise. | The prophet Jeremiah grew up and lived here; the animal and plant imagery in his writings derives from this landscape. He was active from the 6th century BCE. Jeremiah, chapter 1—he lived in Anathoth in the territory of Benjamin. (Why did he not live in Jerusalem?) Chapter 2, verse 13—Jeremiah compares the Israelites' abandonment of God to abandoning a source of living water. Chapter 15—mentions Nahal Prat. The book Desert and Shepherd in the Land of Israel—the imagery of the desert in Jewish sources. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
57 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -597 | The Exile of Jehoiachin—the Babylonian Deportation from the Kingdom of Judah | Twilight • The years following Josiah's death were marked by uncertainty over which side to support in the struggle between the great powers—Babylonia and Egypt. • In 605 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylonia defeated the Egyptians in Syria, forcing them to withdraw. • Nebuchadnezzar advanced against Judah and subjugated it, but King Jehoiakim rebelled against him several years later. • In 598 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar advanced against Jerusalem. Jehoiakim apparently died during the siege, and his son Jehoiachin succeeded him. • Nebuchadnezzar captured the city and appointed Mattaniah—renamed Zedekiah—Jehoiachin's uncle, as king. • Part of the population was deported together with its king: the Exile of Jehoiachin. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
58 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -597 | -586 | The Reign of King Zedekiah | Hezekiah sealed the springs, diverted the Gihon Spring, and hewed a tunnel—the Siloam Tunnel—to carry its water to the Pool of Siloam. The tunnel was excavated from two opposite directions until the two teams met. An inscription discovered inside the tunnel describes the moment when the quarrying teams broke through to one another. The story of Hezekiah's revolt against Assyria appears in the Books of Kings and Isaiah. Hezekiah's preparations are described in the Book of Chronicles. 2 Chronicles 32:30: Hezekiah stopped the spring and diverted its water to the Pool of Siloam in the valley. The valley lay within the walls after the city had expanded onto the western hill. The karstic theory proposed that a natural fissure extended from one end of the tunnel to the other and that the quarrymen merely widened it. This theory is incorrect, according to Prof. Amos Frumkin. In his lecture, he explains why the karstic theory cannot be correct and why, for geological and other reasons, such a continuous natural fissure could not have existed. A particularly important find is a bulla belonging to Gedaliah son of Pashhur, an official in the Kingdom of Zedekiah (597–586 BCE) who is mentioned in the Bible. A bulla is a lump of clay bearing a seal impression; in antiquity, bullae were used to seal letters. Another bulla of the same type, belonging to Yehucal son of Shelemiah son of Shevi—also an official in Zedekiah's kingdom—was discovered during the first excavation season in 2005. The two bullae were found only a few meters apart. The bulla of Yehucal son of Shelemiah was discovered inside a large and imposing building that the excavator identifies as King David's palace. The bulla of Gedaliah son of Pashhur was found at the foot of that building's outer wall, beneath a tower constructed in the time of Nehemiah. Both officials' bullae are approximately one centimeter in diameter and were found in destruction debris from the First Temple period. Their names, written in clearly preserved Paleo-Hebrew script, could be read after initial cleaning. As was customary at the time, the officials signed with their personal names followed by their fathers' names. Unusually, Yehucal son of Shelemiah also included his grandfather's name. The two officials, Gedaliah son of Pashhur and Yehucal son of Shelemiah, are mentioned in the Bible together with two other officials. They went to King Zedekiah to demand the execution of the prophet Jeremiah, who continued to undermine morale among the city's inhabitants during the difficult days of the siege—Jeremiah 38:1–4. | The third fortress: An Edomite cult site was discovered beyond the walls. It included an open-air altar, while broken ritual vessels were found concealed in a chamber. Ritual activity at the site was brought to an end, probably as part of Hezekiah's governmental and religious reform. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
59 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -597 | -587 | The Lachish Letters = the Lachish Ostraca = the Lachish Documents | The Lachish Letters, also known as the Lachish Documents or Lachish Ostraca, are twenty-two ostraca—pottery sherds bearing ink inscriptions in Paleo-Hebrew script. Most were discovered in excavations directed by the British archaeologist James Leslie Starkey at Tel Lachish in 1935. Ostraca 19, 20, and 21 were discovered in 1938, and Ostracon 22 in 1966. Naphtali Herz Tur-Sinai deciphered the inscriptions in 1935 and 1938 and published them in books in both English and Hebrew. Dr. Benny Begin also published a book presenting his proposed readings of the documents. Classification The ostraca fall into five categories: • Eighteen letters—nos. 2–18 and 21. • A list of names—no. 1. • A list of names and numbers—no. 19. • A shipping account—no. 20. • A list recording distributions to recipients—no. 22. Most of the letters were found in the small gatehouse at the entrance to the upper city, within a destruction layer. They can therefore be dated to 597–587 BCE, between the end of Jehoiachin's reign and the destruction of Lachish by Nebuchadnezzar. Three ostraca—nos. 19, 20, and 21—were found at the summit of the tell. The letters were written by a man named Hoshaiah, as stated in Ostracon 3, and sent to his "lord," Yaush—possibly a shortened form of Josiah—who was apparently the commander of Lachish, where the documents were found. Yaush held an important position and is described as having influence with the officials and the king, who wrote to him. Hoshaiah referred to himself in these letters as "your servant, a dog," a formula expressing submission. He was probably responsible for one of the surrounding fortresses. According to Ostracon 4, there was no direct line of sight between Hoshaiah's fortress and the city of Lachish. Tur-Sinai believed the letters indicated that Hoshaiah's fortress fell before Lachish and that he fled to Lachish, where he was questioned or tried concerning his conduct during the war. In Tur-Sinai's view, this explains why the ostraca were found not in the palace itself but in the gatehouse, since city gates traditionally served as places of judgment. Recurring expressions Opening: "To my lord Yaush: May YHWH cause my lord to hear tidings of peace this very day." In other words: Address—"To my lord Yaush." Greeting—"May YHWH cause you to hear tidings of peace." Blessing—"this very day," meaning now or immediately. Another formula reads: "May YHWH show my lord... peace!" Expressions of humility and submission include: "Who is your servant, a dog, that my lord has remembered his servant?" Contents of the ostraca The inscriptions on the ostraca are catalogued as KAI 192–199. The vocalization and the restorations marked in square brackets are based on proposals by Tur-Sinai and Shmuel Ahituv. | The Lachish Letters, also known as the Lachish Documents or Lachish Ostraca, are twenty-two ostraca—pottery sherds bearing ink inscriptions in Paleo-Hebrew script. Most were discovered in excavations directed by the British archaeologist James Leslie Starkey at Tel Lachish in 1935. Ostraca 19, 20, and 21 were discovered in 1938, and Ostracon 22 in 1966. Naphtali Herz Tur-Sinai deciphered the inscriptions in 1935 and 1938 and published them in books in both English and Hebrew. Dr. Benny Begin also published a book presenting his proposed readings of the documents. Classification The ostraca fall into five categories: • Eighteen letters—nos. 2–18 and 21. • A list of names—no. 1. • A list of names and numbers—no. 19. • A shipping account—no. 20. • A list recording distributions to recipients—no. 22. Most of the letters were found in the small gatehouse at the entrance to the upper city, within a destruction layer. They can therefore be dated to 597–587 BCE, between the end of Jehoiachin's reign and the destruction of Lachish by Nebuchadnezzar. Three ostraca—nos. 19, 20, and 21—were found at the summit of the tell. The letters were written by a man named Hoshaiah, as stated in Ostracon 3, and sent to his "lord," Yaush—possibly a shortened form of Josiah—who was apparently the commander of Lachish, where the documents were found. Yaush held an important position and is described as having influence with the officials and the king, who wrote to him. Hoshaiah referred to himself in these letters as "your servant, a dog," a formula expressing submission. He was probably responsible for one of the surrounding fortresses. According to Ostracon 4, there was no direct line of sight between Hoshaiah's fortress and the city of Lachish. Tur-Sinai believed the letters indicated that Hoshaiah's fortress fell before Lachish and that he fled to Lachish, where he was questioned or tried concerning his conduct during the war. In Tur-Sinai's view, this explains why the ostraca were found not in the palace itself but in the gatehouse, since city gates traditionally served as places of judgment. Recurring expressions Opening: "To my lord Yaush: May YHWH cause my lord to hear tidings of peace this very day." In other words: Address—"To my lord Yaush." Greeting—"May YHWH cause you to hear tidings of peace." Blessing—"this very day," meaning now or immediately. Another formula reads: "May YHWH show my lord... peace!" Expressions of humility and submission include: "Who is your servant, a dog, that my lord has remembered his servant?" Contents of the ostraca The inscriptions on the ostraca are catalogued as KAI 192–199. The vocalization and the restorations marked in square brackets are based on proposals by Tur-Sinai and Shmuel Ahituv. Ostracon 4: According to the archaeologist Yigael Yadin, the phrase "to the fire-signals of Lachish" should be understood as "concerning" or "by means of" the Lachish fire-signals. In his interpretation, the city watch reported that the signal fires at Azekah, the nearby city, had gone out—indicating that Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, had captured the city—and that the defenders of Lachish could do nothing but continue fortifying their own position. Benny Begin, who studied the ostraca in his book, disputes this interpretation. He argues that the sherd records an ordinary report: the writers were watching the Lachish fire-signals in order to receive messages from the high command, since they could not see signals sent from Azekah, which lay at a lower elevation. In antiquity, beacons and torches were used to transmit messages between distant locations. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
60 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | First Temple Period | -592 | -571 | The Book of Ezekiel | The Book of Ezekiel follows events in Babylonia between 592 and 571 BCE. https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A0%22%D7%9A#%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%99%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9D | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
61 | Nir Topper | Iron Age | Iron Age II | Destruction of the First Temple | -586 | Destruction of the First Temple; the Exile of Judah = the Babylonian Exile | Nebuchadnezzar | Abandonment of the third fortress: The people of Judah were exiled and the fortress was abandoned. It was rebuilt only in the Nabataean period. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
62 | Nir Topper | Babylonian Period—Brief | -586 | -539 | Between the Destruction of the First Temple and the Construction of the Second Temple The Babylonian period, within the broader Second Temple era The Book of Kings | The Babylonian interlude between the destruction of the First Temple and the construction of the Second Temple We have no direct historical sources for this transitional period, and the archaeological evidence is sparse. Much remains unknown. • Was the entire land destroyed and left desolate, or did life continue in some areas? Surveys of rural sites around Jerusalem indicate a decline in settlement and therefore point to a severe crisis. • At the end of the Book of Kings, the statement that Judah was exiled from its land appears alongside an account of those who remained. The deportation was evidently extensive, but many people must have stayed behind. • Immediately after the Babylonian destruction, Gedaliah son of Ahikam son of Shaphan was appointed governor. He was a nephew of Gemariah son of Shaphan. • Gedaliah, who was not of royal descent, was assassinated at Mizpah. • Proposed identifications of Mizpah: Tell en-Nasbeh, near Ramallah, or Nabi Samwil. • The Fast of Gedaliah—the third of Tishrei. The Jewish world after the destruction—three important population centers: 1. The community in the Assyrian and Babylonian exiles, created through four major deportations: ◦ The deportation under Tiglath-Pileser—the Assyrian exile from the Kingdom of Israel, 732 BCE. The Kingdom of Israel continued to exist. ◦ The deportations under Shalmaneser and Sargon—the Assyrian exile from the Kingdom of Israel, 720 BCE. The Kingdom of Israel ceased to exist, and population transfers followed. ◦ The Exile of Jehoiachin, 597 BCE—a Babylonian deportation from the Kingdom of Judah that created the large Jewish population center in Mesopotamia. ◦ The deportation under Nebuchadnezzar, 586 BCE—a Babylonian exile from the Kingdom of Judah and the destruction of the First Temple. ◦ In recent years, our knowledge of the Babylonian diaspora has been greatly enriched by the Al-Yahudu documents—"City of Judah" in Akkadian—dated approximately 572–447 BCE. Al-Yahudu was a settlement to which Judean exiles were deported, and clay tablets preserving their records survived there. Its precise location cannot be determined because the tablets were not recovered in a scientific excavation; they were looted and sold on the private market. Their original archaeological context is therefore unknown. The documents concern economic life, the purchase and sale of fields, Judean names, Judean family relationships, and other subjects. 2. The Egyptian diaspora—which existed even before the destruction. ◦ A temple at Yeb, or Elephantine, on the Nile: remains and documents attest to a Jewish temple and Jewish mercenary soldiers there as early as the end of the First Temple period. 3. Those who remained in the Land of Israel. All three population centers came under Persian rule in the 6th century BCE and became part of a single cultural world. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
63 | Nir Topper | Babylonian and Persian Periods | Babylonian Exile | -572 | -477 | The Al-Yahudu Documents—"City of Judah" in Akkadian | Al-Yahudu was a settlement to which Judean exiles were deported, and clay tablets preserving their records survived there. Its precise location cannot be determined because the tablets were not recovered in a scientific excavation; they were looted and sold on the private market. Their original archaeological context is therefore unknown. The documents concern economic life, the purchase and sale of fields, Judean names, Judean family relationships, and other subjects. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
64 | Nir Topper | Persian Period | -539 | -332 | The Persian Period The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah | The Persian period in the history of the Land of Israel began in 539 BCE, when King Cyrus completed Persia's conquest of the territories of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, including the Land of Israel. It ended in 332 BCE with Alexander the Great's conquest of the land and the beginning of the Hellenistic period. In Jewish history, the Persian period is identified with the Return to Zion and the beginning of the Second Temple era. Despite the prophet Jeremiah's warnings against rebelling against Babylonia, Zedekiah was drawn into revolt. He too relied on the prospect of Egyptian assistance. After a siege lasting approximately two and a half years, Jerusalem was captured and the Temple burned. A second deportation followed. • The First Temple period came to an end. • The remains at Lachish and the Lachish Letters. 586 BCE: Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylonia, conquered the Kingdom of Judah; the First Temple was destroyed and the second Babylonian deportation began. 539 BCE: Cyrus, king of Persia, conquered the Babylonian Empire and granted the Judean exiles in Babylonia the right to return to the autonomous province of Yehud Medinata in the Land of Israel. 538 BCE: the Return to Zion. 516 BCE: construction of the Second Temple. 485–465 BCE: the reign of Xerxes I, traditionally identified by some with Ahasuerus, in Persia. Sources available to us for the Persian period— • Herodotus—"the Father of History" • The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah • The Second Temple-period prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi • Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews, written long after the period • The Book of Esther (?) • The Al-Yahudu documents • From the end of the period—the Samaria Papyri from the caves of Wadi Daliyeh Persian kings relevant to this period— • Cyrus II, or Cyrus the Great, 558–530 BCE—the period of the Return to Zion • Darius I, 522–486 BCE—the period in which the Temple was completed • Xerxes I, 485–465 BCE—possibly the Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther • Artaxerxes I, 465–424 BCE—the period associated with Ezra and Nehemiah • Darius III, 336–330 BCE—defeated by Alexander the Great Cyrus: • He took control of the region extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf and incorporated the territories of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. His son Cambyses II subsequently conquered Egypt in 525 BCE. • He left behind the inscription known as the Cyrus Cylinder. Persian Administration • The empire was divided into twenty governorships known as satrapies. • Each satrapy was subdivided into provinces governed by a governor, or pehah. • The Land of Israel did not exist as a unified political entity, except as a concept among the Jews. The country was divided into provinces largely along ethnic lines: ◦ The province of Yehud, or Judah, extended approximately from Bethel to Beit Zur and from Jericho to Gezer. It issued its own coinage. ◦ Alongside Yehud lay the Samaritan province north of Judah, the Edomite province in the south, and Phoenician settlements on the coastal plain, including Ashkelon, Jaffa, Apollonia, and Dor. Evidence survives for the production of purple dye. | • On the coastal plain, Persian rule encouraged settlement for economic and commercial reasons. Rich urban remains have been found at Tel Nahariya, Tel Acre, Shikmona, Tel Dor, and Ashkelon, including royal burials from this period. • In Judah and the Shephelah, there was extensive rural settlement as well as urban occupation. At Lachish, a Persian-period wall and a governor's palace were constructed on the podium of the First Temple-period palace. In Jerusalem, remains of a wall in the City of David are attributed by some scholars to this period. At Ramat Rachel, the remains of a large and impressive fortress have been uncovered. | • On the coastal plain, Persian rule encouraged settlement for economic and commercial reasons. Rich urban remains have been found at Tel Nahariya, Tel Acre, Shikmona, Tel Dor, and Ashkelon, including royal burials from this period. • In Judah and the Shephelah, there was extensive rural settlement as well as urban occupation. At Lachish, a Persian-period wall and a governor's palace were constructed on the podium of the First Temple-period palace. In Jerusalem, remains of a wall in the City of David are attributed by some scholars to this period. At Ramat Rachel, the remains of a large and impressive fortress have been uncovered. | • On the coastal plain, Persian rule encouraged settlement for economic and commercial reasons. Rich urban remains have been found at Tel Nahariya, Tel Acre, Shikmona, Tel Dor, and Ashkelon, including royal burials from this period. • In Judah and the Shephelah, there was extensive rural settlement as well as urban occupation. At Lachish, a Persian-period wall and a governor's palace were constructed on the podium of the First Temple-period palace. In Jerusalem, remains of a wall in the City of David are attributed by some scholars to this period. At Ramat Rachel, the remains of a large and impressive fortress have been uncovered. | • On the coastal plain, Persian rule encouraged settlement for economic and commercial reasons. Rich urban remains have been found at Tel Nahariya, Tel Acre, Shikmona, Tel Dor, and Ashkelon, including royal burials from this period. • In Judah and the Shephelah, there was extensive rural settlement as well as urban occupation. At Lachish, a Persian-period wall and a governor's palace were constructed on the podium of the First Temple-period palace. In Jerusalem, remains of a wall in the City of David are attributed by some scholars to this period. At Ramat Rachel, the remains of a large and impressive fortress have been uncovered. | • On the coastal plain, Persian rule encouraged settlement for economic and commercial reasons. Rich urban remains have been found at Tel Nahariya, Tel Acre, Shikmona, Tel Dor, and Ashkelon, including royal burials from this period. • In Judah and the Shephelah, there was extensive rural settlement as well as urban occupation. At Lachish, a Persian-period wall and a governor's palace were constructed on the podium of the First Temple-period palace. In Jerusalem, remains of a wall in the City of David are attributed by some scholars to this period. At Ramat Rachel, the remains of a large and impressive fortress have been uncovered. | • On the coastal plain, Persian rule encouraged settlement for economic and commercial reasons. Rich urban remains have been found at Tel Nahariya, Tel Acre, Shikmona, Tel Dor, and Ashkelon, including royal burials from this period. • In Judah and the Shephelah, there was extensive rural settlement as well as urban occupation. At Lachish, a Persian-period wall and a governor's palace were constructed on the podium of the First Temple-period palace. In Jerusalem, remains of a wall in the City of David are attributed by some scholars to this period. At Ramat Rachel, the remains of a large and impressive fortress have been uncovered. | • On the coastal plain, Persian rule encouraged settlement for economic and commercial reasons. Rich urban remains have been found at Tel Nahariya, Tel Acre, Shikmona, Tel Dor, and Ashkelon, including royal burials from this period. • In Judah and the Shephelah, there was extensive rural settlement as well as urban occupation. At Lachish, a Persian-period wall and a governor's palace were constructed on the podium of the First Temple-period palace. In Jerusalem, remains of a wall in the City of David are attributed by some scholars to this period. At Ramat Rachel, the remains of a large and impressive fortress have been uncovered. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
65 | Nir Topper | Persian Period | Babylonian Exile | -539 | -538 | The Cyrus Cylinder | Cyrus's restoration policies appear to have been formulated partly in response to his rival Nabonidus, king of Babylon, who ruled together with his son Bel-shar-usur—the biblical Belshazzar. Babylonian priests strongly opposed the religious innovations introduced by Nabonidus, including his revival of ancient Babylonian cults. Cyrus allied himself with the priests of Marduk and was able to overthrow Nabonidus by exploiting the internal weakness this opposition created in Babylonia. The Cyrus Cylinder displays a general affinity with the biblical proclamation of Cyrus. The Jews, however, are not mentioned in the cylinder, either explicitly or implicitly. Some have therefore suggested that the biblical proclamation was never issued in the form recorded, or that it may have been worded differently. According to this interpretation, the leadership of the returning exiles used the proclamation to establish its authority in the province of Judah over the leadership of the large Jewish population that had remained in the land. It did succeed in transferring religious authority to those who returned from Babylonia, and repeated use of the proclamation eventually transformed it into an accepted historical document. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
66 | Nir Topper | Persian Period | Return to Zion | Return to Zion Sheshbazzar, who was "the prince of Judah" and Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel | -538 | The Proclamation of Cyrus The Book of Ezra The First Return—not the return led by Ezra and Nehemiah | Cyrus's policy and the proclamation of 538 BCE—the Book of Ezra • This policy contrasted with that of the Babylonians under Nabonidus, who preceded the Persians and introduced religious reforms that disrupted established traditions. • Religious tolerance. • National and local autonomy. The First Return—538 BCE • Approximately 40,000 people. • The leaders were Sheshbazzar the prince, Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel, and Jeshua son of Jehozadak the priest—representing the House of David and the priestly house. • Important: this was not the return led by Ezra and Nehemiah. • On arriving, the returnees restored the altar and renewed the offering of sacrifices. • Construction of the Temple encountered difficulties. The returnees refused to include the "adversaries of Judah"—possibly the Samaritans—and accusatory letters brought the work to a halt. • 520 BCE: Work resumed after the prophets Haggai and Zechariah urged the people to build the Temple. • 516 BCE: Dedication of the Second Temple. The Book of Ezra describes the elders weeping when they saw the new Temple. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
67 | Nir Topper | Persian Period | Resumption of the Temple's Construction | -520 | Resumption of the Temple's Construction | The work resumed after the prophets Haggai and Zechariah urged the people to build the Temple. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
68 | Nir Topper | Persian Period | Second Temple Period | -516 | 70 | The Second Temple Period | The Second Temple period extended from the construction of the Second Temple by the returnees to Zion in 516 BCE until its destruction in 70 CE by the Roman army under Titus. Although these dates define the period, this unit also reviews the Babylonian interlude between the destruction of the First Temple and the construction of the Second Temple, and considers the difficulty of placing so long an era under a single heading. Rule changed hands several times during this period: Persian rule, Ptolemaic rule, Seleucid rule, Hasmonean rule, and the early Roman period, which included the reign of Herod, the Roman prefects and procurators, and the reign of Agrippa, Herod's grandson. The discussion is divided accordingly. The end of the unit addresses the events that led to the Great Revolt against Rome and the revolt itself. • The Second Temple was not built immediately after the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE. • Even after the Return to Zion and the beginning of the Persian period, there was still no Temple. • During the Second Temple era, the Temple was constructed or comprehensively rebuilt twice. • There was no continuous system of imperial government in the land throughout this period. • Nor was there continuity in internal Jewish government: authority passed among a provincial governor, the high priest, the Hasmonean monarchy, a client king under Roman patronage, and Roman governors. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
69 | Nir Topper | Persian Period | Second Temple Period | -516 | Dedication of the Second Temple | The Book of Ezra describes the elders weeping when they saw the new Temple. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
70 | Nir Topper | Persian Period | Second Temple Period | Return to Zion—Ezra | -457 | The Second Return—Ezra | The Second Return—Ezra in 457 BCE; Nehemiah in 444 BCE • A gap of approximately sixty years separates these events from those described previously. We know virtually nothing about developments in the land during this interval. • Why did Artaxerxes permit this return? Perhaps he sought to encourage the settlement of a loyal Jewish population at a time when the empire's southern frontier was troubled by revolts. • Ezra was a priest and scribe—a religious reformer without an official political office or explicit imperial power. Thousands accompanied him, bringing silver and gold for the Temple. He campaigned against intermarriage. • Nehemiah received an official political appointment. He served as governor and possessed military power and formal imperial backing. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
71 | Nir Topper | Persian Period | Second Temple Period | Return to Zion—Nehemiah | -444 | The Second Return—Nehemiah | Nehemiah received an official political appointment. He served as governor and possessed military power and formal imperial backing. Nehemiah son of Hacaliah was one of the leaders of the Jewish people during the Return to Zion in the Second Temple period. He lived in the 5th century BCE. According to rabbinic tradition, he was among the members of the Great Assembly. His activities are described in detail in the Book of Nehemiah, most of which was written in the first person and attributed to Nehemiah himself. He served as cupbearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes I, a position entrusted only to a person in whom the king had great confidence. In 445 or 444 BCE, the king appointed him governor of the province of Judah. The meaning of his name is related to the Hebrew word for consolation. According to tradition, Nehemiah died on the ninth of Tevet. Ezra and Nehemiah, recognizing that the Jews who returned to Zion did not know or sufficiently remember the Torah, are traditionally credited with dividing it into fifty-two to fifty-four weekly sections. One section—the weekly Torah portion—is read each week. The largest numbers of Jews were present in Jerusalem on Mondays and Thursdays, the market days. The weekly portion was therefore read on the Sabbath and also on Monday and Thursday. | Mentioned in the following periods: the Patriarchs, the settlement of the land, the monarchy, and the Return to Zion. The city of the Patriarchs in the southern territory of Judah and within the allotment of Simeon. It is now identified with the area of the market in modern Be’er Sheva (see Ishtori Haparchi); some identify it with Tel Sheva. It is mentioned as the southern boundary of settlement in the Land of Israel: “from Dan to Beersheba.” South of Be’er Sheva, permanent settlement was impossible because of the harsh desert conditions. Abraham and Isaac dug wells there and made a covenant with Abimelech (Genesis 21:31–33; Genesis 26:33). Jacob encamped there on his way to Egypt (Genesis 46:1). The place where the sons of the prophet Samuel served as judges (1 Samuel 8:2). During the later monarchy, Be’er Sheva served as a center of idolatrous worship (2 Kings 23:8; Amos 8:14). Be’er Sheva was resettled during the Return to Zion (Nehemiah 11:27). | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
72 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | -332 | -167 | The Hellenistic Period From Alexander the Great's conquest of the Land of Israel to the Hasmonean Revolt | Hellenistic culture developed in the eastern Mediterranean basin during the Hellenistic period. It arose from the fusion of ancient Greek culture with cultures of the ancient Near East, including those of ancient Egypt and Persia. This blending of cultures was made possible by Alexander the Great's campaigns of conquest in the 4th century BCE. The Hellenistic kingdoms were eventually conquered by Rome or disintegrated. Hellenistic culture profoundly influenced Roman culture and, through it, the culture of Western Europe, which was based to a large extent on the Roman legacy. The powerful imprint of Hellenistic culture on the Western world remains visible today. Definition Alexander the Great fought the Persian king Darius III. The Greek term Hellenismos (Ἑλληνισμός) [1] appears in 2 Maccabees in the general sense of "Greek ways" or "Hellenization" [2][3]. The German historian Johann Gustav Droysen is generally considered the first to use the modern term "Hellenism"—German Hellenismus—to describe the eastward spread of Greek culture and its fusion with local cultures. Hellenistic culture is a broad, complex, and at times contradictory concept embracing a synthesis of Hellenic culture and local traditions. Hellenic culture encompassed a wide range of values, approaches, languages, ways of life, and other elements. The Greeks called their land Hellas and themselves Hellenes, giving rise to the terms Hellenic and Hellenic culture. For political, socioeconomic, religious, and cultural reasons, Hellenic society drew a sharp distinction between itself and other cultures, which it classified as "inferior." Significance of the Hellenistic period • The central figure was Alexander, son of Philip II of Macedon, a kingdom located north of the heartland of present-day Greece. Alexander came to power in 336 BCE and brought the Persian Empire to an end. • The name of the period derives from Hellas, the Greek name for Greece. • The land underwent a major cultural transformation. Until this time, it had traditionally belonged to an eastern sphere of influence—Egyptian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Persian. It now came for the first time under the rule of a power from the west, in the world of present-day Greece. This change had far-reaching cultural consequences. 332 BCE: Alexander the Great conquered the Land of Israel from the Persians. 301 BCE: Ptolemy I took control of the Land of Israel from Alexander's successors. 200 BCE: Antiochus III of the Seleucid dynasty conquered the Land of Israel from the Ptolemies. | Establishment of poleis—the plural of polis—including Gadara, Sussita-Hippos, and Nysa-Scythopolis, present-day Beit She'an. Tel Beit She'an: Eighteen archaeological strata. The tell was abandoned in the Persian period. In the Hellenistic period, a new city was established not on the tell but on the northern bank of Nahal Harod, at Tel Iztabba. Scythopolis means "City of the Scythians," referring to mercenary soldiers. Alexander the Great understood that if a conqueror merely occupied territory and collected taxes, the inhabitants would eventually rebel and expel him. He therefore pursued conquest "from below" by introducing education and culture and encouraging intermarriage. Discharged soldiers were encouraged to remain in the conquered territories, marry local women, and establish permanent homes there. | • Establishment of poleis—the plural of polis—including Gadara, Sussita-Hippos, and Nysa-Scythopolis, present-day Beit She'an. | Ein Mabu'a, on Route 458 Several perennial streams flow through the Judean Desert. Wadi Qelt—the Mount Scopus area forms part of Wadi Qelt's drainage basin. The stream flows toward Jericho, with several springs along its course. The entire stream, from one end to the other, is a nature reserve with numerous and varied hiking trails. Admission is charged only at Ein Prat. Water was conveyed from one location to another beginning in the Hellenistic period. The Romans raised the technology to a much higher level. During the Hellenistic period, the Hasmonean kingdom maintained a palace at Jericho. Herod later built fortresses of his own in this region as well. The Hasmoneans already conveyed water from the spring at the highest point down to Jericho; Herod brought this system to a substantially higher level of engineering and execution. The British piped water from here westward to Jerusalem. | • Establishment of poleis—the plural of polis—including Gadara, Sussita-Hippos, and Nysa-Scythopolis, present-day Beit She'an. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
73 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | -323 | -301 | The Wars of the Diadochi | After Alexander the Great's death—the Diadochi: the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties • Alexander died at a young age in 323 BCE, initiating the Wars of the Successors, known as the Diadochi. • The situation in this region stabilized around 300 BCE. The Seleucid dynasty controlled Syria, Mesopotamia, and parts of Anatolia, while the Ptolemaic dynasty controlled the Land of Israel and Egypt. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
74 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Ptolemaic Dynasty | -301 | -200 | The Ptolemaic Period—the Ptolemaic Dynasty | The Ptolemaic period—the Ptolemaic dynasty, 301–200 BCE • Sources for this period are limited. • Rhodian stamped amphora handles—from the island of Rhodes—may indicate a foreign presence, although this is uncertain. • Information is provided by Josephus, the Books of Maccabees, the Zenon Papyri from approximately 250 BCE, written by or associated with an Egyptian official, and the Letter of Aristeas from the 3rd or 2nd century BCE, which describes Jerusalem. • Acre was developed as a Hellenistic city and renamed Ptolemais. Remains of the Hellenistic harbor from this period have been found, together with residential buildings—evidence that Acre's settlement moved down from the tell. • The period is characterized by the broader process known as the "descent from the tells." | Acre was developed as a Hellenistic city and renamed Ptolemais. Remains of the Hellenistic harbor from this period have been found, together with residential buildings—evidence that Acre's settlement moved down from the tell. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
75 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Ptolemaic Dynasty | -285 | -247 | Ptolemy II—Ptolemy Philadelphus | According to tradition, the Septuagint was commissioned by Ptolemy Philadelphus. The story and related traditions were intended, among other purposes, to confer special status and prestige on the Greek translation of the Torah. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
76 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Ptolemaic Dynasty | -259 | The Septuagint | The Septuagint began as a Jewish translation of the Five Books of the Torah for the Jews of Alexandria, whose language at the time was Greek and whose city was under the Hellenistic rule of Ptolemaic Egypt. A detailed account of the translation's origins appears in an external work known as the Letter of Aristeas. This story, versions of which also appear in Talmudic sources, tells of seventy-two elders—Jewish sages associated with the Sanhedrin—who were invited to Alexandria by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, king of Egypt from 285 to 247 BCE, to translate the Torah for inclusion in the great Library of Alexandria. According to the story, the king gave the seventy-two elders comfortable conditions for their work, housing them on the island of Pharos and summoning them to the palace each morning. The Letter of Aristeas presents the entire event in a celebratory atmosphere and views the act of translation favorably. Its historical reliability is generally considered limited, and it is thought to have served primarily apologetic purposes [citation needed]. The account based on the Letter of Aristeas also appears in the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria's work On the Life of Moses. Philo states that even in his own day, "a festival and assembly are held every year on the island of Pharos, to which not only Jews but great numbers of non-Jews sail, honoring the place where the light of the translation first shone" [4]. This refers to the translation of the Pentateuch. Josephus likewise retells the account from the Letter of Aristeas in Antiquities of the Jews [5]. In the version preserved in the Babylonian Talmud [6], the translation is presented as an established fact toward which the attitude is more complex [7]. The translation is described as miraculous: although the ruler placed the elders in separate rooms, they independently produced identical versions of the Torah. The Talmud also recounts twelve details that the elders deliberately altered for various reasons. Only four of those alterations, however, are actually present in the Septuagint text known today. In addition to the Letter of Aristeas and the Talmudic sources, the story appears in Epiphanius of Salamis's On Weights and Measures [8]. Epiphanius, who lived from approximately 320 to 403 CE, states that thirty-six pairs of translators separately translated all the books of the Bible and that, when their versions were compared, they agreed in every detail. A similar view appears in Jerome and other early writers. In Jewish historiography, the translation came to be regarded as a negative event. Megillat Ta'anit Batra designates the eighth of Tevet as a fast of the righteous because the Torah's translation into Greek was completed on that date and "darkness came upon the world for three days." The event is also mentioned in the penitential prayers composed for the Fast of the Tenth of Tevet. The spread of the translation also affected halakhic discussion. Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel permitted the Bible to be written only in Hebrew or Greek. Rabbi Yohanan explained that the permission rests on an interpretation of the verse, "May God enlarge Japheth, and let him dwell in the tents of Shem": the beauty of Japheth—the Greek language—may dwell in the tents of Shem, the people of Israel. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
77 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Ptolemaic Dynasty | -250 | The Zenon Papyri | The Zenon Papyri comprise thousands of documents written in Greek that belonged to the archive of Zenon (Greek: Ζήνων [1]), son of Agreophon. Zenon lived in Egypt during the first half of the 3rd century BCE, in the reign of Ptolemy II. The papyri are an important historical source for the economic and political conditions of the Ptolemaic period. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
78 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Seleucid Dynasty | -200 | -167 | Seleucid Rule in the Land—200 BCE The Battle of Panium at Banias The Hefzibah Inscription | The Seleucid period—200–167 BCE • During the 3rd century BCE, the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties fought five conflicts known as the Syrian Wars. In the final war, at Panium—Banias—the Syrian Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies and took control of the Land of Israel. • The policy of Antiochus III, the first Seleucid ruler of the Land of Israel: He granted a charter of privileges that provided animals for sacrifices, authorized tax-exempt repairs to the Temple, prohibited non-Jews from entering restricted areas of the Temple, confirmed the autonomous system of government already practiced in the land, exempted the Temple and the Council of Elders from taxation, granted Jerusalem's inhabitants a three-year tax exemption, and released people who had been taken into slavery. • The Hefzibah Inscription is a series of royal letters concerning the administration of the region during the reign of Antiochus III. | During the 3rd century BCE, the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties fought five conflicts known as the Syrian Wars. In the final war, at Panium—Banias—the Syrian Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies and took control of the Land of Israel. 200 BCE—the Battle of Panium: The Syrian Wars between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties. The Wars of the Diadochi, the successors of Alexander the Great. Antiochus IV would later emerge from the Seleucid dynasty. The Hasmoneans rebelled against him in the events commemorated by Hanukkah. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
79 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Seleucid Dynasty | 2nd century BCE | Tamar, Haifa | The earliest Haifa was located where Rambam Medical Center now stands: Shikmona, Tel Shikmona. Acre was the major port city, connected to the principal routes and protected by a natural breakwater. Haifa was a small fishing village. 1st–2nd centuries BCE — evidence of settlement at Haifa. Shikmona — Early Bronze Age. | 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE—a small Nabataean fortress | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
80 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Seleucid Dynasty | -178 | The Heliodorus Stele | Discovered at Maresha, the Heliodorus Stele is a royal inscription engraved in Greek on stone. According to the date recorded in its text, it was written in 178 BCE. The inscription contains a proclamation by Seleucus IV concerning the appointment of Olympiodorus as chief administrator of the sanctuaries in the province of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, which included the Land of Israel. It is considered one of the most important ancient inscriptions discovered in the Land of Israel. The stele is now displayed at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. | The Heliodorus Stele is a royal inscription engraved in Greek on stone. According to the date recorded in its text, it was written in 178 BCE. The inscription contains a proclamation by Seleucus IV concerning the appointment of Olympiodorus as chief administrator of the sanctuaries in the province of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, which included the Land of Israel. It is considered one of the most important ancient inscriptions discovered in the Land of Israel. The stele is now displayed at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
81 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Seleucid Dynasty | -175 | -164 | Antiochus IV—the End of the "Honeymoon" The Heliodorus Stele | Antiochus IV—the end of the honeymoon The reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, familiar from the story of Hanukkah, marked the end of the honeymoon between the Jews and Seleucid rule. Several factors contributed to the deterioration in relations: • The spread of Hellenism among the Jewish population and the reaction against it. • The rise of Rome as the principal political power in the region. The Seleucid struggle against Rome required substantial funds. The Seleucids also came to believe that cultural and religious uniformity was necessary to confront the Roman threat. • Relations had already begun to deteriorate during the reign of Seleucus IV, Antiochus's predecessor. Seleucus appointed a man named Heliodorus, who according to 2 Maccabees attempted to seize the treasures of the Temple. • The Heliodorus Stele, found at Maresha, mentions this man and records his responsibility for administering the sanctuaries in the land. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
82 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Seleucid Dynasty | -174 | Sale of Sacred Offices—Jason Purchases the High Priesthood | • 174 BCE—the sale of sacred offices: Jason, brother of Onias III, purchased the office of high priest from Antiochus IV. • Jason sought to transform Jerusalem into a city with Antiochene civic status and character. | The sale of sacred offices: Jason, brother of Onias III, purchased the office of high priest from Antiochus IV. • Jason sought to transform Jerusalem into a city with Antiochene civic status and character. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
83 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Seleucid Dynasty | -171 | Menelaus Displaces Jason and Purchases the High Priesthood | • 171 BCE—Menelaus displaced Jason by similar means. | Menelaus displaced Jason by similar means. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
84 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Seleucid Dynasty | -168 | Plundering of the Temple in Jerusalem | 168 BCE—Antiochus IV campaigned in Ptolemaic Egypt, where an envoy of the Roman Senate confronted him. Antiochus returned to his kingdom and plundered the Temple in Jerusalem. | Antiochus IV campaigned in Ptolemaic Egypt, where an envoy of the Roman Senate confronted him. Antiochus returned to his kingdom and plundered the Temple in Jerusalem. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
85 | Nir Topper | Hellenistic Period | Second Temple Period | Seleucid Dynasty | -167 | Religious Persecutions and Desecration of the Temple | 167 BCE: Construction of the Akra in Jerusalem and the religious persecutions: The Temple was desecrated and transformed into a sanctuary of Zeus. Decrees prohibited Torah study, circumcision, Sabbath observance, and other Jewish practices, while compelling the eating of pork and participation in idolatrous worship. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
86 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -167 | -63 | The Hasmonean Period | Alexander the Great's conquests—332 BCE He conquered an enormous territory over approximately ten years. His vast empire passed to several successors. In this region, the principal dynasties were the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. The Wars of the Diadochi—the wars among Alexander's successors—shaped control of the region from the late 4th through the early 2nd century BCE. The Seleucid dynasty eventually controlled the Land of Israel and initially maintained favorable relations with the Jews. King Antiochus III enjoyed excellent relations with the Jewish population. Rome then went to war against Antiochus III and defeated him. One of Antiochus III's sons—the future Antiochus IV—was taken to Rome as a hostage and raised there as a future ruler. After Antiochus III's death, his son Seleucus IV succeeded him; Antiochus IV later came to the throne. Because of the indemnity imposed following his father's defeat by Rome, Antiochus IV faced enormous financial obligations and needed large sums of money. Among the places from which the Seleucid authorities sought funds was the Temple in Jerusalem. The high priest refused to hand over the money held in the Temple. Traditionally, the high priest held office for life and was succeeded within the priestly family. Antiochus IV altered this practice by appointing another high priest who promised to provide the funds the king demanded. Jason—high priest through purchase of the office, c. 175–172 BCE. Menelaus, a man associated with the tribe of Benjamin—high priest through purchase of the office, c. 172–162 BCE. Alcimus—high priest, c. 162–159 BCE. The great rupture—the beginning of the revolt 167 BCE—Antiochus Epiphanes returned to Jerusalem. The people joined the Hasmoneans in revolt. After several years of fighting, the rebels gained control of the Temple and renewed its service. Sources describing the festival were written approximately two centuries after the events. Why eight days? The Book of Numbers describes the dedication of the Tabernacle as an eight-day celebration. To be completed from the presentation. The Hasmoneans assumed the high priesthood even though they did not belong to the House of Zadok, and later took the kingship even though they were not descendants of David. This intensified the rupture: the Pharisees withdrew into the study hall, desert sects developed, and other groups emerged. Much of the population followed the Pharisees. According to this interpretive framework, the Pharisaic tradition shaped the later written history of the Jewish people and played a central role in the transmission and editing of the biblical canon. Judah Maccabee and his family are not mentioned in the Mishnah or the Talmud. The Books of Maccabees are not included in the Hebrew Bible and are classified in Jewish tradition among the Apocrypha. The Hasmonean kingdom lasted from 140 to 63 BCE—a total of seventy-seven years. The Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Shabbat, preserves a discussion of Hanukkah compiled centuries later, emphasizing the miracle of the cruse of oil roughly five hundred years after the original events. The passage reflects the process by which rabbinic tradition incorporated Hanukkah into the Talmud and the Jewish religious calendar. The immediate events leading to the Hasmonean Revolt: • 168 BCE—Antiochus IV campaigned in Ptolemaic Egypt, where an envoy of the Roman Senate confronted him. • Antiochus returned to his kingdom and plundered the Temple in Jerusalem. • Rumors spread that Antiochus had died, and a revolt broke out against him. Antiochus responded with severe force. • 167 BCE: Construction of the Akra in Jerusalem and the religious persecutions. The Temple was desecrated and transformed into a sanctuary of Zeus. Decrees prohibited Torah study, circumcision, Sabbath observance, and other Jewish practices, while compelling the eating of pork and participation in idolatrous worship. 167 BCE: Antiochus IV Epiphanes prohibited the observance of Jewish commandments in Judea. The Temple was desecrated. 167–160 BCE: the Hasmonean Revolt. 164 BCE: Judah Maccabee purified and rededicated the Temple in Jerusalem. 160–63 BCE: independent Hasmonean rule. 63 BCE: the Roman Empire conquered the land, and Pompey appointed Hyrcanus II as ruler. 40 BCE: the Parthians invaded the Kingdom of Judea and placed Mattathias Antigonus II on the throne in Jerusalem. | Ein Mabu'a, on Route 458 Several perennial streams flow through the Judean Desert. Wadi Qelt—the Mount Scopus area forms part of Wadi Qelt's drainage basin. The stream flows toward Jericho, with several springs along its course. The entire stream, from one end to the other, is a nature reserve with numerous and varied hiking trails. Admission is charged only at Ein Prat. Water was conveyed from one location to another beginning in the Hellenistic period. The Romans raised the technology to a much higher level. During the Hellenistic period, the Hasmonean kingdom maintained a palace at Jericho. Herod later built fortresses of his own in this region as well. The Hasmoneans already conveyed water from the spring at the highest point down to Jericho; Herod brought this system to a substantially higher level of engineering and execution. The British piped water from here westward to Jerusalem. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
87 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -167 | The Battle of Ma'aleh Levona | The Battle of Ma'aleh Levona was fought against Apollonius, who advanced into the Gophna Hills in southern Samaria. Judah set an ambush for him at Ma'aleh Levona and defeated him. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
88 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -166 | The Battle of Beth Horon | The Battle of Beth Horon—Seron, governor of Syria, also advanced toward the Gophna Hills from the direction of the Shephelah. Judah ambushed him in the pass near Beth Horon, took him by surprise, and defeated him. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
89 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -165 | The Battle of Emmaus | The Battle of Emmaus, against Ptolemy, Nicanor, and Gorgias. Judah conducted a complex, multi-stage battle with exemplary command, making effective use of intelligence and deception. The Seleucids were defeated. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
90 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -164 | The Battle of Beth Zur | The Battle of Beth Zur against Lysias—Judah exploited his topographical advantage and attacked the Seleucid forces as they climbed toward his position, defeating them. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
91 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -164 | Purification of the Temple by the Hasmoneans | Judah and the Hasmoneans entered Jerusalem and purified and rededicated the Temple—the event commemorated in the Hanukkah story. • The Seleucid commander Lysias invaded Judea and took control of Jerusalem, but internal problems in the kingdom forced him to withdraw. | Judah and the Hasmoneans entered Jerusalem and purified and rededicated the Temple—the event commemorated in the Hanukkah story. • The Seleucid commander Lysias invaded Judea and took control of Jerusalem, but internal problems in the kingdom forced him to withdraw. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
92 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -161 | Judah Maccabee Defeats Nicanor | The religious decrees were temporarily suspended in an effort to calm the situation, but their rapid renewal led to the Battle of Adasa, near Beth Horon, in which Nicanor, the Seleucid commander, was defeated. "Nicanor's Day" was celebrated in commemoration of the victory. Judah Maccabee cut off Nicanor's head and right hand, brought them to Jerusalem, and displayed them before the Seleucid soldiers stationed in the Akra. Judah's forces did not succeed in capturing the Akra during this phase of the revolt. | The religious decrees were temporarily suspended in an effort to calm the situation, but their rapid renewal led to the Battle of Adasa, near Beth Horon, in which Nicanor, the Seleucid commander, was defeated. "Nicanor's Day" was celebrated in commemoration of the victory. Judah Maccabee cut off Nicanor's head and right hand, brought them to Jerusalem, and displayed them before the Seleucid soldiers stationed in the Akra. Judah's forces did not succeed in capturing the Akra during this phase of the revolt. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
93 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -161 | Judah Maccabee Is Killed at the Battle of Elasa | Judah Maccabee was killed at the Battle of Elasa, south of Ramallah, fighting the commander Bacchides. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
94 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -160 | -142 | Jonathan the Hasmonean | Jonathan the Hasmonean, 160–142 BCE—received the title of high priest. He renewed the alliance with Rome established by his brother Judah. Tryphon captured him at Ptolemais-Acre and later had him killed. | Jonathan the Hasmonean, 160–142 BCE—received the title of high priest. He renewed the alliance with Rome established by his brother Judah. Tryphon captured him at Ptolemais-Acre and later had him killed. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
95 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -142 | -134 | Simon the Hasmonean | Simon the Hasmonean, 142–134 BCE—received the title of ethnarch, or prince. He destroyed the Akra fortress in Jerusalem. For a time, Simon used the Akra as his own stronghold. Later, according to Josephus, he demolished it completely and even had the rock on which it stood cut down—both to prevent the fortress from becoming a subject of future negotiations and because of the Jewish population's profound hatred of it. | Simon the Hasmonean, 142–134 BCE—received the title of ethnarch, or prince. He destroyed the Akra fortress in Jerusalem. For a time, Simon used the Akra as his own stronghold. Later, according to Josephus, he demolished it completely and even had the rock on which it stood cut down—both to prevent the fortress from becoming a subject of future negotiations and because of the Jewish population's profound hatred of it. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
96 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -134 | -104 | John Hyrcanus, Son of Simon | John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, 134–104 BCE—when he came to power, Antiochus VII besieged Jerusalem. The Jews surrendered and agreed to pay tribute, and part of the city wall was demolished. The conversion of the Idumeans—Tel Maresha. | John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, 134–104 BCE—when he came to power, Antiochus VII besieged Jerusalem. The Jews surrendered and agreed to pay tribute, and part of the city wall was demolished. | The conversion of the Idumeans was the process by which the Edomite population adopted Judaism during the Hasmonean kingdom. In 125 BCE, the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus I completed his war against the Idumeans, conquered their territory, and converted them [1]. Scholars disagree over whether this conversion was imposed by force or resulted from a voluntary process. A minority opinion in rabbinic literature also held that the Idumeans were converted to the status of servants rather than through ordinary conversion, although there is no historical evidence that they were enslaved. Josephus describes the Hasmonean conquest of Idumea as follows: Hyrcanus captured Adora—Adoraim—and Marisa—Maresha—the cities of Idumea. After subduing all the Idumeans, he permitted them to remain in their country if they circumcised themselves and agreed to observe Jewish law. Because of their attachment to their ancestral land, the Idumeans accepted circumcision and adopted a way of life identical to that of the Jews; from that time onward, they were counted as Jews [1]. According to Josephus, after conquering Adoraim and Maresha, the major cities of Idumea, Hyrcanus required the conquered Idumeans to undergo circumcision and become Jews. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
97 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -129 | John Hyrcanus Takes Control of Additional Cities | Antiochus VII was killed. Hyrcanus finally achieved independence and took control of Idumea, Samaria, Beit She'an, and other territories. He converted the Idumeans to Judaism. | Antiochus VII was killed. Hyrcanus finally achieved independence and took control of Idumea, Samaria, Beit She'an, and other territories. He converted the Idumeans to Judaism. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
98 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -104 | -103 | Judah Aristobulus | Judah Aristobulus, 104–103 BCE—a son of Hyrcanus, he was the first Hasmonean ruler to assume the title of king. He completed the conquest of Galilee, marking Hasmonean independence in the fullest sense. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
99 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -103 | -76 | The Reign of Alexander Jannaeus | The reign of Alexander Jannaeus, 103–76 BCE • The Hasmonean kingdom reached its greatest extent. • His realm stretched from Edom in the south to the vicinity of Antioch and Sidon in the north, from Transjordan in the east to the Mediterranean coast in the west. • Leadership became increasingly concentrated in the king's hands: the phrase "Council of the Jews" disappeared from his later coins. • The offices of king and high priest were united in a single person. • The Hasmoneans' historic alliance with Rome was abandoned. • A halakhic upheaval was accompanied by the massacre of Pharisees who opposed the concentration of all authority in the king's hands. Hasmonean state-building throughout the land, and especially in Jerusalem: • The Hasmonean palace at Jericho, supplied with water by an aqueduct. • Hasmonean fortresses at Alexandrion—Sartaba—Hyrcania, and other sites. • In Jerusalem: the First Wall and possibly the Second Wall; the Upper and Lower Cities; the Hasmonean palace in the Upper City; and possibly the Lower Aqueduct. | The reign of Alexander Jannaeus, 103–76 BCE • The Hasmonean kingdom reached its greatest extent. • His realm stretched from Edom in the south to the vicinity of Antioch and Sidon in the north, from Transjordan in the east to the Mediterranean coast in the west. • Leadership became increasingly concentrated in the king's hands: the phrase "Council of the Jews" disappeared from his later coins. • The offices of king and high priest were united in a single person. • The Hasmoneans' historic alliance with Rome was abandoned. • A halakhic upheaval was accompanied by the massacre of Pharisees who opposed the concentration of all authority in the king's hands. Hasmonean state-building throughout the land, and especially in Jerusalem: • The Hasmonean palace at Jericho, supplied with water by an aqueduct. • Hasmonean fortresses at Alexandrion—Sartaba—Hyrcania, and other sites. • In Jerusalem: the First Wall and possibly the Second Wall; the Upper and Lower Cities; the Hasmonean palace in the Upper City; and possibly the Lower Aqueduct. | The reign of Alexander Jannaeus, 103–76 BCE • The Hasmonean kingdom reached its greatest extent. • His realm stretched from Edom in the south to the vicinity of Antioch and Sidon in the north, from Transjordan in the east to the Mediterranean coast in the west. • Leadership became increasingly concentrated in the king's hands: the phrase "Council of the Jews" disappeared from his later coins. • The offices of king and high priest were united in a single person. • The Hasmoneans' historic alliance with Rome was abandoned. • A halakhic upheaval was accompanied by the massacre of Pharisees who opposed the concentration of all authority in the king's hands. Hasmonean state-building throughout the land, and especially in Jerusalem: • The Hasmonean palace at Jericho, supplied with water by an aqueduct. • Hasmonean fortresses at Alexandrion—Sartaba—Hyrcania, and other sites. • In Jerusalem: the First Wall and possibly the Second Wall; the Upper and Lower Cities; the Hasmonean palace in the Upper City; and possibly the Lower Aqueduct. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
100 | Nir Topper | Hasmonean Period | Second Temple Period | -76 | -67 | The Rule of Salome Alexandra, Who Succeeded Her Husband Alexander Jannaeus |