ITEM NO.

The act of giving up a legal right, especially the right to own property. When property is abandoned, it becomes res nullius—meaning it belongs to no one—and anyone who takes possession of it can legally claim ownership. An item is considered abandoned if it can be shown that the original owner has discarded it and no longer cares what happens to it. Such an item cannot be stolen because it no longer legally belongs to anyone. However, property placed in a dustbin is not considered abandoned because the owner intends it to be collected as trash. In marine insurance, abandonment means the insured person gives up all rights to a ship or cargo after a serious loss, called constructive total loss. The insured must notify the insurer within a reasonable time to transfer ownership of the ship or cargo to the insurer, treating the loss as if it were total. In civil law cases, abandonment means giving up part or all of a legal claim or appeal. This happens officially when a notice of discontinuance is served. In family law, abandonment is when a parent or guardian leaves a child under 16 without care or support. A child is not abandoned if the parent knows and agrees that someone else is caring for the child. Courts may allow a child to be adopted without parental consent if the parent has abandoned the child.

1. When a person’s assets are not enough to pay all their debts, abatement is the fair reduction in how much each creditor receives. 2. When an estate (property left after death) does not have enough money to cover all gifts (legacies) in a will, those gifts are reduced or cancelled in order of priority. For example, general gifts reduce first, then specific gifts if necessary. If a will leaves money or items to different people but the estate cannot fully pay them all after debts, the amounts each person receives are lowered proportionally unless the will says otherwise. 3. In land law, abatement can mean a reduction or cancellation of money owed, such as rent being lowered if a building is damaged by fire. 4. In cases of nuisances (harmful or annoying situations), abatement is the removal or stopping of the nuisance. A person harmed can remove the nuisance but must avoid causing extra damage and usually must warn the owner of the nuisance before doing so. Local authorities can also issue official orders to stop nuisances. 5. Historically, abatement meant ending a legal case because of changes like death or bankruptcy of one party. Now this is no longer the case, and such changes do not stop a case from continuing if the issue survives.

Wrongfully taking someone away or holding them against their will, often by force or trickery. This includes taking children illegally (child abduction), keeping someone imprisoned without legal authority (false imprisonment), or kidnapping someone.

A Latin phrase meaning "from the beginning." Something that is void ab initio is invalid from the start as if it never existed. For example, if a contract is void due to a mistake from the beginning, no one can gain rights from it later.

A Latin term meaning "from a person who dies without a will." When someone dies ab intestato, their property is distributed according to the rules of intestacy (law about inheritance when there is no will).

The removal of an embryo or unborn baby from the womb before it can survive on its own outside the mother. In law, abortion is generally illegal unless it follows strict rules, such as being performed before 24 weeks of pregnancy and when continuing the pregnancy would seriously risk the mother’s physical or mental health, or if the unborn child would have severe disabilities. Abortions must be done in approved medical facilities and certified by two doctors as necessary under the law. The difference between abortion and contraception is important: contraception prevents pregnancy, while abortion ends an existing pregnancy. Doctors can refuse to perform abortions if they have a strong personal objection. A husband cannot legally stop his wife from having a lawful abortion if she chooses to have one.

When a person involved in a legal case, either as a party or witness, does not appear in court as required. In civil cases, specific rules apply about the consequences of absence. In criminal cases, a trial may sometimes continue even if the accused or prosecutor is not present, but judges must be very careful before allowing this.

Complete and unconditional. For example, an absolute court order is one that takes full effect immediately, unlike a rule nisi, which is a temporary order that becomes final only if no objections are raised by a certain date.

A form of ending a criminal case where a person is found guilty or pleads guilty, but the court decides not to punish them at all. The person is released without any penalty or further legal consequences. The discharge is “absolute” because no conditions or restrictions are attached, unlike a conditional discharge where certain conditions must be met. It is effectively a formal way of saying no punishment will be given, although the conviction may still be recorded. This term relates closely to “discharge,” which generally means the ending of legal proceedings or release from legal obligation.

A complete legal protection for certain statements or communications, meaning that the person who made them cannot be sued for defamation, no matter what. This protection applies when statements are made in specific official contexts, such as in Parliament, in papers published by Parliament, during court or judicial proceedings, or in official communications between high-level government officials. It also covers fair and accurate reports of such judicial proceedings. Laws like the Defamation Act 1996 and Defamation Act 2013 have expanded this protection to include reports from international courts and courts outside the UK. In some special cases, this privilege can be waived, allowing the statement to be used as evidence in defamation cases. This differs from “qualified privilege,” which offers protection only under certain conditions.

A fundamental human right guaranteed by the European Convention on Human Rights that cannot be lawfully limited or violated under any circumstances, regardless of public interest or government reasons. Examples include freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, and protections against torture, cruel or inhuman treatment, and degrading punishment. These rights are unconditional and must always be respected by law and governments. This is different from “qualified rights,” which can be restricted under specific lawful conditions.

A legal principle historically held, especially in the United Kingdom, that a foreign state (country) cannot be sued or taken to court in another country’s legal system under any circumstances. This idea was meant to show respect between countries by protecting government actions from legal challenges abroad. However, during the 20th century, as states began running businesses, giving these businesses immunity created unfair commercial advantages. Because of this, the strict version of sovereign immunity was gradually abandoned internationally. The UK adjusted its laws through court decisions and legislation, allowing some exceptions. For example, former heads of state can be held accountable for serious crimes like torture or genocide. This change reflects the modern view that state immunity is not absolute but can have limits, especially regarding human rights violations or commercial activities.

A guarantee given by the state for ownership of registered land, meaning the owner has the strongest legal claim to that land and no one else can claim a better right to it. For freehold land, this is like owning it outright forever. For leasehold land, “absolute leasehold title” means the landlord definitely has the right to lease the land. This type of title may still be subject to certain legal restrictions or claims, called encumbrances (such as mortgages) and overriding interests (rights not recorded on the official register but still valid). Absolute title is different from “possessory title” (based on possession, not full legal ownership) or “qualified title” (with some doubts or conditions). It is an important concept in land registration systems.

A criminal offence involving dishonestly using, wasting, or diverting electricity without paying for it. Examples include bypassing an electricity meter, reconnecting a disconnected meter illegally, or getting a free telephone call unlawfully. Although gas or water meters can be bypassed and that counted as theft, electricity cannot technically be stolen because it is not considered “property” under theft laws. Instead, abstracting electricity is treated as dishonesty under law. The legal test for dishonesty is based on modern standards established by court cases. Before specific computer crime laws existed, hackers were sometimes charged under this offence for illegally accessing computer systems.

The act of taking or collecting water from natural sources such as rivers, lakes, or underground supplies. Usually, a licence is required from the relevant authority (like the Environment Agency in the UK) to legally abstract water. However, there are exceptions, for example if less than 20 cubic meters per day is taken, or if water is used for household or farming purposes (except certain types of irrigation), or taken for emergency use like firefighting or land drainage. Additional rules apply when water levels are low. The laws controlling water abstraction aim to manage water resources responsibly and sustainably.

A written summary of all the important documents and deeds proving someone’s legal ownership of land or an interest in land. It includes proof of ownership, any rights or claims others may have on the land, and the history of ownership. For registered land, it contains official copies of registration records and necessary documents such as marriage certificates to prove identity changes. For unregistered land, it traces ownership history usually back at least 15 years and lists any legal restrictions on the land. Traditionally, abstracts were brief notes, but now they usually consist of copies of original documents verified against the originals. Buyers or mortgage lenders use abstracts to check ownership rights before completing a sale or loan. When land is divided, copies of abstracts may be used instead of original documents.

A civil law idea from Roman times, now used in European law. It means using legal rights in a way that abuses the law’s purpose, especially when someone does actions only to gain benefits from European Union law unfairly. For example, if transactions are done mainly to get tax advantages that the law did not intend to allow, this is abus de droit. However, if there is another reason besides tax advantage, it is not abus de droit. English law struggles to fully accept this idea because it focuses on whether the action itself is legal or not, rather than the person’s motive. The UK’s General Anti-Abuse Rule uses a similar idea, focusing on the purpose behind actions.

When a very large or powerful business uses its control over the market unfairly to harm competition. This includes refusing to sell to a customer without a good reason or setting prices extremely low to push others out of the market (predatory pricing). Such actions break European Union law (Article 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union) and UK law (Chapter II of the Competition Act 1998). Regulators like the European Commission or UK Competition and Markets Authority can fine these businesses up to 10% of their global yearly sales. For example, Google was fined €4.34 billion in 2018.

When an adult (over 18) in charge of caring for a child or young person in places like hospitals, care homes, or children’s homes uses their position to engage in sexual activity with the child. The law treats this very seriously, with four specific offences under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, covering touching, sexual activity in a child’s presence, causing a child to engage in sexual acts, and causing a child to watch sexual acts. The highest punishment for such crimes is five years in prison.

A legal wrong that happens when someone uses the court or legal procedures not for their proper purpose, but for another hidden reason, causing harm or damage. Courts can stop or reject cases that are clearly unfair, pointless, or brought in bad faith as an abuse of the legal process. This is similar to malicious prosecution.

When someone gets control or ownership of a future interest in property earlier than originally planned. For example, if a tenant ends a lease early, the landlord’s right to the property (called reversion) happens sooner. Or when a will leaves property to someone for life but that person dies early, the next person entitled gets their interest immediately.

When a person agrees to the exact terms of an offer, making it a legally binding contract, provided other conditions are met. Acceptance must happen while the offer is still valid, match the offer’s terms exactly (no changes), be unconditional, and be communicated to the offeror. Acceptance can be shown by words, writing, or actions. Sometimes acceptance is considered valid once posted in the mail (postal rule), if both parties expect mail communication. Electronic messages or telephone acceptance are usually valid only when received during business hours. If an offer rewards an act, doing the act itself counts as acceptance.

When the person who must pay a bill of exchange (called the drawee) agrees in writing and signs the bill to accept the payment order from the person who created the bill (the drawer). Signing alone usually counts as acceptance, often with the word “accepted” on the bill. Once accepted, the drawee becomes the main person responsible for paying the bill.

A special acceptance of a bill of exchange made to protect the reputation of the person who created or endorsed the bill. If the bill was not accepted or paid and was formally protested, someone not originally liable can accept the bill “for honour” in writing and sign it. This person promises to pay the bill if the original payer fails to do so after formal procedures. They are responsible to the bill holder and others later involved with the bill.

1. When a country formally agrees to join an international treaty or organization, like a country becoming a member of the European Union by signing agreements. 2. When a royal family member becomes king or queen immediately after the previous monarch dies or steps down. 3. The right of a property owner to everything produced by or naturally added to their property, such as fruit from trees, young animals, or land formed by soil deposits, as well as buildings or plants added to the land.

Land that the public is allowed to enter and use for outdoor activities like walking or recreation, under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000. This includes areas like mountains, moors, heath, common land, land over 600 meters above sea level, or land specially dedicated for public access. Also called the right to roam.

1. Someone who helps, encourages, or plans with another person to commit a crime, even if they do not directly carry out the illegal act. The law treats such helpers as equally responsible as the person who commits the crime. 2. Someone who knowingly helps a person who committed a crime to avoid being caught or punished. To be legally responsible, the accessory must have the right state of mind (intent or knowledge) during the crime.

When someone who is not a trustee knowingly and dishonestly helps a trustee break their legal duty to manage property or money properly. This helper is legally responsible for losses caused by the dishonest actions, even if they never had control of the trust assets. Such a person may be called a constructive trustee, but this term can be confusing and is better avoided. Whether the person’s behavior is dishonest is judged by an objective standard.

Under the Access to Neighbouring Land Act of 1992, a landowner has the legal right to enter another person’s land if it is necessary to carry out repairs or maintenance on their own property. A court called the County Court can issue an access order, which details how much access is allowed and any payment to be made for this. This order must be officially recorded so that future owners of the land recognize this right.

Refers to an unintentional event that causes harm or damage. In law, it is often discussed in relation to fatal accidents (where someone dies), mistakes, or accidents involving vehicles on the road (road traffic accidents).

A bill of exchange (a written order to pay money) that is accepted by an accommodation party. This party signs the bill without receiving any money or value, simply to lend their name or credit to help someone else. The accommodation party is legally responsible to pay the holder who owns the bill.

A person involved in committing a crime, either as one of the main offenders (principal) or someone who helps after the crime has been committed (accessory). Additional evidence from others may be required to support accusations against an accomplice.

1. In contract law, it means that one party agrees to accept a different or lesser performance than originally agreed in the contract, which ends the obligation of the other party. This usually requires a new agreement where something new is exchanged (consideration). For example, if a person owes £1,000 but the creditor agrees to accept £900 earlier, this agreement settles the debt. 2. In defamation law, it refers to when the person making a complaint accepts an apology and compensation, so they cannot continue legal action. This is meant to resolve disputes quickly when the defendant made an honest mistake.

A legal remedy requiring one person (such as a partner or trustee) to explain and pay back money they have received or should have received on behalf of another. This can be used together with other legal claims or by itself. It can be used to calculate how much profit or loss has been made and to make the responsible party pay what is owed. For example, if a person gains money unfairly or takes a bribe, an account may be demanded.

The length of time for which a company prepares its financial reports and accounts. Corporation tax (a tax on company profits) is charged based on the profits made during this period, which cannot be longer than 12 months. Certain events, like a company stopping business, automatically end an accounting period.

The methods and rules used by a business to prepare its financial statements, including how profits, assets, and debts are calculated. The United Kingdom Financial Reporting Council sets standards called Financial Reporting Standards, also known as generally accepted accounting practice (GAAP). These follow four key principles: the business is assumed to continue (going concern), methods are consistent, cautious estimates are used (prudence), and income is matched with expenses (matching). Tax calculations depend on these practices. Different countries may have different accounting rules, and sometimes companies can choose between acceptable methods as long as the accounts fairly reflect the business situation. Small businesses may use simpler cash accounting methods under certain thresholds.

A court order requiring a financial institution, such as a bank, to provide information about a customer's financial transactions. This is usually used during investigations of crimes like money laundering. Legal requirements for this order are found in the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002.

A legal remedy available instead of damages, where the person harmed can claim the amount of money that the wrongdoer earned from the illegal act. For example, if someone unlawfully copies copyrighted material and profits from it, the owner can claim those profits.

Financial statements prepared yearly by a company showing its financial condition. Companies must keep proper records of money received and spent and show their assets and debts. Annual accounts include a balance sheet, profit and loss statement, and other reports depending on the company type. Public companies must present accounts to shareholders at meetings and file them publicly. Smaller companies may have reduced requirements. Members of the company have the right to see the accounts.

The natural process by which land increases slowly over time due to the gradual movement or deposit of water, sand, or soil. For example, when a river changes course slowly and leaves new land, or when new land forms at a river mouth. The new land legally becomes part of the original land, and the owner or state gains rights over it. This is different from sudden changes caused by floods or storms.

A term in wills where if a person who is supposed to receive a gift dies before the person making the will, their share is added to the shares of other beneficiaries. For example, if money is left to brothers who survive the will-maker, and one brother dies first, his share is divided among the remaining brothers.

The process of continuously adding the income earned from a fund to its capital, causing the fund to grow over time. Laws limit how long income can be accumulated, for example, usually for up to 21 years or during the life of certain people. Income is often accumulated when the beneficiary is a minor or when the terms of a trust give discretion on when to pay the income.

A system used in criminal justice where the outcome is decided by the arguments of the prosecution and defence. Each side presents evidence and tries to prove their case, while the judge acts as a neutral referee to ensure the rules are followed. This system is common in countries with common law legal systems. It contrasts with inquisitorial systems where judges take a more active role in investigating.

Under the Offences Against the Person Act 1861, it is illegal to throw, apply, or cast any corrosive liquid or harmful substance on another person intending to burn, injure, disfigure, or seriously harm them. It does not matter if physical injury actually happens or not. Due to a rise in these attacks, laws were changed in 2018 to control strong acids like sulphuric acid. Now, it is illegal to buy, import, or keep chemical products with more than 15% sulphuric acid without a special licence from the Home Office. People who use these chemicals for work or business do not need a licence but must report thefts or suspicious losses. This law helps reduce attacks using dangerous chemicals.

A confirmation in a property title document that a person can see and copy deeds (official papers) related to land not in their possession (acknowledgment), combined with a promise from the holder of those documents to keep them safe (undertaking). For example, when part of land without formal registration is sold, the owner keeps all original deeds but agrees to let the buyer see and copy relevant documents and to protect them. This helps the buyer prove ownership of their part of the land. Usually, sellers give all title documents to buyers, but if not, acknowledgment and undertaking are needed. Personal representatives or trustees usually give only acknowledgment, not undertaking. Breaking this promise can lead to legal damages.

A legal reply a defendant files when responding to a claim in court, saying they have received the claim and will contest it. If the defendant cannot file a full defense in time or wants to challenge the court’s authority, they file this acknowledgment. It gives the defendant an extra 14 days to prepare their defense, meaning they have 28 days after the claim is served to respond. After the defendant files this, the court informs the claimant. If the defendant does not respond on time, the claimant may win the case automatically.

A Latin phrase meaning "from the heavens to the centre of the earth." It relates to the principle "cuius est solum, eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos," which means the owner of land owns everything above and below it, from the sky down to the earth's centre.

Clear or implied agreement or acceptance. In law, it is important to distinguish between simply knowing about a situation and actually agreeing to it. For example, if someone is injured but knew about the risk, this does not mean they agreed to be harmed.

A court decision that a person accused of a crime is found not guilty. After acquittal, the person cannot be tried again for the same crime unless new important evidence appears. However, this decision does not stop civil courts from hearing related cases.

A French legal term meaning a point so clear that it does not need further legal discussion. In European law, if a national court thinks the law is clear on a question, it can decide the case without asking the European Court of Justice for guidance.

A Latin legal principle meaning "a personal action dies with the person." It means that legal claims for injury or contract normally end when the injured or offending person dies. This is less common now because laws allow claims to continue after death, but the rule still applies in defamation law, where a dead person cannot be defamed.

Also called "actio communis," a Latin term meaning "action of the people." In international law, it refers to a lawsuit brought to protect a general interest of the international community, rather than a specific state’s interest. However, current international law does not recognize such actions unless the rights clearly belong to the state making the claim.

A Latin term meaning "action for how much less." It is a legal claim by a buyer asking for a reduction in price because the purchased goods have a minor defect reducing their value. Under the Sales of Goods Act 1979, if the product is not of satisfactory quality, the buyer can ask for a fair price reduction.

A proposed United Nations treaty intended to improve international cooperation to stop human rights abuses related to business activities, especially by large companies operating in multiple countries. It aims to provide justice and remedies for victims and applies to all business enterprises, not only large multinational ones. It also aligns with UN guidelines on business and human rights.

Rules in child custody orders requiring a parent or guardian to take part in certain activities, like classes or counseling, to help improve or maintain their relationship with the child or address problems such as violent behavior. These are made under the Children Act 1989.

A condition ordered by a court as part of a youth rehabilitation program, requiring an offender to do specific activities. These activities usually aim to repair harm to victims or help prevent the offender from committing crimes again.

A legal defense used in nuisance cases when damage happens due to an independent, unexpected action by someone outside the defendant's control. This can excuse the defendant from liability if they could not foresee or control the damage caused by the stranger.

An event caused by natural forces (like storms, earthquakes, or floods) that is so unusual and severe that no one could have predicted or prevented it. It can be used as a legal defense, but it rarely succeeds because courts often expect some preparation for natural risks. Also called force majeure.

A law passed by both Houses of Parliament and approved by the monarch (royal assent). It sets out legal rules in a formal written document. If the House of Lords delays a law passed by the House of Commons, certain rules allow the law to pass without their consent. Laws have a long title summarizing their purpose and a short title with the year for easy reference. Most laws come into effect on the day they receive royal assent unless another date is specified. Laws are classified as public general Acts, local Acts, or personal Acts depending on their scope and audience. Public Acts are automatically recognized by courts, while private Acts must be specifically mentioned.

An official action taken by a government or its agents, sometimes involving force, that affects someone who is not a citizen of that country. Courts cannot judge or overturn such actions, except through diplomatic means or treaties. This rule is called the act of state doctrine. It protects sovereign governments from foreign legal challenges. Modern courts have limited how widely this doctrine applies.

Any injury or hurt that affects a person's health or comfort more than a minor or temporary issue. This includes physical pain, bruising, or psychiatric injury beyond simple fear or anxiety. It is an offence under the Offences Against the Person Act 1861, punishable by up to five years in prison. There is a more serious version if the harm is caused because of the victim's race or religion. Also, attacking emergency workers is treated more severely under special laws.

When a person truly knows about rights or claims that conflict with their own interests. For example, if someone buys land and knows about another person's claim that is not registered but still valid, they must respect that claim. This rule is replaced by registration rules in registered land systems. Related terms are constructive notice (where a person should have known) and imputed notice (where knowledge is legally attributed).

A loss in shipping insurance where a ship or cargo is destroyed or damaged so badly that it can no longer be used, or the insured person loses it forever. If the insurance policy sets a fixed value, that amount is paid. If not, the payment is based on the insurable value of the ship or cargo. This differs from constructive total loss, where the ship or cargo is damaged but not completely lost.

A Latin legal principle meaning a person cannot be found guilty of a crime unless two things exist together: a wrongful act (actus reus) and a guilty mind or intention (mens rea). Most crimes require both a physical action or conduct visible outside the person, and a certain mental state or intention to commit that act. Without both, there is no crime.

A Latin term meaning "guilty act." It refers to the physical action, behaviour, or conduct that the law prohibits. This can include an actual act, a failure to act when there is a legal duty (called an omission), or sometimes a particular result or situation. For example, theft involves taking property (the act) that belongs to someone else. In murder, the actus reus includes the act causing death. It covers everything about the crime except the accused person's mental state.

A Latin phrase meaning "to collect the goods." It is a temporary court permission given to a person to manage or protect certain assets in an estate that might be at risk if not handled quickly. For instance, if the estate contains perishable items, the court may allow someone to sell or care for them until full estate administration is granted. This is a limited role and ends once the full legal representatives take over.

Extra money an employee chooses to pay into their pension plan to increase their retirement benefits. These contributions can be made to the employer's pension scheme or to a separate scheme chosen by the employee. Payments are made after basic tax deductions and are boosted by government tax relief.

The official address that a person involved in a court case provides for receiving legal documents and notices. This could be the person’s own address or their lawyer’s address. Any legal papers sent to this address are considered properly delivered to that person.

When a specific gift mentioned in a will no longer exists in the estate when the testator (person who made the will) dies, the gift is cancelled or reduced. For example, if a will gives a particular house, but the testator sold that house before dying, the gift is "adeemed" and no longer exists. This can also happen if property given earlier replaces the gift. General gifts (not specific items) are not affected by ademption.