The states of mind that cause unrest and obstruct the realisation of ultimate reality. The six root affl ictions are ignorance, desire, anger, pride, doubt, and wrong views. The Abhidharma teachings list a further twenty secondary afflictions.

The all-base consciousness is the eighth aspect of consciousness in the eight consciousness model of the mind according to Yogācāra. According to this system, consciousness that is not based on sense perception has three aspects: (1) the common mental consciousness, which operates on the basis of discursive thought ('mental consciousness'); (2) an innate identification with the subtle continuum of experience ('afflicted mind'); and (3) the subtle continuum of mind itself ('all-base consciousness'). The all-base consciousness is so called because it is the basis for storing the latencies generated by actions of body, speech, and mind, and thus functions as the basis for the experience of their results. It comprises two aspects: a causal aspect composed of seeds and latencies; and a resultant aspect that is the all-base itself, the support the seeds are placed in. The existence of this consciousness is accepted only by the Mahāyāna schools (Madhyamaka and Cittamātra).

Generally, conceptual thoughts apprehending any phenomenon (dharmas) as truly existent. According to Gorampa it refers to conceptual thoughts apprehending phenomena in any of the four conceptually possible ways, i.e. as existent, as nonexistent, as both existent and nonexistent, or as neither existent nor nonexistent.

An individual on the Buddhist path who has attained the exalted state of those who gained direct insight into ultimate reality and thereby removed the afflictions obstructing liberation. There are four kinds of ārya beings: śrāvaka ārya, pratyeka ārya, bodhisattva ārya and the fully awakened ārya or buddha.

The goal of Buddhist practice, attained by the elimination of ignorance. Three types of awakening are: śrāvaka arhatship, pratyekabuddhahood and the complete and perfect awakening of the Mahāyāna. Complete awakening is the state of buddhahood, when all veils obstructing ultimate freedom and omniscience are forever removed from the mind. The two veils are the veil of mental afflictions and the cognitive veil of the latencies of these afflictions. See also two veils.

The āyatanas are ‘doors’ through which consciousness arises. They consist of the six inner sense powers (i.e. the five sense faculties plus the mind) and their six corresponding objects (i.e. form, sound, odour, taste, tangible objects and phenomena or objects of mental consciousness). Thus, there are twelve bases of perception.

Lit. 'in-between.' This term usually denotes the state in-between two lives: after death and before the next rebirth. In this state the mind can still have various experiences which can be anything from extremely pleasant and of great clarity to utterly terrifying and confusing, depending on one’s latent tendencies.

The levels of spiritual attainment traversed gradually by a bodhisattva on the path to awakening. According to the Mahāyāna path, there are ten stages or bhūmis, each corresponding to the attainment of one of the ten perfections (see perfections), by which advanced trainees progress on the path. The first bhūmi, called Supreme Joy, is attained with the initial insight into ultimate reality.The following stages are known as (2) Stainless; (3) Luminous; (4) Radiant; (5) Difficult to Train in, (6) Directly Approaching, (7) Gone Far, (8) Immoveable; (9) Excellent Intelligence; and (10) Cloud of Dharma.The attainment of perfect buddhahood, which is the ultimate goal, is also referred to as the eleventh bhūmi.

Bodhicitta is of two types: relative and ultimate. Relative bodhicitta (Tib. kun rdzob byang sems) refers to the resolve to attain buddhahood for the sake of all beings and the practices motivated by this intention, whereas ultimate bodhicitta (Tib. don dam pa’i byang sems) refers to the realization of emptiness or ultimate reality.

A person who has attained buddhahood (i.e., true and complete awakening), perfectly free of all obscurations and endowed with perfect wisdom, compassion and the ability to help others. One of the Three Jewels or objects of refuge for Buddhists.

One of the four main Indian Buddhist schools of thought, the Mind Only school belongs to the Mahāyāna tradition. It is also known as Vijñānavāda (School of Consciousness) or Vijñaptimātra (Cognition-Only). Related to the Yogācāra tradition founded by the Indian masters Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, the Cittamātra school is based on the sūtras of the third turning of the Dharma wheel and the teachings of the Bodhisattva Maitreya. The unique approach of this school consists in aiming to demonstrate that everything in the world is nothing but mind; in other words, the objects one relates to are nothing but mental representations devoid of external independent existence. Hence the name Mind Only. From the perspective of the Madhyamaka, the Cittamātra still maintains a realist view, albeit the most subtle one from among the four major tenets.

The cognitive veil comprises the latencies, or subtle traces, the mental afflictions leave on the mind, including the subtle clinging to dualistic appearances. It is the obscuration preventing the attainment of omniscience or buddhahood. It is gradually removed on the subsequent bhūmis by the repeated familiarization with the realization of emptiness. Also see veils.

This is the mode of perceiving by non-conceptual subjective perception, through any one of the six sense consciousnesses. It perceives whatever appears to it without any process of elimination, in contrast to conceptual subjective mind, which produces a generic image of the object by a process of elimination and is thus known as "eliminative engager."

This term refers to pointing out the logical absurdity in the proponent’s argument. Identifying the contradictory consequences or logical absurdities in the proponent’s argument without putting forward its own proposition, is the main method of disputation utilized by the Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka school when debating against both the inner (Buddhist) and outer (non-Buddhist) realist schools concerning ultimate reality.

The process of the arising of conditioned phenomena. In term of the conditioned existence of sentient beings, it refers to the process of rebirth based on ignorance which is described in twelve steps: ignorance, karmic formations, consciousness, name and form, sense bases, contact, sensation, craving, clinging, becoming, birth, and aging and death.

When capitalized, this term refers to the Buddha’s teachings and the path of practice and experience based on them. In this sense it it one of the Three Jewels or objects of refuge for Buddhists. In general, however, the term dharma has more than ten different meanings, including phenomenon and religious tradition.

According to the Madhyamaka scholars who assert that there are three kāyas in the Pāramitāyāna, it refers to non-differentiation of complete cessation and omniscient realization of complete Buddha and it is a synonym of svabhāvakāya. See also: kāya.

There are eighteen elements of perception, comprising the twelve bases of perception (āyatanas), consisting of the six sense faculties and the six sense objects; and the related six types of consciousness, i.e., the consciousness of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. For an instance of perception to take place, the related bases of perception and consciousness have to function together. For example, the sensory basis of the eye, the sense object form, and the consciousness of the eye
cooperate to produce a visual perception of an object. The dhātus comprise all the compounded and uncompounded phenomena, in terms of being either the object, the supporting base or the primary causes of perception.

Eight meditative attainments based on the first three of the eight liberations. They are called "bases of mastery," because they enable the meditator to overcome and master sense perceptions, thus creating the conditions to enter deep states of absorption. The first four are based on the first two liberations: (1) while discerning internal forms, one sees a limited number of external forms, both beautiful and repulsive; (2) while discerning internal forms, one sees an unlimited number of external forms; (3) while not discerning internal forms, one sees a limited number of external forms; and (4) while not discerning internal forms, one sees an unlimited number of external forms. The last four are based on the third liberation: (5-8) while not discerning internal forms, one sees external forms that are blue, yellow, red and white. For more details consult the eighth chapter of Vasubandhu’s Treasury of Abhidharma (Abhidharmakośa) and section 2 of the second chapter of Asaṅga's Compendium of Abhidharma (Abhidharmasamuccaya). See eight liberations.

Eight increasingly advanced meditative attainments based on various levels of absorption. They are called liberations because they free the mind from afflictions. They are: (1) “liberation of observing (external) form while discerning (internal) form,” in which the meditator enters absorption based on repulsiveness, where both the meditator’s own form as well as external bodies are visualized in a certain way; (2) “liberation of observing (external) form while not discerning (internal) form,” where one enters absorption based on external forms only; (3) “liberation of beauty,” where a beautiful object of meditation is observed as the basis for absorption; (4-7) the four formless absorptions; and (8) the attainment of cessation. Consult the Abhidharmakośa and the Abhidharmasamuccaya for more details.

The eight main concerns with which human beings are preoccupied, an attachment to which represents a serious obstacle on the path of liberation. The eight concerns are happiness, gain, praise, and good reputation, and their counterparts (i.e., suffering, loss, blame, and bad reputation).

This is the mode of perceiving engaged in by the conceptual mind in order to produce an image of its object. For example, the concept of tree is arrived at by eliminating non-tree. It is said that what we perceive directly through the conceptual mind is a generic image of an object rather than the specifically characterized object itself.

A name for ultimate reality. It generally refers to the fact that since phenomena arise depending on causes and conditions, they lack an inherent substantial nature of their own. The insight into this reality functions as the gateway to the freedom from conceptual proliferations, which are at the root of karma and the afflictions. In the Yogācāra tradition, emptiness is defined in terms of the three natures as the non-existence of the imputed nature in the dependent nature, the realisation of which is the perfected nature. It is the existence of the non-existence of the dualistic entities of apprehended objects and the apprehending mind within imagination of the unreal.

The belief in an unchanging, independent essential nature of some sort (i.e. a permanent god, a unchanging soul, the essence of physical matter, or the mind). With regard to the individual person, it is the belief in the existence of a personal self, a permanent, unitary, and independent identity. From the Madhyamaka perspective, it is also the view asserting the inherent existence of the perfected nature (see three natures).

Five signs symptomatic of the degenerate age we live in, in which the Buddha’s teaching is in decline. They are the degenerations of (1) time—the degeneration of outer conditions and the increase in wars, famines, and natural catastrophes; (2) beings—the increase in beings’ physical and mental abnormalities; (3) lifespan—the decline of beings’ life force; (4) afflictions—the intensification of mental afflictions in beings; and (5) views—the proliferation of wrong views.

Five signs symptomatic of the degenerate age we live in, in which the Buddha’s teaching is in decline. They are the degenerations of (1) time—the degeneration of outer conditions and the increase in wars, famines, and natural catastrophes; (2) beings—the increase in beings’ physical and mental abnormalities; (3) lifespan—the decline of beings’ life force; (4) afflictions—the intensifi cation of mental afflictions in beings; and (5) views—the proliferation of wrong views.

Five actions, the negativity of which are so severe, that they bring about certain rebirth in the hell realm in the next life, without that being going through the experience of the intermediate state. They are: (1) intentionally killing one's father; (2) intentionally killing one's mother; (3) intentionally killing an arhat; (4) maliciously drawing blood from the body of a tathāgata; and (5) intentionally creating a schism in the Sangha.

One of the five skandhas. Form encompasses the physical dimension of experience and consists of the five sense faculties and their respective objects. It fundamentally consists of the four elements (earth, water, fire and wind) and comprises everything that arises on the basis of these elements. Also see skandhas.

One of the five skandhas, it includes all phenomena not listed under form, sensations, perceptions and consciousness. Generally, it refers to the forces acting on compounded phenomena, responsible for shaping events. Two types of formative factors are distinguished: those associated with mind, which are the mental factors, and those not associated with mind. Formative factors not associated with mind are 14 or 23 different forces, depending on the tradition, including factors like obtainment, nonobtainment, homogeneity, etc. Only the Sarvāstivāda tradition accepts these as real phenomena. According to the Mahayana schools, they are merely designations. Also see mental factors, skandhas.

Four ways the arising of a real entity can be conceived: arising from itself, from something other, from both itself and other, or without a cause. In analysis, each of these four ways is seen to be untenable. The correct view is that of dependent arising, free of extremes.

The four altruistic attitudes of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. They are immeasurable in the sense that they are generated towards the infinite number of sentient beings, thus making the mind cultivating them immeasurable. In the Theravada tradition, they are known as the four brahmavihāras (“abodes of Brahmā”) because their cultivation can lead to rebirth in the divine realm of Brahmā.

These are Vaibhāṣika, Sautrāntika, Cittamātra and Madhyamaka. They are differentiated largely by their differing definitions of the two realities. Vaibhāṣika asserts that the indivisible atom and the smallest fraction of time are ultimate reality; Sautrāntika asserts that ‘functioning thing’ is ultimate reality and Cittamātra asserts that among functioning things, only mind exists absolutely. On the other hand, although the Mādhayamika school accepts phenomena at the relative level, it does not accept any existence whatsoever at the ultimate level.

The youngest of the four main traditions of Buddhism established in Tibet, also known as the Ganden School. Th is tradition follows the teachings of Lama Tsongkhapa Lobsang Dragpa (1357-1419). It is particularly renowned for its emphasis on monastic training and its rigorous scholastic education.

A generally characterized phenomenon is a mentailly created abstraction. The concept 'table', for instance, is a generally characterized phenomenon, while the specific table that is seen or touched is a specifically characteristized phenomenon (svalakṣaṇa, rang mtshan). The process by which a generally characterized phenomenon is generated is by exclusion. As it not possible to generate a conceptual category that includes all specific instances of tables, everything that does not qualify as a table is excluded at the same time, and this abstract category of exclusion is then laballed 'table.'

The generic image is the mental image object, which is superimposed by conceptual thought and which is its direct object. For instance, when we think of emptiness, the concept of emptiness is arrived at by eliminating non-emptiness. That emptiness is the generic image of emptiness, not the actual emptiness.

The spiritual affinity of an individual. It refers to natural affinity with a specific spiritual path and the potential to accomplish its result. According to the Yogācāra tradition there are five types of beings: those with a śrāvaka gotra, those with a pratyekabuddha gotra, those with a Mahāyāna gotra, those with an undefined gotra, and those with a cut-off gotra. According to Madhyamaka, this presentation is only an expedient means, as all beings eventually reach the perfect awakening of buddhahood.

The three types of existence in saṃsāra characterised by less obvious forms of suff ering than in the lower realms, and by the possibility of attaining liberation. They are the human realm, the realm of demi-gods, and the realm of divine beings.

The foundational Buddhist system of theory and practice based on the first turning of the Dharma wheel (i.e., the teaching of the Four Noble Truths). It is also defined as the path of individual liberation, emphasizing renunciation and taken by individuals of lesser abilities who are concerned mainly with their own liberation from suffering. Thus, in terms of doctrine and tenets, the term Hinayāna refers to the teachings of the two lower schools of the four Indian Buddhist tenets (i.e. Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika). In terms of causes and results, it refers to the śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha paths and their respective results. In this sense, it should not be conflated with the Theravada path, which may be practiced with the motivation to attain buddhahood for the sake of all beings.

Two types of ignorance are distinguished: the first is an incorrect understanding of the principle of karma, cause and effect, and thus leads to the accumulation of the causes of suffering. This is the ignorance that is one of the three mental poisons (desire, hatred and ignorance). The second kind of ignorance is a misunderstanding of the reality. It is twofold: the ignorance apprehending a self in the individual, which is the first of the twelve links of dependent arising, and the more subtle ignorance apprehending inherent identity in phenomena, which is the root of the twelve links. The latter is the most fundamental form of ignorance which gives rise to all other aspects of confusion and suffering.

The Jain tradition is an ancient Indian spiritual tradition, originating around the same time as Buddhism about 2,600 years ago. It is particularly known for its ascetic practices, such as the rejection of wearing clothes by the ascetics of the Digambara or Nirgrantha school (Tib. gcer bu pa).

One of the earliest schools of Tibetan Buddhism established during the second dissemination of the Dharma. The tradition was founded by disciples of Dromtönpa (1005-1064), who was himself a student of Atiśa. The emphasis in the Kadam tradition is on the practice of mind training (Tib. blo sbyong) and on the secrecy of tantric practice. Although it vanished as an independent school a long time ago, its teachings are preserved and cherished by all Tibetan traditions.

One of the major schools of Tibetan Buddhism, also known as the Practice Lineage (Tib. grub brgyud), established during the period of the second dissemination of the Dharma in Tibet. The teachings of this tradition go back to the translator Marpa (1012-1097), his foremost disciple, the celebrated yogin Milarepa (1040-1123), and the latter’s student Gampopa (1079-1173). The school is famous for its Mahāmudrā (‘Great Seal’) teachings on the nature of mind, and its yogic practices including the Six Yogas of Nāropa.

A buddha’s awakening has three dimensions or levels of manifestation, called kāyas. These are (1) the dharmakāya or dharma-body (Tib. chos sku), which is a buddha’s perfect realisation of ultimate reality, and is not perceptible to others; (2) the saṃbhogakāya or body of enjoyment (Tib. longs sku) – the pure manifestation of this realisation in forms perceptible to bodhisattvas on the highest level of realisation; and (3) the nirmāṇakāya or emanation body (Tib. sprul sku) – the manifestation of enlightenment accessible to ordinary beings. Sometimes a fourth kāya is added: the svabhāvikakāya or essence body (Tib. ngo bo nyid kyi sku), which refers to the inseparability of the three kāyas.

The imprints of deeds (of body, speech and mind) left on the all-base consciousness. It includes the seeds and the dormant latencies. Like seeds, latencies have the potential to produce specific results in accordance with their individual nature, but lie inactive, until the causes and conditions for them to ripen are met. They then manifest in the form of the various objects of the six senses (pleasant, unpleasant or neutral in accordance with the nature of the deeds they originate from), which in turn produces the impulse to act and thus produce new latencies. In this way, the vicious circle of samsara is kept alive, until the production of latencies is stopped by realising that these objects are nothing but mental projections and therefore not real.