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1 | Region | Title | Year | Author (surname, first name) | Institution of Author | Publication Type | Publication | Volume/Issue/Page Numbers/Publisher | Abstract | Link to Publication | Open Access (Yes/No) | |||||||||||||||||
2 | Africa | Journalist in Africa: A high-risk profession under threat | 2014 | Frère, Marie-Soleil | Univ Libre Bruxelles | Article | Journal of African Media Studies | 6(2) pp. 181-198 | Every year, several international organizations monitoring press freedom worldwide issue reports in which they underline the occupational hazards faced by journalists while reporting. Some African countries, such as Eritrea, Sudan, Somalia or Equatorial Guinea, have been regularly pinpointed at the bottom of these annual rankings. A few others (Cap Vert, Namibia, Niger, Ghana, South Africa) are crawling among the top 50 countries in the world. How do the indicators used by those organizations reveal a specific understanding of the professional practices and of the risks associated with it? Are they relevant to the reality of the daily practice of journalism on the African continent? Has this image led to particular measures aimed at preventing or self-regulating potential abuses in view of the risks incurred? Are there other ‘high-risk’ areas of the professional practice that these indicators fail to cover, and why? Starting from a reflection on the criteria used internationally to assess press freedom, and on the ‘risks’ associated with the profession, this article tries to show that the threats upon media professionals on the African continent are much more complex than those rankings and their indicators would suggest. | https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/intellect/jams/2014/00000006/00000002/art00005 | No | |||||||||||||||||
3 | Africa | In-Between Journalism and Media Development: Negotiating Journalist Safety within Decolonising African Contexts | 2023 | Milton, Viola Candice and Mano, Winston | University of South Africa and University of Westminster | Book Chapter | Decolonising Journalism Education in South Africa | Routledge | Media development has long been a staple in Africa and literature about its conceptualisations, practices and impact abound. One defining characteristic of this literature is that it focuses primarily on media development’s impact on the media’s ability to resist penetration by the state. This chapter outlines a re-theorisation of ‘journalist’ and ‘media development’ within the African context. While the combination of new communication technologies and citizen journalism is bringing new voices, new experiences and novel information into the information ecosystem, more work is needed on the political economy of citizen journalism, particularly in light of the increasing corporatisation and centralisation of the internet. Africa and the rest of the Global South have seen an upsurge in funding from international donors and aid agencies directed at supporting free and independent media in developing and transitional countries. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003393597-12/journalism-media-development-negotiating-journalist-safety-within-decolonising-african-contexts-viola-candice-milton-winston-mano | No | |||||||||||||||||
4 | Africa | Recruitment and Retention Practices in a Changing African News Media Ecosystem | 2023 | Mawindi Mabweazara, Hayes and Matsilele, Trust | University of Glasgow and Birmingham City University | Book Chapter | Happiness in Journalism | Routledge | This chapter maps out the contours of recruitment and retention practices in an increasingly complex African news media ecosystem in which traditional news media operate alongside a new crop of small but very vibrant media start-ups that are intentionally unencumbered by traditional journalistic and professional normative practices. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003364597-9/recruitment-retention-practices-changing-african-news-media-ecosystem-hayes-mawindi-mabweazara-trust-matsilele?context=ubx&refId=a0a4b1a0-9345-4786-81cd-da2f82b1318e | No | |||||||||||||||||
5 | Africa | Emergent Forms and Patterns of Online Harassment of Women Journalists in African countries | 2024 | Makwambeni, Blessing and Rudo Makwambeni, Patricia | Cape Peninsula University and University of Cape Town | Book Chapter | Patterns of Harassment in African Journalism | Routledge | The internet and digital platforms have contributed to the democratisation of the public sphere. A number of studies have shown how the internet and new digital platforms have brought subaltern voices into the mainstream. However, recent studies show that on the flip side, the cybersphere also promotes new forms of harassment that tend to disproportionately target women. In the field of journalism, online harassment that targets women journalists has reached epidemic proportions. Although several scholars have examined the threat posed by online harassment on women journalists, most of these studies have been conducted in developed countries. There is limited understanding of how the scourge manifests itself in African countries where patriarchy is still deeply entrenched, legislation is underdeveloped, and the media ecology is largely unsafe. Using a scoping review of existing literature on online harassment of women journalists in African countries, and a theoretical lens consisting of cyberfeminism and the role of the media in a democracy, this study examines emergent forms and patterns of online harassment experienced by women journalists in African countries, the different responses to the scourge, and the implications on democracy. Our findings show that women journalists in African countries experience different forms of online harassment that include cyberbullying, gendered trolling, threatening messages, and surveillance. Online harassment of women journalists in African countries largely takes place at an individual level as there are limited multi-level strategies that have been developed to engage with the scourge. The evidence analysed in the study shows that female journalists in Africa are more vulnerable to online harassment compared to their counterparts in the Global North due to the absence of multi-level governance interventions, deep-seated patriarchy, and semi-authoritarian contexts in which they work. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781032697604-5/emergent-forms-patterns-online-harassment-women-journalists-african-countries-blessing-makwambeni-patricia-rudo-makwambeni?context=ubx&refId=cbb25843-3783-4e44-8a79-1546018490f7 | No | |||||||||||||||||
6 | Africa | Time to Act Measures of Curbing Harassment of Journalists in African Newsrooms | 2024 | Tshuma, Bhekizulu and Tshuma, Lungile | National University of Science & Technology | Book Chapter | Patterns of Harassment in African Journalism | Routledge | This chapter discusses the safety measures that newsrooms should adopt to help fight various forms of harassment. The chapter comes against the background of previous studies having found that newsrooms are ill-prepared to address different forms of harassment. As a result, journalists are left with the burden of fighting threats on their own. This chapter outlines possible measures that newsrooms, government institutions, and media-related civil society organisations can possibly implement to help fight online and offline forms of harassment. Some of the possible solutions that have been put forward by this chapter include the setting up of the legal department within the newsrooms to help swiftly address cases of harassment and the need for an open and daily discussion on harassment so that victims can feel comfortable coming up in the open. Governments and civil society organisations should formulate harassment policies that newsrooms to be implemented by newsrooms. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781032697604-17/time-act-bhekizulu-tshuma-lungile-tshuma?context=ubx&refId=92943a53-5602-4506-87c3-6258709931a1 | No | |||||||||||||||||
7 | Africa (East) | New Digital Media: Freedom of Expression and Safeguarding Journalists in the Context of East Africa | 2020 | Kirabira, Tonny Raymond | University of Portsmouth | Article | Cross Cultural Human Rights Review | 2(1) pp. 49-71 | Many East African states have developed restrictive legal and policy measures regarding the use of the internet. This has resulted in the declining state of media freedom and safety of journalists. This article addresses freedom of expression as a pre-condition for safeguarding journalists in selected East African countries of Tanzania and Burundi. It highlights notable cases, where the regional court has emphasized the importance of press freedom as a precursor for democracy. It concludes that the relevant regional legal framework offers adequate protection for the safety of journalists. However, countries have not fully implemented their obligations. In particular, press and cyber laws create a chilling effect on the treatment of journalists. The article contributes to a broader interrogation of how discourses about the safety of journalists are constructed and applied in the context of growing online activity. | https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3708069 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
8 | Arab States | Freedom as a Value in Arab Media: Perceptions and Attitudes Among Journalists | 2002 | Hussein, Amin | The American University in Cairo | Article | Political Communication | 19(5), pp. 125-135 | This article examines the development of freedom of the press and censorship in Egypt and the Arab world. Further, it discusses patterns of influence on freedom of the press and their impact on Arab journalists. It finds that press freedom in Arab countries and the performance of Arab journalists are still threatened by a censorial political culture, one that develops in an environment usually dominated by a single political party. Overt censorship and self-censorship are commonplace in the Arab news media today and journalism education programs, just as the media themselves have, in fact, been recruited into a national enterprise for the production of propaganda. The technological changes sweeping the world will increase the pressure for change and make issues of censorship obsolete as journalists find outlets for reporting among transnational media. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10584600252907407 | No | |||||||||||||||||
9 | Arab States | Model course on safety of journalists: a guide for journalism teachers in the Arab States | 2017 | Foley, Michael; Arthurs, Clare and Abu-Fadil, Magda | UNESCO | Book | Model course on safety of journalists: a guide for journalism teachers in the Arab States | UNESCO | Safety of Journalists: A Model Course for the Arab States is a significant instalment in our UNESCO Series on Journalism Education. Developed in partnership with the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), the publication responds to the difficult situation of many journalists working in the Arab States region. Reflecting the vulnerability of such journalists, the Director-General’s 2016 Report on the Safety of Journalists and the Danger of Impunity records that this region registered the highest number of journalists’ killings – 78 deaths in all – in 2014-2015. | https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000248297?posInSet=2&queryId=c03990f6-9327-4bab-bf7d-cdcde9d2fcbf | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
10 | Arab States | Challenges facing Arab journalism, freedom, safety and economic security | 2018 | Harb, Zahera | City University | Article | Journalism | 20(1) pp. 110-113 | The Arab world was taken by surprise when mass protests erupted in Tunisia in December 2010, followed by mass protests in Egypt in January 2011. Much optimism was expressed towards a new era for journalism freedom in the Arab world, in Egypt specifically with the fall of Hosni Mubarak and the long reign of his authoritarian regime. The influx of private media mainly TV channels following his demise was remarkable. Seven years on from the Egyptian revolt, the state of journalism in Egypt has transferred from a state of hope to one of despair. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1464884918807356 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
11 | Arab States | Taming the People: Comparing Protests and Populism in Arab and American Politics | 2022 | Khamis, Sahar and Al-Jaber, Khalid | University of Maryland, College Park; MENA Center; Qatar University | Article | Frontiers in Communication | Journalism Research 5(3) pp. 234-252 | The spread of social media platforms ushered the beginning of an unprecedented communication era, which is borderless, immediate, widespread, and defies restrictions and censorship. Digital technology aided the spread of democracy and freedom of expression and helped to overthrow some Arab regimes in 2011. At that time, it was believed that these platforms paved the way for democracy by allowing citizens to easily circumvent governmental censorship, and by facilitating communication, networking, and organization among activists, thus weakening authoritarian regimes. These assumptions were overly optimistic, as the detours in democratization and political reform in the Arab region over a decade later illustrate. This article tackles the exploitation of new media, and the laws and regulations governing them, by Arab authoritarian regimes to crack down on opponents, activists, and journalists, oftentimes under the mantle of fighting disinformation, using a plethora of techniques. It also illustrates how disinformation could spread rapidly through governmentally orchestrated campaigns via new communication tools, causing serious political consequences and high risks to activists and journalists, while aiding counter revolutions. The constraining implications of these complex phenomena on Arab journalism will be explored, especially in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. | https://journalistik.online/en/paper-en/counter-digital-revolution-disinformation-and-journalistic-constraints-in-arab-media/ | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
12 | Arab States | Arab authorities use digital surveillance to control press freedom: journalists’ perceptions | 2023 | AlAshry, Miral Sabry | Future University in Egypt | Article | Digital Policy, Regulation and Governance | 25(3) pp. 250-266 | Purpose – The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent of digital surveillance by Arab authorities, which face risks and threats of surveillance, and how journalists seek to press freedom by using tools and techniques to communicate securely. Design/methodology/approach – The study used focus group discussions with 14 journalists from Syria, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Yemen, Oman, Jordan and Egypt. While in Egypt, questionnaires were distributed to 199 journalists from both independent and semi-governmental outlets to investigate how Egyptian journalists interpret the new data protection law and its implications for press freedom. Findings – The study indicated that journalists from these countries revealed severe censorship by their respective governments, an element inconsistent with the Arab Constitution. The recommendation of the study encourages media organisations to play a more active role in setting policies that make it easier for journalists to adopt and use digital security tools, while Egyptian journalists see the law as a barrier to media independence because it allows the government to exercise greater information control through digital policy and imposes regulatory rules on journalists. Practical implications – The study identifies practical and theoretical issues in Arab legislation and may reveal practices of interest to scientists researching the balance between data protection, the right of access to information and media research as an example of contemporary government indirect or ‘‘soft’’ censorship methods. Originality/value – To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this paper is one of the first research contributions to analyse the relationships between Arab authoritarians who used surveillance to restrict freedom of the press after the Arab Spring revolutions of 2011 to keep themselves in power as long as they could. In addition, Egypt’s use of surveillance under new laws allowed the regimes to install software on the journalists’ phones that enabled them to read the files and emails and track their locations; accordingly, journalists can be targeted by the cyberattack and can be arrested. | https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/DPRG-05-2021-0071/full/html | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
13 | Arab States | Reporting the MENA as Conflict Political Influences, Routine Practices, and Journalists' Struggles in the Field | 2023 | Kozman, Claudia | Lebanese American University | Book Chapter | The Routledge Companion to Journalism in the Global South | Routledge | Working in a conflict-ridden region, journalists in the Middle East have always struggled to report fairly and accurately while keeping in mind the power structures in their countries. For these journalists, practicing journalism in mostly authoritative governments has meant facing additional hurdles fellow journalists in democratic societies rarely experience. Among these are low levels of professionalism, poor education, and lack of proper training, which, combined with political parallelism in an omnipresent governmental style of ruling, have left journalists with little wiggle room to perform their journalistic duties well. In the past decade, these struggles have been further exacerbated by the various episodes of conflict, political turmoil, and war, putting journalists under immediate danger. Besides the physical dangers of reporting in war zones, most journalists in the Arab region are not equipped with proper training or mental health issues, thus increasing their chances at developing PTSD. This chapter seeks to outline the various aspects of journalistic practices in conflict zones, focusing on conflict reporting and foreign correspondence in the Middle East, as well as highlight the numerous obstacles that threaten journalists’ safety not only in war zones but also in daily reporting on politics and public affairs. To accomplish this, the author approaches the topic from a media systems perspective that takes into account the various influences that impact journalistic practices of conflict reporting in the region. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003298144-27/reporting-mena-conflict-claudia-kozman | No | |||||||||||||||||
14 | Arab States | Constraints on Journalistic Practices in the Arab World Post–Arab Spring and Post-Covid-19 | 2023 | Khamis, Sahar and Al-Jaber, Khalid | University of Maryland, College Park | Book Chapter | The Routledge Companion to Journalism in the Global South | Routledge | Over a decade ago, the 2011 Arab Spring uprisings erupted in six Arab countries. They were accompanied, initially, by high hopes for democratic transformation and reform (Lynch, 2012). These hopes and aspirations also included widening the margin of freedom of expression in general and press freedom in particular (El Tantawy & Wiest, 2011). However, these Arab Spring countries ultimately suffered from serious challenges which negatively impacted their transition to democratization and political reform, leading to an escalating wave of authoritarianism, which worsened significantly amid the Covid-19 pandemic (Khamis, 2020a, 2020b). This chapter investigates the myriad factors impacting journalistic practices in the Arab world in the post–Arab Spring and post-Covid-19 era, with a special focus on the multiple effects and far-reaching implications on both legacy media and citizen journalism. It pays special attention to the phenomenon of journalistic resistance from the diaspora (Khamis & Fowler, 2020) and the gender-based challenges impacting Arab women journalists, in particular, as a result of these intertwined and complex set of factors (Khamis & El-Ibiary, 2022), Finally, it highlights some of the resistance mechanisms which are deployed by Arab journalists to push back against the multilayered and multifaceted constraints which are imposed on them by their autocratic regimes, politically, economically, legally, and professionally. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003298144-19/constraints-journalistic-practices-arab-world-post%E2%80%93arab-spring-post-covid-19-sahar-khamis | No | |||||||||||||||||
15 | Arab States | Constraints on AI: Arab Journalists’ experiences and perceptions of governmental restrictions on ChatGPT | 2024 | AlAshry, Miral Sabry and Al-Saqaf, Walid | University of East London (Cairo Branch) and Doha Institute for Graduate Studies | Article | Journal of Information Technology and Politics | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2024.2421388 | This study investigates the impact of Arab governmental restrictions on journalists’ use of ChatGPT, a leading Generative AI chatbot. Through interviews with 30 journalists from Syria, Libya, Jordan, and Egypt, the research reveals how journalists utilize ChatGPT and face severe censorship. These journalists perceive such censorship as violating their constitutional rights. The findings suggest that current digital legislation enables governments to exert greater control over information dissemination, undermining media independence. The study concludes that government actions to block ChatGPT access constitute a form of indirect or “soft” censorship within existing legal frameworks. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19331681.2024.2421388 | No | |||||||||||||||||
16 | Asia (South) | Precariously Employed Climate Journalists the Challenges of Freelance Climate Journalists in South Asia | 2021 | Wadud, Mushfique | University of Colorado | Article | Journalism Practice | 16(2-3) pp. 262-280 | Declines in the number of foreign correspondents and bureaus have caused media to rely on freelance journalists, particularly on coverage of complex and topical issues such as climate change. This study examines the challenges freelance climate journalists in South Asia face and how they negotiate pay, benefits, and safety. Drawing from in-depth interviews of 15 journalists based in three South Asian countries−India, Pakistan and Bangladesh - the study finds that low wages, inconsistent work and perceived risk/anxiety over security - are the key challenges. The study argues that lack of financial and organizational support from the news media organizations impacts climate change coverage from a vulnerable region like South Asia. Freelance journalists often do not report on issues that can put them at physical and financial risks. Findings show that COVID-19 further impacts their financial security as many media outlets cut their budgets. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17512786.2021.1982402?casa_token=mzM1f2D-QfkAAAAA%3AW2sWyslFudG-n1lj_DiDBo0rYwPzluQubw3ASaZpWxBl0NieRUNeTJjwVYvL385zkBEGMVgYvxY | No | |||||||||||||||||
17 | Asia (South) | Media Freedom and Safety of Journalists in South Asian Countries: An Overview | 2024 | Sriram, Arulchelvan and Verma, Amit | Anna University and Manipal University Jaipur | Book Chapter | Handbook of Digital Journalism | Springer | In the digital world, every profession has seen a massive transformation in terms of working mechanisms, approaches to the problem, dealing with prospects, moving forward to conceptualising the solution and so on. Likewise, the media field has also seen a massive transformation. The working pattern and the types of problems employees face also become a significant threat to many media professionals, especially journalists. The threat to journalists is a significant hindrance today to the younger generation, and journalism has become one of the dangerous professions, citing the transformation and risks involved. In many countries, especially in South Asia, journalists face surveillance, legislation, threats, violence, conflicts, workplace harassment, intimidation, impersonation, forced detention, kidnapping and killing, which affect their work patterns and result in a lack of free speech and press freedom. Many countries have faced allegations dealing with journalist threats in the last 25 years. Especially women journalists today face various consequences inside and outside the organisation when they are physically and emotionally at work. The war and conflict zone reporting also burdens the journalists, who must undergo safety and security training to mitigate the risks. Digital surveillance, safety and security concerns for journalists are increasing internally and externally. Hence, many organisations are training their journalists to secure them from risks by assessing complications and processes involved in their duty. The high increase in insecurities and threats has become a potential area to study. This study will assess journalist’s risks and threats in South Asian countries. The level of media freedom, the measures taken by the media organisations/government to manage risk, journalist’s current situation, work culture, protection level in different countries, and different types of risks (physical, psychological, financial, digital, gender-specific, public and legal) evaluated through secondary data. It will help us to understand and evaluate the current situation by comparing different countries in South Asia. The information presented in this research will be helpful for policymaking to secure the journalists from threats. | https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-99-6675-2_48 | No | |||||||||||||||||
18 | Central Asia | Journalism in Central Asia: A Victim of Politics, Economics, and Widespread Self-censorship | 2008 | Kenny, Timothy and Gross, Peter | University of Connecticut/The University of Tennessee | Article | The International Journal of Press/Politics | 13(4) pp. 515-525 | Significant efforts to develop an independent journalism have stumbled badly in Central Asia, where politics, economics and the unforeseen consequence of widespread self-censorship have derailed development of a Western-style media and the democracy it serves. What is worse, from Kazakhstan to Uzbekistan, prospects for developing a believable, fact-based journalism look grim. Much of this trouble can be laid at the doorstep of self-censorship, which flourishes across the region with uncommon vigor. Central Asian journalism is in worse shape than the rest of the post-Communist world, largely because the socioeconomic and political situations in this relatively remote region remain in flux from a backwardness that modernity is only of late and slowly affecting. One of the most confounding elements that stymie the evolution of Central Asia journalism is a culture that drives the new post-Communist institutions and the mentalities of the region's sociopolitical, economic, and cultural elites. Consequently, those who endeavor to aid the evolution of Central Asian media should look to the history and culture of the region and then impart a more complete understanding of Western journalism's mission, values, roles, and sound news business practices before addressing journalistic techniques. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1940161208324644 | No | |||||||||||||||||
19 | South Asia | Workplace Happiness, Journalism and COVID-19 in South Asia | 2023 | Abeykoon, Achala; Kumari, Archana; Sahid Ullah, Mohammad; Majumdar, Pallavi; Ali, Sajjad; Mukherjee Das, Mou; Kumar Biswal, Santosh; Rasmin, M. C.; Kalyan, Shilpa; Shahid, Mohd and Rashid, Mamunor | University of Kelaniya; UWE Bristol; University of Chittagong; Amity University; University of Malakand; Aliah University; Rama Devi Women's University; Sri Lanka Development Journalist Forum; Manipal Academy of Higher Education; Rosalind Franklin University | Book Chapter | Happiness in Journalism | Routledge | This chapter explores some of the positive strategies employed by South Asian media institutions to enhance workplace happiness and help journalists to cope with stress and traumatic experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Happiness is crucial for media institutions because journalism is one of the most stressful professions. Previous studies have found that the COVID-19 crisis has had a considerable impact on journalism. Hence, it is important to maintain workplace happiness in media institutions, particularly during a crisis like the pandemic. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003364597-21/workplace-happiness-journalism-covid-19-south-asia-achala-abeykoon-archana-kumari-mohammad-sahid-ullah-pallavi-majumdar-sajjad-ali-mou-mukherjee-das-santosh-kumar-biswal-rasmin-shilpa-kalyan-mohd-shahid-mamunor-rashid?context=ubx&refId=73b00fe7-ea3d-4ad0-8757-1c17866d43bc | No | |||||||||||||||||
20 | Europe | Unwarranted Interference, Fear and Self-censorship among Journalists in Council of Europe Member States | 2017 | Clark, Marilyn and Grech, Anna | University of Malta; | Book Chapter | The Assault on Journalism. Building Knowledge to Protect Freedom of Expression | Nordicom, pp. 221-226 | Journalists may be exposed to a number of risk factors for unwarranted interference. This is often compounded by a culture of impunity. The extent of unwarranted interference, the experience of fear associated with such interference, and the consequent possibility of self-censorship among journalists still ask for more investigation, since there are few systematic studies on this topic. This research explores the prevalence of unwarranted interference, perception of likelihood/fear of such interference and possible self censorship amongst a non-probability convenience sample of 940 journalists in the 47 Council of Europe member states. The study adopts a quantitative approach and utilizes an anonymous self-report questionnaire. The preliminary results presented here show how unwarranted interference is experienced to a significant degree among journalists in Council of Europe member states | http://norden.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1168137/FULLTEXT01.pdf | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
21 | Europe | Challenges to Media Freedom: A view from Europe | 2018 | Siapera, Eugenia and Sighele, Chiara | Dublin City University | Article | Infoamérica: Iberoamerican Communication Review | 11, pp. 129-146 | The ability of the media and especially journalism to operate freely is crucial in order on the one hand to hold governments and other institutions accountable for their actions and on the other to allow citizens to make informed decisions. To discuss the current state of affairs for media and journalistic freedom in Europe, the authors draw on the findings of two of independent projects awarded a grant by the European Commission —the Safety Net for European Journalists and the European Centre for Press and Media Freedom (ecpmf)—. First, the article offers insights as to current threats and other impediments experienced by journalists, and highlights their structural basis. In the second section it shows how, despite the European commitment to media freedom, developments in 2015-16 suggest that both the «war of attrition» and the ‘toxic environment’ identified by Safety Net are expanding and apply to more countries in Europe. | https://www.infoamerica.org/icr/NUM11/challenges_to_media_freedom_A_view_from_Europe.pdf | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
22 | Europe | Lése-majesté and journalism in Turkey and Europe | 2020 | Kurtul, Aytekin Kaan | Middlesex University | Book Chapter | Journalist Safety and Self-Censorship | Routledge | This chapter deals with lèse-majesté laws and their impact on the exercise of freedom of political expression and journalism from the perspective of international human rights law. In doing so, it addresses the chilling effects of the application of a particular crime of lèse-majesté, namely “defaming a head of state”, which are emphasized with historical and current examples from Turkey: a country that exemplifies the excesses in practice. Said excesses are assessed in light of the standards of freedom of political expression set by the case law of the European Court of Human Rights, which also demonstrates the excesses in other European countries and provides a comparative outlook. In conclusion, it is inferred that the mere existence of lèse-majesté crimes puts the rule of law at risk, thereby forcing journalists and other citizens alike to resort to self-censorship in violation of international human rights law as interpreted by the regional human rights mechanism. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780367810139-5/l%C3%A8se-majest%C3%A8-journalism-turkey-europe-aytekin-kaan-kurtul?context=ubx&refId=8cbc279b-9354-4db9-8eae-1bee345df236 | No | |||||||||||||||||
23 | Europe | Safety of journalists in Europe: Threats and best practices to tackle them | 2021 | Žuffová, Mária and Carlini, Roberta | European University Institute | Working Paper | Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies. Research Paper No. RSCAS 2021/43 | N/A | Journalists around the world face immense threats for doing their job. Although compared to other regions, the situation in Europe is considerably better; many challenges need to be addressed here as well to ensure conducive conditions for the conduct of journalistic work. The present working paper identifies the main issues that prevent journalists from doing their job freely and safely, in particular, physical attacks, online hate speech, surveillance, smear campaigns, strategic lawsuits against public participation (SLAPPs), insufficient protection of journalistic sources and whistle-blowers, impunity and precarious economic conditions. It discusses the impact of these issues on journalists, but also their repercussions for media freedom and pluralism more broadly. By providing a snapshot of the situation in Europe and more detailed country case studies (Austria, France, Germany), the working paper aids our understanding of the scope and nature of the most pressing problems. It also collects evidence-based best practices and policies from the newsrooms and the state, which could help to formulate further recommendations for key stakeholders. | https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3829514 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
24 | Europe | Threats to Media Freedom and Journalist’s Security as a Challenge to Implementation of Constitutional Principle of Freedom of Speech in the Council of Europe’s Member States | 2021 | Jaskiernia, Alicja | Warsaw University | Article | Przegląd Prawa Konstytucyjneo | 64, pp. 303-316 | Free speech and freedom of the media are essential to the functioning of democratic systems. However, recent decades have brought phenomena that pose a threat to media freedom. The author analyzed threats to media freedom and journalist’s security regarding resolution 2317 (2020) of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. All Council of Europe Member States must effectively guarantee the safety of journalists, create an environment conducive to freedom of the media and prevent the misuse of laws or normative provisions that may affect this freedom, without which there is no democracy. The right of journalists to protect their sources must be guaranteed; police violence against journalists must be condemned, and sanctions against any infringement of the freedom of the media must be dissuasive. Although it is only “softlaw”, the PACE resolution may inspire the Member States to take more effective measures in this regard. | https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1928724 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
25 | Europe | Freedom of Expression and Media Freedoms on the Eve of the Pandemic | 2022 | Andjelic, Neven | Regent's University London | Book Chapter | Covid-19, State-Power and Society in Europe | Springer, pp. 117-135 | The diversity of the state of media freedoms in Europe is reflected in its geography, where more liberal regimes are to be found in the north and the west of the continent where the freedoms are secured firmer in countries’ legislations, governments’ practices, and citizens’ behaviours. Some countries in the east of Europe are most restrictive with these freedoms and rights that reflects types of regimes that are autocratic. However, states increasingly use pressure on individual journalists in situations when dealing with real or perceived security threats. The same type of excuse and clarification is used by autocracies when they impose severe restrictions on media and expression or attempt to execute rigid control over public life. While the legislation in most countries gives legal provisions to freedom of expression, the practices are often restrictive in some of the European countries. The Western Balkans’ states have developed such practices. The additional issue for Europe is the development of new media and the democratisation of media, making it available to almost anybody to publish or broadcast on digital platforms. The state is yet to learn how to regulate this new space and legislate in this sphere. Should freedoms be restricted by regulating digital platforms, and whether this would lead from democratic towards authoritarian governments? | https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-91073-0_7 | No | |||||||||||||||||
26 | Europe (Central and Eastern) | Media capture in Central and Eastern Europe The corrosive impact on democracy and desecration of journalistic ethics | 2021 | Horsley, William | University of Sheffield | Book Chapter | The Routledge Companion to Journalism Ethics | Routledge | This chapter examines the root causes, development, and corrosive effects of the progressive “capture” of influential media by populist governments and other vested interests in Central and Eastern Europe over the past 20 years. Many countries in the region have proved vulnerable to media capture due to the weakness and partisan manipulation of democratic institutions in post-communist societies. In Russia, Hungary, and Poland, political forces have variously used oppressive laws and arbitrary penalties, intimidation and coercion, and regulatory and financial controls as well as inducements to gain a dominant share of media markets, advance their self-interested goals, and propagate their hold on power. The widespread instrumentalization of the media for political and economic gain represents an existential challenge to media diversity and the ethical principles of journalism, and has undermined media independence and the essential role of a free press as a public watchdog. Governments and their allies have promoted unethical practices by captive media including falsehoods and propaganda, biased reporting, intense pressures to self-censor, and smear campaigns aimed at discrediting opponents and suppressing critical voices. This analysis exposes the extent of the damage done and the immensity of the task of restoring conditions for media freedom to flourish. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429262708-37/media-capture-central-eastern-europe-william-horsley | No | |||||||||||||||||
27 | Europen (Southern) | Southern European Journalists’ Perceptions of Discursive Menaces in the Age of (Online) Delegitimization | 2023 | Blanco-Herrero, David; Splendore, Sergio and Oller Alonso, Martín | University of Salamanca and University of Milan | Article | Politics and Governance | 11(2) pp. 210-220 | In a new communication context, factors such as the rise of hate speech, disinformation, or a precarious financial and employment situation in the media have made discursive menaces gain increasing significance. Threats of this kind challenge the legitimacy of institutional news media and professional journalists. This article contributes to the existing literature on the legitimization of journalism and boundary work through a study that seeks to understand the perceptions of Southern European journalists of the threats that they encounter in their work and the factors that help explain them. To this end, a survey of 398 journalists in Spain, Italy, and Greece was conducted to learn what personal or professional factors influenced their views and experiences of discursive and non-discursive menaces. Results show that discursive threats, such as hateful or demeaning speech and public discrediting of one’s work, are the most frequent to the safety of journalists, while expressions of physical violence are less common. Younger and more educated journalists tended to perceive themselves as having been victims of discursive menaces more often, although not many significant differences were observed between different groups of journalists. Even though it could show a worrying trend, this finding can also indicate a growing awareness about menaces of this kind. | https://www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/view/6397 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
28 | Latin America | Antipress Violence and the Crisis of the State | 2002 | Waisbord, Silvio | George Washington University | Article | Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics | 7(3), pp. 90-109 | Although it is an issue of immediate interest to reporters and press organizations, antipress violence has not elicited a great deal of scholarly attention. While in the context of developed democracies, studies have concluded that violence against the press has significantly diminished in the twentieth century, the situation is markedly different elsewhere. This gap is not surprising considering that the literature on press and democracy has been largely produced in the West and has largely reflected the absence of antipress violence in Western nations. The persistence of attacks against journalists outside the West, however, makes it necessary to put it at the center to analyze the situation of journalistic labor and the prospects for the press in historically weak democracies. This article analyzes antipress violence by focusing on the Latin American case. The argument is that in postauthoritarian situations, the breakdown of the state accounts for why the press, particularly investigative reporters and publications, is the target of violence. Antipress violence reflects the impossibility of the state’s fulfilling its mission to monopolize the legitimate use of violence and the lack of accountability of those responsible for the attacks. Because it is a central arena in the battle for public expression, the press becomes a prominent target when naked violence replaces the rule of law. The fate of the press is intrinsically linked to the fate of the democratic state. There cannot be a democratic press as long as the state does not secure minimal institutional conditions that democracy demands. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1081180X0200700306 | No | |||||||||||||||||
29 | Latin America | Violence against Indigenous Journalists in Colombia and Latin America | 2017 | Krøvel, Roy | Oslo Metropolitan University | Book Chapter | The Assault on Journalism. Building Knowledge to Protect Freedom of Expression | Nordicom, pp. 191-204 | This chapter explores mechanisms and causes that put indigenous journalists at risk in Latin America. It seeks to explain the nature of “indigenous journalism” as well as the differences and similarities between “indigenous journalism” and the journalisms found in mainstream media in Latin America. It analyses measures taken by indigenous journalists and indigenous communities to improve the safety of those who work in the indigenous media. Indigenous journalists are particularly likely to be engaged in struggles involving local communities resisting outside dominance. Therefore, indigenous journalists continue to be vulnerable to many types of threats and violence. The international community has so far paid little attention to the safety of indigenous journalists. | https://oda.oslomet.no/oda-xmlui/handle/10642/6207 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
30 | Latin America | Murders, harassment and disappearances. The reality of Latin American journalists in the XXI century | 2017 | Díaz Nosty, Bernardo and de Frutos García, Ruth A. | Universidad de Málaga | Article | Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, | 72, pp. 1418-1434 | Introduction: journalists in Latin America continue to face numerous threats in the exercise of their journalistic profession, which has increased the concern of the international community over its protection in recent years. Methodology: The objective of this research is to analyse nearly 500 cases of murders and disappearances in Latin America from 2000 to the present, as well as to elaborate on a profuse bibliographic review of the main sources of information and national and international programs in this regard. Results and conclusions: The results show a considerable gap between the international willingness to create programs for the protection and fight against impunity, the complex and insecure national realities in the region, and the number of information professionals who died or disappeared violently in Latin America. | https://www.revistalatinacs.org/072paper/1226/RLCS-paper1226en.pdf | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
31 | Latin America | Latinx Feminist Activism for the Safety of Women Journalists | 2020 | Vega Montiel, Aimée | National Autonomous University of Mexico | Book Chapter | The Routledge Handbook of Gender and Communication | Routledge | Gender-based violence against women journalists has increased dramatically, both offline and online. These professionals face more barriers to performing their roles in safe conditions. Slow progress has been made by governments and news media industries to protect women journalists. Most of the progressive actions to address this widespread problem have been achieved by journalists, non-government organizations (NGOs), and scholars. Thanks to the work done by these actors, violence against women journalists has been unveiled and caught the attention of human rights courts. Grounded in both communication studies and feminist theory, this chapter analyzes the structural conditions enabling gender-based violence against women journalists in Latin America to explore how it affects the collective right to freedom of expression and to consider responses to this crisis from activist movements. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429448317-44/latinx-feminist-activism-safety-women-journalists-aim%C3%A9e-vega-montiel | No | |||||||||||||||||
32 | Latin America | Moving Barriers to Investigative Journalism in Latin America in Times of Instability and Professional Innovation | 2022 | de Macedo Higgins Joyce, Vanessa; Cueva Chacón, Lourdes and Calmon Alves, Rosental | Texas State University/San Diego State University/The University of Texas at Austin | Article | Journalism Practice | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2022.2062427 | Latin American journalism has experienced recent transitions marked by digital affordances, including a growth of investigative journalism. The region has also experienced more political and economic instability, giving rise to a wave of threats and harassment against journalists. This repeated cross-sectional study analyzes the changing perceptions of threats and attacks as barriers to investigative journalism, through surveys of journalists from 20 Latin American countries conducted in 2013 and 2017. It performs intra-regional comparison utilizing the hierarchy of influences model. It found that women and those with fewer years of working experience (individual characteristics) were increasingly likely to perceive threats and attacks as a main barrier to investigative journalism. It also found that those working for digital platforms and working more independently (organizational characteristics) were also increasingly likely to perceive threats and attacks as major barriers. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17512786.2022.2062427?casa_token=Kv_rWgbMC-8AAAAA%3AQyk8Pa0KgsOMujNPcmTZcF2JxzAcSgeJo92mDvVDZNCMl2qodWKKPq-wXjkY50GWQ0_XJXyozI8 | No | |||||||||||||||||
33 | Latin America | Digital (In)Security in Latin America: The Dimensions of Social Media Violence against the Press and Journalists’ Coping Strategies | 2022 | Harlow, Summer; Wallace, Ryan and Cuev Chacón, Lourdes | University of Houston, University of Texas at Austin and San Diego State University | Article | Digital Journalism | DOI: 10.1080/21670811.2022.2128390 | As the journalism industry faces increasing risk and insecurity in the digital environment, there is still much to know about how journalists are reacting to and internalizing online harassment, and what the consequences are for their routines. Approaching the problem from a socio-technical perspective and using focus groups with Latin American journalists, this study identified the dimensions of social media violence against journalists, and the actors and coping strategies involved in responses to social media violence. This study shows that social media violence against journalists permeates all stages of news production stages. The study also identifies new and changing actors—such as the social media agent provocateur, who, working on behalf of governments and parties, stirs up mob censorship as part of orchestrated online harassment to try to dictate what news is told—, as well as actants, such as messaging apps that journalists use to create support networks. Implications for Latin American journalism are discussed. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2022.2128390?casa_token=Dfh8ReLz9GoAAAAA%3ACAlV_wakd9d5a0N9b1xbJl2UZJqN4XTUj8NN2vjJpGWzTsdSSbkymNuuDZDeY488CF4N9RyAOn1k | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
34 | Latin America | Mapping Anti-Press Violence in Latin America Challenges for Journalists' Safety | 2022 | Márquez-Ramírez, Mireya | Universidad Iberoamericana | Book Chapter | The Routledge Companion to News and Journalism | Routledge | In global surveys, Latin America is all too often identified as one of the regions with the highest number of journalists killed for practicing their profession in the world. To explore the issues at stake, this chapter begins with a brief overview of the various faces of anti-press violence in this complex region. More specifically, it asks: What are the factors behind the rampant violence against journalists in the region? Next, the chapter examines what can be done to protect them. Brazilian society learned of the lack of safety precautions journalists took on assignment and media houses’ little protection to their staff. Many journalists exert their agency to fight back with the help of coalitions, collectives, and allies. The chapter shows that training initiatives prove vital here, helping to secure positive ways forward for efforts to improve the profession’s prospects under such challenging conditions. | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003174790-56/mapping-anti-press-violence-latin-america-mireya-m%C3%A1rquez-ram%C3%ADrez | No | |||||||||||||||||
35 | Latin America | Blurred Boundaries of Journalism to Guarantee Safety: Approaches of Resistance and Resilience for Investigative Journalism in Latin America | 2023 | Mesquita, Lucia and de-Lima-Santos, Mathias-Felipe | Dublin City University and Federal University of São Paulo | Article | Journalism Studies | DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2185078 | News organizations and journalists around the world have seen an increase in threats and attacks against themselves and their work. In Latin America, this is heightened by the ongoing state of violence. To continue producing quality investigative journalism, professionals must find ways to deal with the situation. This study analyzes how journalists from small- and medium-sized outlets can perform their duties with greater security. Through 15 in-depth interviews with Latin American practitioners, this study aims to understand which safety measures are being adopted and their implications for the boundaries of journalism. Results illustrate that these professionals are assuming new roles by incorporating security measures into their daily routines. Consequently, these security procedures are merged with journalistic activity, invading other fields. Our interviewees highlighted that their news organizations are embracing collaboration and other sorts of collective actions such as advocacy to promote greater security. This study offers a new perspective on the boundaries of journalism that takes into consideration a set of tasks absorbed by journalists and news organizations that are often invisible and expands the literature on news safety in Latin America. We conclude with an agenda for future research. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2185078 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
36 | Latin America and Caribbean | Challenges in the Reporting of Environmental Issues in Latin America and the Caribbean | 2018 | Takahashi, Bruno; Pinto, Juliet; Vigón, Mercedes and Chavez, Manuel | Michigan State University; Pennsylvania State University; Florida International University;Monmouth University | Book Chapter | News Media Coverage of Environmental Challenges in Latin America and the Caribbean | Springer, pp. 1-15 | The introductory chapter of this volume situates the role of news media in Latin America within the context of the environmental, economic, and sociopolitical challenges that countries in the region face. The authors review the current practical challenges faced by the media and journalists in the reporting of environmental problems, such as the complex relation between media, governments, and elites; violence against journalists; and the dominance of hegemonic discourses, among others. The authors also review the limitations of current scholarship in this area, arguing for more research that examines the factors that affect media coverage of environmental affairs in Latin American countries. The chapter concludes by summarizing the chapters that comprise the edited volume. | https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-70509-5_1 | No | |||||||||||||||||
37 | Latin America and Caribbean | Perception of journalists reporting in conflict zones: Labour situation, working conditions and main challenges in information coverage in contexts of violence | 2022 | Tejedor, Santiago; Cervi, Laura and Tusa, Fernanda | Autonomous University of Barcelona and Technical University of Machala | Article | Media, War & Conflict | 15(4) pp. 530–552 | A total of 324 journalists have been killed in the world in the last decade. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the situation is alarming. Based on these statistics, this work presents an investigation with journalists from 10 countries. Based on in-depth interviews and the Delphi method, the study explores professionals’ perspectives about violence against journalists, pointing out the challenges for women, the role of independent media together with journalists’ networks and an increasing concern about governmental control over information. | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1750635220971004 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
38 | Latin America | Stronger and Safer Together: Motivations for and Challenges of (Trans)National Collaboration in Investigative Reporting in Latin America | 2020 | Cueva Chacón, Lourdes M. and Saldaña, Magdalena | San Diego State University and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile | Article | Digital Journalism | 9(2) pp. 196-214 | Despite the growing scholarship on investigative journalism in Latin America, very few studies have addressed collaboration across newsrooms in the region. By analyzing the responses of 251 journalists who work for investigative units in Latin American news outlets, this study explores a) the reasons why Latin American journalists are increasingly seeking to participate in national and transnational collaborative enterprises, b) the challenges they identify, and c) the role digital technologies are playing in this trend of transnational collaboration. Using mixed methods, we found that collaborations occur to enhance the impact of investigative projects, to reach larger audiences, and to achieve a big-picture coverage. We also found that safety is an important motivation to work in conjunction with other newsrooms—by collaborating, journalists are able to strengthen security measures and challenge censorship. Yet, coordinating teams—especially at the transnational level—remains the biggest challenge to overcome. Digital technologies are significantly related to reporters’ likelihood of collaborating, but these technologies require other reporting skills to be useful for investigative journalism. Implications for research and practice are discussed. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2020.1775103 | No | |||||||||||||||||
39 | MENA | Post-traumatic Mental and Physical Consequences of Frontline Reporting in the MENA Region | 2023 | Chadli, Lakhdar; Muhammad Haq, Farooq; Okasha, Ahmed and Attou, Rafik | Canadian University Dubai; University of Liverpoo | Article | The Open Public Health Journal | 15 | Background: A current need in journalistic frontline work is to understand the potential psychological and physical traumatic consequences that may result from on-duty appointments. Journalists are active in frontline zones to report on conflicts, crises, and natural disasters. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, reporters are not equipped or trained mentally or emotionally to handle stressful events. Most journalists suffer from certain degrees of post-traumatic mental and physical disorders associated with their frontline duties. Objective: The objective of this exploratory study is to provide comprehensive insights into challenges faced by journalists reporting in conflict zones in the MENA region. Methods: This research study is based on a qualitative research approach where data was collected by directly interviewing eight journalists who have covered frontline conflicts and disasters in the MENA region. The collected qualitative data was analysed by conducting a thematic analysis to appreciate emerging categories. The ontology of critical realism was adopted to recognise the real feelings and experiences of the responding journalists. Results: This original study presents six themes emerging from the data and researcher triangulation. The health and social issues in MENA are found to be most critical for high-risk reporting. Conclusion: Amidst the psychological and physical problems, all journalists did not give up their jobs or ask for privileges. Media houses could consider a more robust training plan based on health and safety to prepare these journalists. | https://openpublichealthjournal.com/VOLUME/15/ELOCATOR/e187494452212090/FULLTEXT/ | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
40 | Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Arab region | The Impact of Sexual Harassment on Job Satisfaction in Newsrooms | 2023 | Blumell, Lindsey E.; Mulupi, Dinfin and Arafat, Rana | University of London, University of Maryland | Article | Journalism Practice | https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2023.2227613 | Despite the pervasiveness of workplace sexual harassment, the connection between sexual harassment and job satisfaction in the news industry remains insufficiently researched. This 16-country and one state study (N = 1583) sampled news personnel from Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Arab region. The results expand current knowledge by examining understudied countries, measuring the impact of sexual harassment on job satisfaction, and evaluating differences in how people perceive gender equality in the news industry. Results show that both verbal and physical sexual harassment are common, underreported, and impact job satisfaction—challenging common misconceptions that there are only few cases of “real” sexual harassment with negative consequences. Sub-Saharan African countries had the lowest job satisfaction and the highest experienced sexual harassment. Southeast Asia had the highest job satisfaction and the lowest experienced sexual harassment. Men had higher levels of job satisfaction and gender equality perceptions than women. The results also highlight power imbalances that reinforce gendered hierarchies. | https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17512786.2023.2227613 | Yes | |||||||||||||||||
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