antonymic Grammatic Concept

Example (a) Expression

Example (a) Reading

Example (a) Meaning

Example (b) Expression

Example (b) Reading

Example (b) Meaning

Example (.c) Expression

Example (.c) Reading

Example (.c) Meaning

Example (d) Expression

Example (d) Reading

Example (d) Meaning

Example (e) Expression

Example (e) Reading

Example (e) Meaning

S.o. gives s.t. to a person who is not a member of the giver's in-group but whose status is about equal to that of the giver.

a.大野さんは山本さんに本をあげた。

おおのさんはやまもとさんにほんをあげた。

Ms. Ono gave Mr. Yamamoto a book.

b.君はアンに何をあげましたか。

きみはアンになにをあげましたか。

What did you give to Ann?

あげる is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs; the meaning is “give”. However, あげる cannot be used when the indirect object is the first person (i.e., I or we) or a person which whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group).

a.私は信男さんにネクタイを買ってあげた・あげました。

I bought a tie for Nobuo.

S.o. gives some action as a favor to a person who is not a member of the giver's in-group but whose status is about equal to that of the giver.

a.君はお母さんに何をしてあげましたか。

きみはおかあさんになにをしてあげましたか。

What did you do for your mother?

b.田中さんはスミスさんに本を貸してあげた。

たかなさんはスミスさんにほんをかしてあげた。

Mr. Tanaka lent a book to Mr. Smith

あげる is used as an auxiliary verb with the てform of verbs. The meaning of Vてあげる is 'do s.t. for s.o.' or 'do s.o. a favor by doing s.t.'. The restriction which applies to あげる(1) also applies to あげる(2). Namely, sentences with Vてあげる are descriptions from the viewpoint of the benefactor (i.e. the person in subject position); therefore, the indirect object must not be the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with.

S.o. gives some action as a favor to a person who is not a member of the giver's in-group but whose status is about equal to that of the giver.

a.君はお母さんに何をしてあげましたか。

きみはおかあさんになにをしてあげましたか。

What did you do for your mother?

b.田中さんはスミスさんに本を貸してあげた。

たかなさんはスミスさんにほんをかしてあげた。

Mr. Tanaka lent a book to Mr. Smith

あげる is used as an auxiliary verb with the てform of verbs. The meaning of Vてあげる is 'do s.t. for s.o.' or 'do s.o. a favor by doing s.t.'. The restriction which applies to あげる(1) also applies to あげる(2). Namely, sentences with Vてあげる are descriptions from the viewpoint of the benefactor (i.e. the person in subject position); therefore, the indirect object must not be the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with.

a.私がご飯を食べている間山田さんはテレビを見ていた・いました。

わたしがごはんをたべているあいだやまださんはテレビをみていた・いました。

While I was eating my meal, Mr Yamada was watching TV.

The space between two temporal or physical points.

a.スミスさんは日本にいる間英語を教えていました。

スミスさんはにほんにいるあいだえぎごをおしえていました。

Mr. Smith was teaching English (all during the time) while he was in Japan.

b.子供達がテルビを見ている間私は本を読んでいました。

こどもたちがテルビをみているあいだわたしはほんをよんでいました。

I was reading a book (all during the time) while my children were watching TV.

c.高橋さんはアメリカにいる間にゴルフを覚えました。

たかはしさんはアメリカにいるあいだにゴルフをおぼえました。

Mr. Takahashi learned golf while he was in America.

d.中川さんのお母さんは中川さんがパリに留学している間に病気になりました。

なかがわさんのおかあさんはなかがわさんがパリにりゅうがくしているあいだにびょうきになりました。

Mr. Nakagawa's mother become ill while he was studying in Paris.

e.秋子は子供がいない間に本を読む。

あきこはこどもがいないあいだにほんをよむ。

Akiko reads books while her children are not at home.

The subjects for the 間-clause (=subordinate clause) and the main clause can be different as in examples (b),(d) and (e) or can be the same as in examples (a) and (.c). When the subjects are different, the subject in the 間-clause is marked noy by は but が. The verb before 間 is normally nonpast Vている or いる, regardless of the tense of the main clause.

b.私がご飯を食べている間に山田さんが来た・来ました。

わたしがごはんをたべているあいだにやまださんがきた・きました。

While I was eating my meal, Mr. Yamada came in.

The space between two temporal or physical points.

a.スミスさんは日本にいる間英語を教えていました。

スミスさんはにほんにいるあいだえぎごをおしえていました。

Mr. Smith was teaching English (all during the time) while he was in Japan.

b.子供達がテルビを見ている間私は本を読んでいました。

こどもたちがテルビをみているあいだわたしはほんをよんでいました。

I was reading a book (all during the time) while my children were watching TV.

c.高橋さんはアメリカにいる間にゴルフを覚えました。

たかはしさんはアメリカにいるあいだにゴルフをおぼえました。

Mr. Takahashi learned golf while he was in America.

d.中川さんのお母さんは中川さんがパリに留学している間に病気になりました。

なかがわさんのおかあさんはなかがわさんがパリにりゅうがくしているあいだにびょうきになりました。

Mr. Nakagawa's mother become ill while he was studying in Paris.

e.秋子は子供がいない間に本を読む。

あきこはこどもがいないあいだにほんをよむ。

Akiko reads books while her children are not at home.

The subjects for the 間-clause (=subordinate clause) and the main clause can be different as in examples (b),(d) and (e) or can be the same as in examples (a) and (.c). When the subjects are different, the subject in the 間-clause is marked noy by は but が. The verb before 間 is normally nonpast Vている or いる, regardless of the tense of the main clause.

This book is not very good.

The degree of s.t. is not great. [(not) very much; (not) very]

a.鈴木さんはあまり食べない。

すずきさんはあまりたべない。

Miss Suzuki does not eat much.

b.私はあまり速く走れません。

わたしはあまりはやくはしれません。

I cannot run very fast.

The adverb あまり usually occurs in negative sentence, meaning 'not very (much)'. あまり is one of a group of adverbs which co-occur with negative predicates. They include: 全然「ぜんぜん」 '(not) at all'; 滅多に「めったに」 'rarely, seldom'; 決して「けっして」 'never, by no means'; さっぱり '(not) at all'; 少しも「すこしも」 '(not) a bit'; ちっとも '(not) a bit'. あんまり is a phonologial variant of あまり and usually used in conversation. In limited situations, あまり can be used in affirmative sentences, too. In this case, it means 'very; too' with a negative implication.

In this town there are three universities.

An inanimate thing exists. [be; exist; have]

a.私のアパト〈に〉はテレビが二台ある。

わたしのアパト〈に〉はテレビがにだいある。

There are two TV sets in my apartment.

b.デトロイトはミシガン州にあるます。

デトロイトはミシガンしゅうにあるます。

Detroit is in the State of Michigan.

c.和田さんのうち〈に〉はクーラーがない。

わださんのうち〈に〉はクーラーがない。

There is no air-conditioner at Mr. Wada's.

ある expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate things including abstract things such as events and problems. The negative informal form of ある is not あらない but ない.The key sentence (1) pattern is used when a location is presented as a topic. In this case, what is exists in under focus. In this pattern, the location market に can optionally drop.

The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.

An inanimate thing exists. [be; exist; have]

a.私のアパト〈に〉はテレビが二台ある。

わたしのアパト〈に〉はテレビがにだいある。

There are two TV sets in my apartment.

b.デトロイトはミシガン州にあるます。

デトロイトはミシガンしゅうにあるます。

Detroit is in the State of Michigan.

c.和田さんのうち〈に〉はクーラーがない。

わださんのうち〈に〉はクーラーがない。

There is no air-conditioner at Mr. Wada's.

ある expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate things including abstract things such as events and problems. The negative informal form of ある is not あらない but ない.The key sentence (1) pattern is used when a location is presented as a topic. In this case, what is exists in under focus. In this pattern, the location market に can optionally drop.

It's been told to John already.

S.t. has been done to s.t. and the resultant state of the action remains. [have been done; be done]

a.飲み物はもう買ってあります。

のみものはもうかってあります。

Drinks have already been bought.

The window has been open/is open.

ある is used with Vて as an auxiliary verb. Two points are indicated by the Vてある expression. The agent is usually omitted because he is unimportant, unknown or obvious.

a.メイソンさんは日本へ行ったあとで病気になった・なりました。

メイソンさんはにほんへいったあとでびょうきになった・なりました。

Mr. Mason became ill after he went to Japan.

Some state or action take place at a time (not always immediately) after another state or action has taken place. [after]

a.ご飯を食べたあと（で）すぐ勉強しました。

ごはんをたべたあと（で）すぐべんきょうしました。

I studied right after I had eaten my meal.

b.山田さんはビールを飲んであと〈で〉寝てしまった。

やまださんはビールをのんであと〈で〉ねてしまった。

Mr. Yamada fell asleep after he drank beer.

c.戦争が終わったあと〈で〉東京に戻りました。

せんそうがおわったあと〈で〉とうきょうにもどりました。

I went back to tokyo after the war ended.

d.食事のあとでテニスをした。

しょくじのあとでテニスをした。

I played tennis after my meal.

The particle で may be omitted in informal speech.

After the class I went to the library.

Some state or action take place at a time (not always immediately) after another state or action has taken place. [after]

a.ご飯を食べたあと（で）すぐ勉強しました。

ごはんをたべたあと（で）すぐべんきょうしました。

I studied right after I had eaten my meal.

b.山田さんはビールを飲んであと〈で〉寝てしまった。

やまださんはビールをのんであと〈で〉ねてしまった。

Mr. Yamada fell asleep after he drank beer.

c.戦争が終わったあと〈で〉東京に戻りました。

せんそうがおわったあと〈で〉とうきょうにもどりました。

I went back to tokyo after the war ended.

d.食事のあとでテニスをした。

しょくじのあとでテニスをした。

I played tennis after my meal.

The particle で may be omitted in informal speech.

If you take this medicine, you'll get well.

A conjunction which indicates that the prceding clause expresses a condition.

a.これは松本先生に聞けば分かります。

これはまつもとせんせいにきけばわかります。

You'll understand it if you ask Prof. Matumoto.

b.その町は車で行けば三十分で行ける。

そのまちはくるまでいけばさんじゅっぷんでいける。

You can get to that town in thirty minutes if you go by car.

I'll buy it if it's cheap./I would buy it if were cheap.

d.時間があれば京都へも行きたい。

じかんがあればきょうとへもいきたい。

If I have time, I want to go to Kyoto too./If I had time, I would want to go to Kyoto, too.

e.見たければ見ないさ。

If you want to see it, see it.

“Sentence 1 ば Sentence 2” basically expresses a general conditional relationship between the two propositions represented by Sentence 1 and Sentence 2. Sentence 1 represents a condition and Sentence 2 a proposition which hold or will hold true under the condition. Sentence 2 can be a statement of the speaker's volition or hope; it can also be a command, a request or suggestion. In this case, however, Sentence 1 cannot be an action.

The only thing left to do with the dessert is to eat it./The dessert is ready to eat.

A particle which indicates that s.t. is the only thing or state which exists, or the only action s.o. will take, takes, is taking or took. [only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have just done s.t.; just did s.t.; be just going s.t.; about]

a.このレポートは後結論を書くばかりだ。

このレポートはけつろんをかくばかりだ。

The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.

b.春江は泣いてばかりいて何も話そうとしない。

はるえはないてばかりいてなにもはなそうとしない。

Harue is just crying and won't talk about anything.

c.松山さんは今シカゴに着いたばかりです。

まつやまさんはいまシカゴについたばかりです。

Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.

d.この仕事は面倒なばかりであまり儲かりません。

この仕しごとはめんどうなばかりであまりもうかりません。

This job is troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.

e.この寮に住んでいるのは男子学生ばかりだ。

このりょうにすんでいるのはだんしがくせいばかりだ。

The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.

The basic idea which ばかり expresses is that there is nothing except what is stated. When Vinf-nonpast preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means there is nothing left to do (to competle something) but what is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Vinf-nonpast ばかり means that someone does nothing but what is stated. When Vinf-past preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means that there has been almost not time for anything to happen since what is stated took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just done something. When ばかり follows “Nounが” or “Nounを”, がorを drops. The directional へ and に may either be deleted or retained. Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by ばかり. ばかり in classical Japanese expressed the speaker's conjecture and this usage is still seen in the “Quantifer ばかり” pattern, when ばかり means 'about'.

The only thing Tomoko is doing is playing./Tomoko is doing nothing but playing.

A particle which indicates that s.t. is the only thing or state which exists, or the only action s.o. will take, takes, is taking or took. [only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have just done s.t.; just did s.t.; be just going s.t.; about]

a.このレポートは後結論を書くばかりだ。

このレポートはけつろんをかくばかりだ。

The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.

b.春江は泣いてばかりいて何も話そうとしない。

はるえはないてばかりいてなにもはなそうとしない。

Harue is just crying and won't talk about anything.

c.松山さんは今シカゴに着いたばかりです。

まつやまさんはいまシカゴについたばかりです。

Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.

d.この仕事は面倒なばかりであまり儲かりません。

この仕しごとはめんどうなばかりであまりもうかりません。

This job is troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.

e.この寮に住んでいるのは男子学生ばかりだ。

このりょうにすんでいるのはだんしがくせいばかりだ。

The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.

The basic idea which ばかり expresses is that there is nothing except what is stated. When Vinf-nonpast preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means there is nothing left to do (to competle something) but what is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Vinf-nonpast ばかり means that someone does nothing but what is stated. When Vinf-past preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means that there has been almost not time for anything to happen since what is stated took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just done something. When ばかり follows “Nounが” or “Nounを”, がorを drops. The directional へ and に may either be deleted or retained. Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by ばかり. ばかり in classical Japanese expressed the speaker's conjecture and this usage is still seen in the “Quantifer ばかり” pattern, when ばかり means 'about'.

I had my lunch and haven't done anything else since then.

A particle which indicates that s.t. is the only thing or state which exists, or the only action s.o. will take, takes, is taking or took. [only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have just done s.t.; just did s.t.; be just going s.t.; about]

a.このレポートは後結論を書くばかりだ。

このレポートはけつろんをかくばかりだ。

The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.

b.春江は泣いてばかりいて何も話そうとしない。

はるえはないてばかりいてなにもはなそうとしない。

Harue is just crying and won't talk about anything.

c.松山さんは今シカゴに着いたばかりです。

まつやまさんはいまシカゴについたばかりです。

Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.

d.この仕事は面倒なばかりであまり儲かりません。

この仕しごとはめんどうなばかりであまりもうかりません。

This job is troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.

e.この寮に住んでいるのは男子学生ばかりだ。

このりょうにすんでいるのはだんしがくせいばかりだ。

The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.

The basic idea which ばかり expresses is that there is nothing except what is stated. When Vinf-nonpast preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means there is nothing left to do (to competle something) but what is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Vinf-nonpast ばかり means that someone does nothing but what is stated. When Vinf-past preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means that there has been almost not time for anything to happen since what is stated took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just done something. When ばかり follows “Nounが” or “Nounを”, がorを drops. The directional へ and に may either be deleted or retained. Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by ばかり. ばかり in classical Japanese expressed the speaker's conjecture and this usage is still seen in the “Quantifer ばかり” pattern, when ばかり means 'about'.

The only merit of this restaurant is that the food is inexpensive.

A particle which indicates that s.t. is the only thing or state which exists, or the only action s.o. will take, takes, is taking or took. [only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have just done s.t.; just did s.t.; be just going s.t.; about]

a.このレポートは後結論を書くばかりだ。

このレポートはけつろんをかくばかりだ。

The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.

b.春江は泣いてばかりいて何も話そうとしない。

はるえはないてばかりいてなにもはなそうとしない。

Harue is just crying and won't talk about anything.

c.松山さんは今シカゴに着いたばかりです。

まつやまさんはいまシカゴについたばかりです。

Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.

d.この仕事は面倒なばかりであまり儲かりません。

この仕しごとはめんどうなばかりであまりもうかりません。

This job is troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.

e.この寮に住んでいるのは男子学生ばかりだ。

このりょうにすんでいるのはだんしがくせいばかりだ。

The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.

The basic idea which ばかり expresses is that there is nothing except what is stated. When Vinf-nonpast preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means there is nothing left to do (to competle something) but what is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Vinf-nonpast ばかり means that someone does nothing but what is stated. When Vinf-past preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means that there has been almost not time for anything to happen since what is stated took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just done something. When ばかり follows “Nounが” or “Nounを”, がorを drops. The directional へ and に may either be deleted or retained. Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by ばかり. ばかり in classical Japanese expressed the speaker's conjecture and this usage is still seen in the “Quantifer ばかり” pattern, when ばかり means 'about'.

Dennis is drinking only beer.

A particle which indicates that s.t. is the only thing or state which exists, or the only action s.o. will take, takes, is taking or took. [only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have just done s.t.; just did s.t.; be just going s.t.; about]

a.このレポートは後結論を書くばかりだ。

このレポートはけつろんをかくばかりだ。

The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.

b.春江は泣いてばかりいて何も話そうとしない。

はるえはないてばかりいてなにもはなそうとしない。

Harue is just crying and won't talk about anything.

c.松山さんは今シカゴに着いたばかりです。

まつやまさんはいまシカゴについたばかりです。

Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.

d.この仕事は面倒なばかりであまり儲かりません。

この仕しごとはめんどうなばかりであまりもうかりません。

This job is troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.

e.この寮に住んでいるのは男子学生ばかりだ。

このりょうにすんでいるのはだんしがくせいばかりだ。

The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.

The basic idea which ばかり expresses is that there is nothing except what is stated. When Vinf-nonpast preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means there is nothing left to do (to competle something) but what is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Vinf-nonpast ばかり means that someone does nothing but what is stated. When Vinf-past preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means that there has been almost not time for anything to happen since what is stated took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just done something. When ばかり follows “Nounが” or “Nounを”, がorを drops. The directional へ and に may either be deleted or retained. Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by ばかり. ばかり in classical Japanese expressed the speaker's conjecture and this usage is still seen in the “Quantifer ばかり” pattern, when ばかり means 'about'.

I was in Paris for about a month.

A particle which indicates that s.t. is the only thing or state which exists, or the only action s.o. will take, takes, is taking or took. [only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have just done s.t.; just did s.t.; be just going s.t.; about]

The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.

a.このレポートは後結論を書くばかりだ。

このレポートはけつろんをかくばかりだ。

The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.

b.春江は泣いてばかりいて何も話そうとしない。

はるえはないてばかりいてなにもはなそうとしない。

Harue is just crying and won't talk about anything.

c.松山さんは今シカゴに着いたばかりです。

まつやまさんはいまシカゴについたばかりです。

Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.

d.この仕事は面倒なばかりであまり儲かりません。

この仕しごとはめんどうなばかりであまりもうかりません。

This job is troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.

e.この寮に住んでいるのは男子学生ばかりだ。

このりょうにすんでいるのはだんしがくせいばかりだ。

The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.

The basic idea which ばかり expresses is that there is nothing except what is stated. When Vinf-nonpast preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means there is nothing left to do (to competle something) but what is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Vinf-nonpast ばかり means that someone does nothing but what is stated. When Vinf-past preceedes ばかり, the whole expression means that there has been almost not time for anything to happen since what is stated took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just done something. When ばかり follows “Nounが” or “Nounを”, がorを drops. The directional へ and に may either be deleted or retained. Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by ばかり. ばかり in classical Japanese expressed the speaker's conjecture and this usage is still seen in the “Quantifer ばかり” pattern, when ばかり means 'about'.

I wish I had asked my teacher.

A phrase which expresses the speaker's regret.

a.あの本を読めばよかった。

あのほんをよめばよかった。

I wish I had read that book.

b.ウェルズさんは日本へ行けばよかった。

ウェルズさんはにほんへいけばよかった。

I wish Mr. Wells had gone to Japan, don't you?

c.ああ、もっと英語を勉強して置けばよかった。

ああ、もっとえいごをべんきょうしておけばよかった。

Oh, I wish I had studied English harder!

Vcond ばよかった is an idiomatic expression which means 'I wish ~ had done s.t. It consists of a conditional clause with ば and よかった 'was good' and literally means 'It would have been good if ~ had done s.t.' When there is no subject in a ばclause sentence, the first person is the implicit subject. This expression is often used with the exlamatory words such as ああ 'oh' and the sentence-final particle of exclamation なあ, as in Ex. (c).

A sentence-final particle which indicates a WH-question in informal male speech.

a.新しい仕事はどうだい。

あたらしいしごとはどうだい。

How's your new job?

Who is that person?

c.何が可笑しいんだい。

なにがおかしいんだい。

What's funny?

d.どの人は佐藤先生なんだい。

どのひとはさとうせんせいなんだい。

Which person is Prof. Sato?

だい can also be used with declarative sentences for emphasis in boys' speech. When だい is used with interrogative sentences, the sentences must be WH-questions. For yes-no questions, かい is used. Questions with だい correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively. だい actually consists of the copula だ and the particle い. Thus, it can follow only なtype adjective stems, nouns and noun equivalents.

A sentence-final particle which indicates a WH-question in informal male speech.

a.新しい仕事はどうだい。

あたらしいしごとはどうだい。

How's your new job?

Who is that person?

c.何が可笑しいんだい。

なにがおかしいんだい。

What's funny?

d.どの人は佐藤先生なんだい。

どのひとはさとうせんせいなんだい。

Which person is Prof. Sato?

だい can also be used with declarative sentences for emphasis in boys' speech. When だい is used with interrogative sentences, the sentences must be WH-questions. For yes-no questions, かい is used. Questions with だい correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively. だい actually consists of the copula だ and the particle い. Thus, it can follow only なtype adjective stems, nouns and noun equivalents.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

I went to Japan only once.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

I just dated Yukiko, that's all.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

This house is big, that's all.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

This cake has pretty colours, that's all.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.あの人はよく勉強するだけで〈は〉なくよく遊ぶ・遊びます。

あのひとはよくべんきょうするだけで〈は〉なくよくあそぶ・あそびます。

He not only studies hard, but also plays a lot.

Not only X but also Y, where X and Y can be either a noun, a verb, an adjective.

a.あの人は小説を読むだけではなく書きます。

あのひとはしょうせつをよむだけではなくかきます。

He not only reads novels but also writes them.

b.ブラウンさんは日本へ行っただけではなく住んだこともあります。

ブラウンさんはにほんへいっただけではなくすんだこともあります。

Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has lived there.

c.このアパートは高いだけでなく大変狭いです。

このアパートはたかいだけでなくたいへんせまいです。

This apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.

d.幸子は頭がよかっただけではなく、とても親切でした。

さちこはあたまがよかっただけではなく、とてもしんせつでした。

Sachiko was not only bright but also very kind.

e.この車は綺麗なだけではなき、よく走ります。

このくるまはきれいなだけではなき、よくはしります。

This car is not only pretty but also runs well.

In “Noun~だけで〈は〉なくNoun~も”, the two nouns can be followed by various particles.

b.あの人は頭がいいだけで〈だ〉なくよく勉強〈も〉する・します。

あのひとはあたまがいいだけで〈だ〉なくよくべんきょう〈も〉する・します。

He is not only smart; he studies hard, too.

Not only X but also Y, where X and Y can be either a noun, a verb, an adjective.

a.あの人は小説を読むだけではなく書きます。

あのひとはしょうせつをよむだけではなくかきます。

He not only reads novels but also writes them.

b.ブラウンさんは日本へ行っただけではなく住んだこともあります。

ブラウンさんはにほんへいっただけではなくすんだこともあります。

Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has lived there.

c.このアパートは高いだけでなく大変狭いです。

このアパートはたかいだけでなくたいへんせまいです。

This apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.

d.幸子は頭がよかっただけではなく、とても親切でした。

さちこはあたまがよかっただけではなく、とてもしんせつでした。

Sachiko was not only bright but also very kind.

e.この車は綺麗なだけではなき、よく走ります。

このくるまはきれいなだけではなき、よくはしります。

This car is not only pretty but also runs well.

In “Noun~だけで〈は〉なくNoun~も”, the two nouns can be followed by various particles.

c.このうちは綺麗なだけで〈は〉なくとても安い〈です〉。

This house is not only beautiful but it is also inexpensive.

Not only X but also Y, where X and Y can be either a noun, a verb, an adjective.

a.あの人は小説を読むだけではなく書きます。

あのひとはしょうせつをよむだけではなくかきます。

He not only reads novels but also writes them.

b.ブラウンさんは日本へ行っただけではなく住んだこともあります。

ブラウンさんはにほんへいっただけではなくすんだこともあります。

Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has lived there.

c.このアパートは高いだけでなく大変狭いです。

このアパートはたかいだけでなくたいへんせまいです。

This apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.

d.幸子は頭がよかっただけではなく、とても親切でした。

さちこはあたまがよかっただけではなく、とてもしんせつでした。

Sachiko was not only bright but also very kind.

e.この車は綺麗なだけではなき、よく走ります。

このくるまはきれいなだけではなき、よくはしります。

This car is not only pretty but also runs well.

In “Noun~だけで〈は〉なくNoun~も”, the two nouns can be followed by various particles.

d.ジョンだけで（は）なくメアリーも来た・来ました。

Not only John but also Mary came here.

Not only X but also Y, where X and Y can be either a noun, a verb, an adjective.

a.あの人は小説を読むだけではなく書きます。

あのひとはしょうせつをよむだけではなくかきます。

He not only reads novels but also writes them.

b.ブラウンさんは日本へ行っただけではなく住んだこともあります。

ブラウンさんはにほんへいっただけではなくすんだこともあります。

Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has lived there.

c.このアパートは高いだけでなく大変狭いです。

このアパートはたかいだけでなくたいへんせまいです。

This apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.

d.幸子は頭がよかっただけではなく、とても親切でした。

さちこはあたまがよかっただけではなく、とてもしんせつでした。

Sachiko was not only bright but also very kind.

e.この車は綺麗なだけではなき、よく走ります。

このくるまはきれいなだけではなき、よくはしります。

This car is not only pretty but also runs well.

In “Noun~だけで〈は〉なくNoun~も”, the two nouns can be followed by various particles.

Ms. Anderson will probably go to Japan.

An auxiliary indicating the speaker's conjecture which is not based on any particular information or evidence.

かもしれない〈にちがいない〉；ようだ〈らしい、そうだ (2)〉

a.あのアパートは高いでしょう。

あのアパートはたかいでしょう。

That apartment is probably expensive.

b.ロジャーはスキーが上手だろう。

ロジャーはスキーがじょうずだろう。

Roger is probably good at skiing.

c.あの人は中国人だろう。

あのひとはちゅうごくじん人だろう。

That man is probably Chinese.

だろう is originally the informal conjecture form of the copula だ, but it is used as an auxiliary of conjecture. The formal version is でしょう. Probability adverbs such as たぶん, おそらく and きっと are sometimes used with だろう or でしょう. The speaker's conjecture sounds more certain with たぶん or おそらく, and even more certain with きっと. だろう・でしょう with the question marker か makes questions softer or less direct. Sentence だろう・でしょう with a rising intonation asks for the hearer's agreement. The sentence-final particle ね also asks for the hearer's agreement, but Sentence だろう・でしょう with a rising intonation is softer or less direct.

The car started to move.

Something that has been latent is realized.

a.急に雨が降り出した。

きゅうにあめがふりだした。

Suddenly it began to rain.

b.一歳になって初めて歩き出した。

いっさいになってはじめてあるきだした。

He started to walk only after he became a year old.

c.そのアイディアは誰が考え出したんですか。

そのアイディアはだれがかんがえだしたんですか。

Who thought out that idea?

d.一時間ぐらいかけてとうとうその本屋を探し出した。

いちじかんぐらいかけてとうとうそのほんやをさがしだした。

After spending about an hour, I finally located that bookstore.

だす in Vます+だす is used as an auxiliary verb. When it is used as a full verb, it means 'cause something to become visible'. Vます+だす is normally ambiguous; one meaning is '~ out' and the other is 'begin to ~'. Thus, 作り出す・つくりだす means 'turn out' or 'begin to make'. Vます+終わる・おわる 'finish ~ing' is an antonym of Vます+だす/始める・はじめる.

We drank coffee at a coffee shop.

A particle which indicates location, expect for the location of existence.

a.ゆり子はデパートで働いています。

ゆり子はデパートではたらいています。

Yuriko is working at a department store.

b.オーストラリアでは十二月は夏だ。

オーストラリアではじゅうにがつはなつだ。

In Australia it is summer in December.

c.島崎さんは日本では元気でした。

しまざきさんはにほんではげんきでした。

Mr. Shimazaki was healthy in Japan.

d.ヘレンは始めて舞台で歌った。

ヘレンははじめてぶたいでうたった。

Helen sang on the stage for the first time.

で (1) cannot be used to indicate location of existence. However, if the existential verb ある (inanimate things) exit' occurs with an event, で is used.

Mr. Miyamoto goes to his company by bus everyday.

A particle which indicates the use of something for doing something.

a.日本人は箸でご飯を食べる

にほんじんははしでごはんをたべる

Japanese people eat rice with chopsticks.

b.私達は日本語で話した。

わたしたちはにほんごではなした。

We talked in Japanese.

c.私はその映画をテレビで見ました。

わたしはそのえいがをテレビでみました。

I saw the movie on TV.

d.豆腐は大豆で作ります。

とうふはだいずでつくります。

We make toufu from soybeans.

e.ラリーはこの椅子を十ドルで買った。

ラリーはこのいすを十ドルでかった。

Larry bought this chair for ten dollars.

In general, で (2) indicates something which is used when someone or something does something. Typically, it indicates means and instruments as in KS and Exs. (a) – (c). Since で also indicates reason and cause, the phrase なんで, which consists of なん 'what' and で, is ambigious: one meaning is 'by means of what (=how)' and the other is 'for what reason (=why)'.

Because Mr. Yamaguchi was ill, he didn't come to school.

A particle (apparently derived from the てform of です) that indicates a weak casual relationship.

a.明日は期末試験で大変です。

あしたはきまつしけんでたいへんです。

I'm having an awful time because of tomorrow's final exam.

おおあめではしがこわれた。

Heavy rain destroyed the bridge.

c.昨日は夜、仕事でとても連れた。

あしたはよる、しごとでとてもつかれた。

Because of my work I got very tired last night.

d.父は交通事故で入院しました。

ちちはこうつうじこでにゅういんしました。

My father was hospitalised due to a traffic accident.

Some of the used of で (3) (such as KS and Ex. (a)) are very close to the てform of です. For example, KS can be paraphrased into two sentences: a. 山口さんは病気でした。 b. 山口さんは学校を休みました。 And KS can be considered to be the result of combining the two sentences using the てform of です which basically means 'be ~ and'. A noun that precedes で (3) expresses something that is beyond human control (such as illness, flood, accident, rain, and fire). It is also to be noted that で (3) co-occurs with any noun, if a predicate expresses something that is beyond human control. If the co-occuring predicate expresses something that is controllable, the particle で is no longer で (3); it is で (2) of means.

The spring term ends on May 10.

A particle which indicates the time when something terminates or the amount of time a period of activity has taken.

a.このコンサートは十時で終わります。

このコンサートはじゅうじでおわります。

This concert will be over at ten o'clock.

b.私のパスポートは六月で切れる。

わたしのパスポートはろくがつできれる。

My passport expires in June.

c.アメリカに来てから今日で三年になる。

アメリカにきてからきょうでさんねんになる。

It's been three years since I came to America.

In general, X で (4) indicates that something lasts for a period of time up to X. When X in X で refers to a duration of time, as in (1), it is the で of means rather that the で of termination time. (1) 山田さんは一週間・いっしゅうかんでそのレポートを書いた。

Even a teacher makes mistakes.

a.子供でもそんなことは分かりますよ。

こどもでもそんなことはわかりますよ。

Even a child can understand that sort of thing.

b.お会いしたいんですが、日曜日でも構いませんか。

おあいしたいんですが、にちようびでもかまいませんか。

I'd like to see you, but it is all right to see you even on Sunday?

c.あの人は魚でも肉でも食べます。

あのひとはさかなでもにくでもたべます。

He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat.

WH-word+でも yeilds the following meaning depending on which WH-word is used. 誰でも (no matter who it is; anyone); 何でも (no matter what it is; anything); いつでも (no matter when; anytime); どこれも (no matter where it is; any place); どれでも (no mater which it is).

I will even do a difficult job.

a.子供でもそんなことは分かりますよ。

こどもでもそんなことはわかりますよ。

Even a child can understand that sort of thing.

b.お会いしたいんですが、日曜日でも構いませんか。

おあいしたいんですが、にちようびでもかまいませんか。

I'd like to see you, but it is all right to see you even on Sunday?

c.あの人は魚でも肉でも食べます。

あのひとはさかなでもにくでもたべます。

He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat.

WH-word+でも yeilds the following meaning depending on which WH-word is used. 誰でも (no matter who it is; anyone); 何でも (no matter what it is; anything); いつでも (no matter when; anytime); どこれも (no matter where it is; any place); どれでも (no mater which it is).

Even from here you can see Mt. Fuji.

a.子供でもそんなことは分かりますよ。

こどもでもそんなことはわかりますよ。

Even a child can understand that sort of thing.

b.お会いしたいんですが、日曜日でも構いませんか。

おあいしたいんですが、にちようびでもかまいませんか。

I'd like to see you, but it is all right to see you even on Sunday?

c.あの人は魚でも肉でも食べます。

あのひとはさかなでもにくでもたべます。

He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat.

WH-word+でも yeilds the following meaning depending on which WH-word is used. 誰でも (no matter who it is; anyone); 何でも (no matter what it is; anything); いつでも (no matter when; anytime); どこれも (no matter where it is; any place); どれでも (no mater which it is).

An interrogative adverb which asks about the state of someone/something or the way of doing something.

a.新しいアパートはどうですか。

あたらしいアパートはどうですか。

How's your new apartment?

b.コーヒーはどうですか。

コーヒーはどうですか。

How is the coffee?/Would you like coffee?/How about coffee?

How about Saturday?

The polite version of どう is いかが. In very informal speech ですか is omitted after どう or いかが. どう and いかが are also used to offer or suggest something, as in Exs. (b) and (c). In this case, どう or いかが are asking about the state of the hearer's mind regarding the offer or suggestion rather that about the state of what is being offered or suggested. どう is also used to ask the way of doing something. The idiomatic expression どうして 'lit. doing what' is used to ask manners, reasons or causes.

I went on a trip to Kyouto last week.

A particle that indicates the direction toward which some directional movement or action proceeds.

a.私は札幌のうちへ飛行機で帰った。

わたしはさっぽろのうちへひこうきでかえった。

I went back home to Sapporo by plane.

b.地震だったのでいそいで外へ出た。

じしんだったのでいそいでそとへでた。

It was an earthquake, so I went outside quickly.

c.父へ手紙を出したが、まだ返事が来ない。

ちちへてがみをだしたが、まだへんじがこない。

I sent a letter to my father, but his reply has not come yet.

a.私の部屋はステレオがあります。

わたしのへやはステレオがあります。

There is no stereo in my room.

b.あ、のり子が走っている。

あ、のりこがはしっている。

Oh, Noriko is running.

c.このレストランは何が美味しいですか。 / ステーキが美味しいです。

このレストランはなにがおいしいですか。 / ステーキがおいしいです。

What is good in this restaurant? / Steak is good.

が marks the subject of a sentence when the information expressed by the subject is first introduced in a discourse. When the subject is presented as the topic (that is, the information has already been introduced into the discourse), however, the topic marker は replaces が. Consider the following discourse, a typical opening in folktales, which illustrates the different used of が and は. (1) 昔々一人のおじいさんが住んでいました。おじいさんは貧乏背した。 In the first sentence, おじいさん 'old man' appears for the first time in the discourse; おじいさん is the subject but not the topic in this sentence. Therefore, it is marked by が. The second sentence tells something about the old man introduced in the first sentence. おじいさん is now the topic; therefore it is marked by は rather than が. Note the parallelism here between が and は in Japanese and 'a' and 'the' in English. が is also replaced by は if the subject is in contrast with another element. Since WH-words like 何, 誰, どこ can never be topics, they are never marked by. The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by が unless it is a contrasted element.

ジョンは来た・来ましたがメアリーは来なかった・来ませんでした。

ジョンはきた・きましたがメアリーはきなかった・きませんでした。

John came but Mary didn't (come).

A disjunctive coordinate conjunction that combines two sentences.

a.私はビールは飲むが酒は飲まない。

わたしはビールはのむがさけはのまない。

I drink beer but don't drink sake.

b.旅行をしたいがお金がない。

りょこうをしたいがおかねがない。

I want to travel but I don't have the money.

が (2), like 'but' in English, combines two sentences which expresses contrasitive ideas. However, が is much weaker than 'but' in that it is sometimes used simply to combine two sentences for stylistic reasons even if those two sentences do not represent contrastive ideas. が (2) makes a sentence unit with the preceding sentence, not the the following sentence. Thus it is wrong to place a comma before が or to start a sentence with が.

Kazuo wanted a sports car.

An auxiliary verb attached to a psychological/physiological adjective meaning a person other than the speaker show signs of ~.

a.スーザンは一人で淋しがっています。

スーザンはひとりでさびしがっています。

Susan feels lonely by herself.

b.子供が眠たがっている。

こどもがねむたがっている。

My child wants to go to sleep.

There is a group of adjectives which, in the present tense, usually requires the first person (or a person whith whom the speaker can empathize) as subject. If the subject of a sentence in which these adjectives occur is not the first person (or one with whom the speaker can empathize), then がる is attached to the adjective. If an adjective appears in an embedded clause (except a nominalized clause), the がる attachment is unnecessary even if the tense is nonpast and the subject is a person with whom the speaker cannot empathize.

b.上田さんはアイスクリームを食べたがった・がりました。

Mr Ueda wanted to eat ice cream.

An auxiliary verb attached to a psychological/physiological adjective meaning a person other than the speaker show signs of ~.

a.スーザンは一人で淋しがっています。

スーザンはひとりでさびしがっています。

Susan feels lonely by herself.

b.子供が眠たがっている。

こどもがねむたがっている。

My child wants to go to sleep.

There is a group of adjectives which, in the present tense, usually requires the first person (or a person whith whom the speaker can empathize) as subject. If the subject of a sentence in which these adjectives occur is not the first person (or one with whom the speaker can empathize), then がる is attached to the adjective. If an adjective appears in an embedded clause (except a nominalized clause), the がる attachment is unnecessary even if the tense is nonpast and the subject is a person with whom the speaker cannot empathize.

Mr. Suzuki leaves home at about 7:00 o'clock in the morning.

Approximately (which a specific point of time).

a.いつごろ北京に行きますか。 / 来年の六月ごろ行きます。

いつごろぺきんにいきますか。 / らいねんのろくがつごろいきます。

About when are you going to Beijing? / I'm going there around June of next year.

b.今朝は何時ごろまで寝ていましたか。 / 十時ごろまで寝ていました。

けさはなんじごろまでねていましたか。 / じゅうじごろまでねていました。

Until about what time were you asleep this morning? / I was asleep unti about 10 o'clock.

c.去年の今ごろは大雪でしたね。

きょねんのいまごろはおおゆきでしたね。

About this time last year it snowed heavily, didn't it?

ごろ is used with a specific point of time. Thus, the follow sentence is unacceptable. 夜ごるテレビを見ていました。 Depending on the speaker's perspective, the expressions other than exact time expressions can be perceived as points in time. Thus, in Ex. (a), the month of June is a point in time from the speaker's viewpoint. In these cases, ごろ seems easier to use grammatically if there is some distance between the time of the event and the time of the speech.

I took medicine every three hours.

Something takes place regularly in succession after a certain temporal or spatial interval.

a.一課ごとに試験がある。

いっかごとにしけんがある。

There is a test after every lesson.

b.学期ごとに先生が変わる。

がっきごとにせんせいがかわる。

Every semester teachers change.

c.木村さんは会う人ごとに挨拶している。

きむらさんはあうひとごとにあいさつしている。

Mr. Kimura greets everyone he meets.

d.三日ごとにテニスをしています。

みっかごとにテニスをしています。

I'm playing tennis every third day.

They put up pine tree decorations at every house on New Year's Day.

Something takes place regularly in succession after a certain temporal or spatial interval.

a.一課ごとに試験がある。

いっかごとにしけんがある。

There is a test after every lesson.

b.学期ごとに先生が変わる。

がっきごとにせんせいがかわる。

Every semester teachers change.

c.木村さんは会う人ごとに挨拶している。

きむらさんはあうひとごとにあいさつしている。

Mr. Kimura greets everyone he meets.

d.三日ごとにテニスをしています。

みっかごとにテニスをしています。

I'm playing tennis every third day.

I'll begin to write my paper tomorrow.

Somone/something begins to do something or begins to be in some state.

a.私は八月から源氏物語を読み始めました。

わたしははちからげんじものがたりをよみはじめました。

I began to read The Tale of Genji in August.

b.日本の経済は１９６４年の東京オリンピックのころから強くなり始めた。

にほんのけいざいは１９６４ねんのとうきょうオリンピックのころからつよくなりはじめた。

The Japanese economy began to strengthen about the time of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.

c.いつから切手を集め始めたんですか。 / 子供の時から集め始めました。

いつからきってをあつめはじめたんですか。 / こどものときからあつめはじめました。

When did you start to collect stamps? / I started to collect them (lit. since) I was a child.

~始める・はじめる is normally attached to a non-punctual verb (such as 読む・よむ 'read', 書く・かく 'write' and 見る・みる 'see'). If the subject is plural, however, the verb can be a punctual verb (such as 着く・つく 'arrive', 来る・くる 'come' and 死ぬ・しぬ 'die').

I expect that Mr. Clark will go to the party.

A dependent noun which expresses the speaker's expectation that something will take place or took place or that s.o./s.t. is or was in some state.

a.大野先生はサンドラを知っているはずです。

おおのせんせいはサンドラをしっているはずです。

I expect that Prof. Ono knows Sandra.

b.あの本は高かったはずだ。

あのほんはたかかったはずだ。

I expect that book was expensive.

c.そのアパートは綺麗なはずです。

そのアパートはきれいなはずです。

I expect that apartment is clean.

d.カールソンさんは昔先生だったはずだ。

カールソンさんはむかしせんせいだったはずだ。

I'm fairly sure that Ms. Carlson was a teacher before.

“Sはず” expresses the speaker's expectation, not in the sense of hoping or looking forward to something, but in the sense that the proposition expressed by S should be true or come true. Thus, when the speaker uses はず, he is not merely guessing, but stating a proposition based on reliable information or knowledge. はず is a dependent noun and cannot be used alone. It is always modified by a sentence or a demonstrative such as その 'that' and かんな 'like this'. “Demonstrative はず” is used used a proposition is known to the hearer from the context. “S はず” can also be used when the speaker has discovered the reason for an event or a state. In this case, はず means “it is natural that ~.” or “No wonder ~.” and can be paraphrased as “S わけだ”. When “S　はず” modifies a nound, that is, when “S はず” is a relative clause, の follows.

I'm not as strong as Ken.

A particle which indicates an extent or a degree to which s.o./s.t. does s.t. or is in some state.

a.僕は君ほど速く歩けません。

ぼくはきみほどはやくあるけません。

I can't walk as fast as you can.

b.ジェニファーほどよく勉強する学生はいない。

ジェニファーほどよくべんきょうするがくせいはいない。

There is no student who studies as hard as Jennifer.

c.私は西田さんがあれほどピアノが弾けるとは思わなかった。

わたしはにしださんがあれほどピアノがひけるとはおもわなかった。

I didn't think that Mr. Nishida could play the piano that well.

d.ルイスさんの日本語は太田先生も外国人だと気づかなかったほど上手です。

ルイスさんのにほんごはおおたせんせいもがいこくじんだときづかなかったほどじょうずです。

Mr. Lewis' Japanese is so good that even Prof. Ota didn't notice he was a foreigner.

When ほど is preceded by a noun, the predicate must be negative, as in KS(a), Exs, (a) and (b). If a sentence or a demonstrative modifies ほど, however, the predicate of the main clause can be either affirmative or negative, as in KS(b), and Ex. (d). When ほど is used with a quantifier, it means 'about'.

b.この仕事は子共でも出来るほど易しい・易しいです。

This job is so easy even a child can do it.

A particle which indicates an extent or a degree to which s.o./s.t. does s.t. or is in some state.

a.僕は君ほど速く歩けません。

ぼくはきみほどはやくあるけません。

I can't walk as fast as you can.

b.ジェニファーほどよく勉強する学生はいない。

ジェニファーほどよくべんきょうするがくせいはいない。

There is no student who studies as hard as Jennifer.

c.私は西田さんがあれほどピアノが弾けるとは思わなかった。

わたしはにしださんがあれほどピアノがひけるとはおもわなかった。

I didn't think that Mr. Nishida could play the piano that well.

d.ルイスさんの日本語は太田先生も外国人だと気づかなかったほど上手です。

ルイスさんのにほんごはおおたせんせいもがいこくじんだときづかなかったほどじょうずです。

Mr. Lewis' Japanese is so good that even Prof. Ota didn't notice he was a foreigner.

When ほど is preceded by a noun, the predicate must be negative, as in KS(a), Exs, (a) and (b). If a sentence or a demonstrative modifies ほど, however, the predicate of the main clause can be either affirmative or negative, as in KS(b), and Ex. (d). When ほど is used with a quantifier, it means 'about'.

You'd better read Japanese books.

It is strongly suggested that someone do something.

a.野菜も食べたほうがいいよ。

やさいもたべたほうがいいよ。

You'd better eat vegetables, too.

b.もう帰ったほうがいいですか。

もうかえったほうがいいですか。

Had I better go home now?

c.和子はもっと英語を勉強したほうがいいね。

かずこはもっとえいごをべんきょうしたほうがいいね。

Kazuko had better study English harder.

Vinf.past ほうがいい is an idiomatic expression of the comparative structure and expresses a strong suggestion. The second person subject in declarative sentences in the first person subject in interrogative sentences are usually (KS and Exs. (a) and (b)) when the subject is the third person, it is not omitted unless it can be clearly understood from the context. In the case, the speaker is telling the hearer what the speaker suggests for the third person. Vinf.nonpast can be substituded for Vinf.past, as in (1) 日本語の本を読むほうがいい。 The meaning of Vinf.nonpast ほうがいい is almost the same as that of Vinf.past ほうがいい if used in situations of suggestion. However, Vinf.past ほうがいい may express a stronger suggestion that Vinf.nonpast ほうがいい. “Had better not do s.t.” is expressed by Vneg ないほうがいい.

Mr. Ishida is younger than I am.

In comparing two entities, one is in some state or does something more than the other.

a.このカメラのほうがあのカメらより好きです。

このカメラのほうがあのカメらよりすきです。

I like this camera better than that camera.

b.ジェフのほうが私より速く走れる。

ジェフのほうがわたしよりはやくはしれる。

Jeff can run faster than I can.

c.私が話すほうが君が話すよりいいでしょう。

わたしがはなすほうがきみがはなすよりいいでしょう。

It's probably better for me to talk that for you to talk.

d.もちろん、安いほうが高いより嬉しいです。

もちろん、やすいほうがたかいよりうれしいです。

Of course, I'm happier when it is cheap than when it is expensive.

e.子供は元気なほうが静かなより安心だ。

こどもはげんきなほうがしずかなよりあんしんだ。

Talking about children, you feel more at ease when they are lively than when they are quiet.

In the “S1ほうがS2より” pattern, S1 can be either nonpast or past. S2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the tense of S1 and the main clause. There are two case in which S1 is past. First, S1 can be past when the whole sentence is about a present of future action or state. In this case, the sentence sounds rather hypothetical. S1 can also be past if the whole sentence is about a past action or state. In this case the sentence is counterfactual. Example: 私が話したほうが君が話すよりよかった。(It would have been better if I had talked rather than you). Y より can precede X 〈の〉ほうが. X のほう is a noun phrase; therefore, it can also be a direct object, an indirect object, etc. However, when it is used for something other than the subject, the “YよりXのほう（を、に、etc.）” order is preferable.

I eat more than Ms. Ueda does.

In comparing two entities, one is in some state or does something more than the other.

a.このカメラのほうがあのカメらより好きです。

このカメラのほうがあのカメらよりすきです。

I like this camera better than that camera.

b.ジェフのほうが私より速く走れる。

ジェフのほうがわたしよりはやくはしれる。

Jeff can run faster than I can.

c.私が話すほうが君が話すよりいいでしょう。

わたしがはなすほうがきみがはなすよりいいでしょう。

It's probably better for me to talk that for you to talk.

d.もちろん、安いほうが高いより嬉しいです。

もちろん、やすいほうがたかいよりうれしいです。

Of course, I'm happier when it is cheap than when it is expensive.

e.子供は元気なほうが静かなより安心だ。

こどもはげんきなほうがしずかなよりあんしんだ。

Talking about children, you feel more at ease when they are lively than when they are quiet.

In the “S1ほうがS2より” pattern, S1 can be either nonpast or past. S2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the tense of S1 and the main clause. There are two case in which S1 is past. First, S1 can be past when the whole sentence is about a present of future action or state. In this case, the sentence sounds rather hypothetical. S1 can also be past if the whole sentence is about a past action or state. In this case the sentence is counterfactual. Example: 私が話したほうが君が話すよりよかった。(It would have been better if I had talked rather than you). Y より can precede X 〈の〉ほうが. X のほう is a noun phrase; therefore, it can also be a direct object, an indirect object, etc. However, when it is used for something other than the subject, the “YよりXのほう（を、に、etc.）” order is preferable.

Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.

In comparing two entities, one is in some state or does something more than the other.

a.このカメラのほうがあのカメらより好きです。

このカメラのほうがあのカメらよりすきです。

I like this camera better than that camera.

b.ジェフのほうが私より速く走れる。

ジェフのほうがわたしよりはやくはしれる。

Jeff can run faster than I can.

c.私が話すほうが君が話すよりいいでしょう。

わたしがはなすほうがきみがはなすよりいいでしょう。

It's probably better for me to talk that for you to talk.

d.もちろん、安いほうが高いより嬉しいです。

もちろん、やすいほうがたかいよりうれしいです。

Of course, I'm happier when it is cheap than when it is expensive.

e.子供は元気なほうが静かなより安心だ。

こどもはげんきなほうがしずかなよりあんしんだ。

Talking about children, you feel more at ease when they are lively than when they are quiet.

In the “S1ほうがS2より” pattern, S1 can be either nonpast or past. S2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the tense of S1 and the main clause. There are two case in which S1 is past. First, S1 can be past when the whole sentence is about a present of future action or state. In this case, the sentence sounds rather hypothetical. S1 can also be past if the whole sentence is about a past action or state. In this case the sentence is counterfactual. Example: 私が話したほうが君が話すよりよかった。(It would have been better if I had talked rather than you). Y より can precede X 〈の〉ほうが. X のほう is a noun phrase; therefore, it can also be a direct object, an indirect object, etc. However, when it is used for something other than the subject, the “YよりXのほう（を、に、etc.）” order is preferable.

a.私は日本人の友達が欲しい。

わたしはにほんじんのともだちがほしい。

I want a Japanese friend.

b.あなたは今何が欲しいですか。

あなたはいまなにがほしいですか。

What do you want now?

c.パムはステレオを欲しがっている。

パムはステレオをほしがっている。

Pam wants a stereo.

The いtype adjective 欲しい expresses a person's desire for some object. Like other stative transitive adjectives, 欲しい takes the は-が construction, where the experiencer is marked by は and the desired object by が (in subordinate clauses the experiencer is also marked by が). Since 欲しい expresses a very personal feeling, the experiencer is usually the first person in declarative sentences and the second person in interrogatives sentences, as in KS(a), Exs. (a) and (b). The third person's desire is usually expressed by 欲しいがっている 'lit. be showing the sign of wanting (s.t.)', as in KS(b) and Ex. (c). It is noted that when 欲しいがっている is used, the desired object is marked by を.

My little brother wants a bike.

a.私は日本人の友達が欲しい。

わたしはにほんじんのともだちがほしい。

I want a Japanese friend.

b.あなたは今何が欲しいですか。

あなたはいまなにがほしいですか。

What do you want now?

c.パムはステレオを欲しがっている。

パムはステレオをほしがっている。

Pam wants a stereo.

The いtype adjective 欲しい expresses a person's desire for some object. Like other stative transitive adjectives, 欲しい takes the は-が construction, where the experiencer is marked by は and the desired object by が (in subordinate clauses the experiencer is also marked by が). Since 欲しい expresses a very personal feeling, the experiencer is usually the first person in declarative sentences and the second person in interrogatives sentences, as in KS(a), Exs. (a) and (b). The third person's desire is usually expressed by 欲しいがっている 'lit. be showing the sign of wanting (s.t.)', as in KS(b) and Ex. (c). It is noted that when 欲しいがっている is used, the desired object is marked by を.

I want you to teach me English.

Want someone (who is not higher in status than the speaker) to do something.

a.私は子供達に私と一緒に住んで欲しい。

わたしはこどもたちにわたしといっしょにすんでほしい。

I want my children to live together with me.

b.あなたは誰に来て欲しいですか。

あなただはれにきてほしいですか。

Who do you want to come?

欲しい is used as an auxiliary with Vて to mean 'mean (s.o.) to do (s.t.)'. When the experiencer wants a person X to do something, X is marked by に. 欲しい is not used if X has a higher status than the experiencer. When Vて欲しい is used, the experiencer is usually the first person in declarative sentences (KS, Ex. (a)) and the second person in interrogative sentences (Ex. (b)). If the experiencer is the third person, Vてもらいたがっている '(lit) be showing the sign of wanting to received the favour of doing s.t. from s.o.'

Mr. Okawa is the brightest in the class.

a.この中でどの映画が一番面白いですか。 /　この日本の映画でしょう。

このなかでどのえいががいちばんおもしろいですか。 /　このにほんのえいがでしょう。

Among these, which movie is the most interesting? / This Japanese movie, I guess.

b.松本さんと池田さんと清水さんの中で、誰が一番〈より〉出来ますか。

まつもとさんといけださんとしみずさんのなかで、だれがいちばん〈より〉できますか。

Among Mr. Matsumono, Mr. Ikeda and Mr. Shimizu, who is the best student.

c.日本で一番綺麗な所はどこですか。

にほんでいちばんきれいなところはどこですか。

Where is the most scenic place in Japan?

一番 cannot be affixed directly to a noun, as in '一番先生', meaning 'the best teacher'. It should precede an adjective, as in 一番いい先生. If the meaning is predictable, however, the adverbial form of adjectives, esp. よく 'well, frequently' may be omitted, as in Ex. (b).

Mr. Tanaka is going to America next week.

Someone or something moves in a direction away from the speaker or the speaker's viewpoint.

a.私は毎朝八時に会社に行く。

わたしはまいあさはちじにかいしゃにいく。

I go to work at eight every morning.

b.今晩私のうちでパーティーをしますが来ませんか。 / はい、行きます。

こんばんわたしのうちでパーティーをしますがきませんか。 / はい、いきます。

We are going to have a party at my place tonight. Wouldn't you like to come? / Yes, I'll come.

c.あなたにもその知らせは行きましたか。

あなたにもそのしらせはいきましたか。

Did the notice go to you, too?

d.その村にもバスは行っている。

そのむらにもバスはいっている。

The bus goes to the village, too.

行く (1) is used when someone or something moves in a direction away from the speaker or in a direction away from the speaker's viewpoint, which is not necessarily the speaker's position. For example, in the following situation, 行く is used when the speaker placed his viewpoint near Mr.X: ＸさんはＢに行った。 (Mr. X went to point B.) When someone goes to his own “home base” (e.g. うち 'home'), うちに行く is ungrammatical. In this case, 帰る・かえる 'return' is used as in うちに帰る。 'go home'. There are cases when both 来る and 行く can be used with different shades of meaning. Examples: (1) 君のうちに息子が来ませんでした・行きませんでしたか。 (2) [The speaker lives in San Francisco and is calling his friend in New York who is coming to Los Angeles.] スミスさんは来月ロスアンジェルスに来る・行くそうですね。 In (1), when the speaker uses 来る, he is putting himself pyschologically in the addressee's location; when he uses 行く, he is not. In (2), 来る is more appropriate than 行く because, in general, a speaker is more empathetic with a location close to his own. The choice of 行く here definitely implies that the speaker is unusually unempathetic with his neighbouring location.

わたしはとうきょうからおおさかまでバスでいった・いきました。

I went from Tokyo to Osaka by bus.

Someone or something moves in a direction away from the speaker or the speaker's viewpoint.

a.私は毎朝八時に会社に行く。

わたしはまいあさはちじにかいしゃにいく。

I go to work at eight every morning.

b.今晩私のうちでパーティーをしますが来ませんか。 / はい、行きます。

こんばんわたしのうちでパーティーをしますがきませんか。 / はい、いきます。

We are going to have a party at my place tonight. Wouldn't you like to come? / Yes, I'll come.

c.あなたにもその知らせは行きましたか。

あなたにもそのしらせはいきましたか。

Did the notice go to you, too?

d.その村にもバスは行っている。

そのむらにもバスはいっている。

The bus goes to the village, too.

行く (1) is used when someone or something moves in a direction away from the speaker or in a direction away from the speaker's viewpoint, which is not necessarily the speaker's position. For example, in the following situation, 行く is used when the speaker placed his viewpoint near Mr.X: ＸさんはＢに行った。 (Mr. X went to point B.) When someone goes to his own “home base” (e.g. うち 'home'), うちに行く is ungrammatical. In this case, 帰る・かえる 'return' is used as in うちに帰る。 'go home'. There are cases when both 来る and 行く can be used with different shades of meaning. Examples: (1) 君のうちに息子が来ませんでした・行きませんでしたか。 (2) [The speaker lives in San Francisco and is calling his friend in New York who is coming to Los Angeles.] スミスさんは来月ロスアンジェルスに来る・行くそうですね。 In (1), when the speaker uses 来る, he is putting himself pyschologically in the addressee's location; when he uses 行く, he is not. In (2), 来る is more appropriate than 行く because, in general, a speaker is more empathetic with a location close to his own. The choice of 行く here definitely implies that the speaker is unusually unempathetic with his neighbouring location.

It will get colder (and continue to be that way) from now on.

Some action or state keeps changing from the point in time at which the speaker first describes the action.

a.これからは毎日本を一冊読んで行く積もりです。

これからはまいにちほんをいっさつよんでいくつもりです。

I intend to keep reading one book a day from now on.

b.これからは暖かくなって行きますよ。

これからはあたたかくなっていきますよ。

It will grow warmer (and continue in that way) from now on.

c.その頃から日本の経済は強くなって行った。

そのころからにほんのけいざいはつよくなっていった。

The Japanese economy grew stronger (and continued to grow that way) from that time on.

d.分からないことをノートに書いて行った。

わからないことをノートにかいていった。

I went on taking notes on things I didn't understand.

The point in time at which the action starts is the present time in Exs. (a) and (b) and the past in Exs. (c). and (d), respectively. The following examples use 行く as a full verb meaning 'to go', and are not the usage of 行く (2). (1) 毎日会社にバスに乗っていく。 (Lit. I ride a bus every day and go to my company) (2) あのレストランでコーヒーを飲んで行きましょう。 (Lit. Let's drink coffee at that restaurant and go).

In this town are many Japanese.

a.この動物園にはパンダがいます。

このどうぶつえんにはパンダがいます。

There are pandas in this zoo.

b.スチーブは今ロビンのアパートにいる。

スチーブはいまロビンのアパートにいる。

Steve is in Robin's apartment now.

いる (1) expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for plant life or inanimate things. Two sentence patterns can be used with いる (1). In the KS(a) pattern, a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is under focus. In this pattern the location marker に can optionally drop. In the KS(b) pattern, on the other hand, what exists is presented as the topic and where it exists is under focus. An animate thing or a group or organisation of animate things such as a football team can also be in the location position, as seen in (2): 私〈に〉は子供が三人いる。 (Lit. there are three children with me/I have three children.) このチーム〈に〉はいいクオーターバックがいる。 (Lit. there is a good quarterback in this team.)

a.この動物園にはパンダがいます。

このどうぶつえんにはパンダがいます。

There are pandas in this zoo.

b.スチーブは今ロビンのアパートにいる。

スチーブはいまロビンのアパートにいる。

Steve is in Robin's apartment now.

いる (1) expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for plant life or inanimate things. Two sentence patterns can be used with いる (1). In the KS(a) pattern, a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is under focus. In this pattern the location marker に can optionally drop. In the KS(b) pattern, on the other hand, what exists is presented as the topic and where it exists is under focus. An animate thing or a group or organisation of animate things such as a football team can also be in the location position, as seen in (2): 私〈に〉は子供が三人いる。 (Lit. there are three children with me/I have three children.) このチーム〈に〉はいいクオーターバックがいる。 (Lit. there is a good quarterback in this team.)

Mr. Sasaki is drinking sake.

S.o. or s.t. is doing s.t. he/she or it started some time ago, or is in a state created by an action he/she or it took some time ago.

a.和江は新聞を読んでいる。

かずえはしんぶんをよんでいる。

Kazue is reading a newspaper.

b.この林檎は腐っている。

このりんごはくさっている。

This apple is rotten.

A tree has fallen down (and is lying there).

d.私は鈴木さんを知っています。

わたしはすずきさんをしっています。

I know Miss Suzuki.

いる is used as an auxiliary verb with Vて and expresses the continuation of an action or state. In general, if Vて expresses an action which can continue or be repeated, Vている expreses the continuation of the action. If the Vて is a verb indicating momentary action which cannot be repeated, Vている expresses the idea that something happen to X and X maintains the state which was created by that event. KS and Ex. (a) are examples of the first usage and Ex. (b), (c). and (d) are examples of the second usage. Note that in Ex. (d) that 知る, the dictionary form of 知って, means 'to get to know' and 知っている expresses the continuation of the state after the speaker got to know Miss Suzuki, which is expressed by 'know' in English. It is also noted, however, that 'not to know' is not 知っていない, but 知らない. Vている also expresses a habitual action, which is a special sort of repeated action. Example: 私は毎日四マイル走っている。 (I run four miles every day). When Vて is a motion verb such as 行く 'go', 来る 'come' and 帰る 'return', the meaning of Vている is not 'be ~ing'. For example, 行っている means 'to have gone to some place and still be there'. The verb 住む 'live' requires the “Vている” pattern if the sentence expresses a present state. Also, verbs like 言う 'say' and 思う 'think' with a third person subject require the “Vている” pattern if the sentence expresses a presente state.

You need an English-Japanese dictionary.

Someone or something needs something.

わたしはいまおかねがいる。

I need money now.

b.何か道具が要りますか。

なにかどうぐがいりますか。

Do you need some tools?

c.この車はガソリンが沢山要る。

このくるまはガソリンがたくさんいる。

This car needs a lot of gas.

要る 'need' takes the は-が construction, where the experiencer (that is, the person or thing that needs soemthing) is followed by は and the necessary object by が. 要る 'need' is a Gr.1 verb; thus, the negative form is 要らない, the polite form is 要ります and the てform is 要って. The experiencer can also take the particle に. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is followed by either が or に, unless the sentence is contrastive (in that case, は follows).

a.土田は幸子が自分を愛していることを知らなかった・知りませんでした。

つちだはさちこがじぶんをあいしていることをしらなかった・しりませんでした。

Tsuchida didn't know that Sachiko love him.

A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject with whom the speaker is empathizing.

a.中川は自分が京大に入れると思っていなかった。

なかがわはじぶんがきょうだいにはいれるとおもっていなかった。

Nakagawa didn't think that he could enter kyoto University.

b.一郎は冬子が自分に会いに来た時家にいなかった。

いちろうはふゆこがじぶんにあいにきたときうちにいなかった。

Ichiro wasn't at home when Fuyuko came to see him.

c.道子は一男に自分の車で行かせた。

みちこはかずおにじぶんのくるまでいかせた。

Michiko made Kazuo go there is his/her car.

d.ジョンはメアリーのことを思っていた。彼女は自分と結婚してくれるんだろうか。自分を捨てて、ボブと結婚するんだろうか。

ジョンはメアリーのことをおもっていた。かのじょはじぶんとけっこんしてくれるんだろうか。じぶんをすてて、ボブとけっこんするんだろうか。

John was thinking of Mary. Is she going to marry me? Is she going to leave me and marry Bob?

自分 (1) is an empahty marker that normally refers back to the subject of the main clause as in KS(a), Exs. (a), (b) and (c). or to the discourse topic as in KS(b) and Ex. (d). When 自分 is an empathy marker, its referent (i.e., the subject of the sentence) is normally a passive experiencer. In other words, the referent is not an agent (i.e., someone who initiates and/or completes and action). Ex. (c). is an ambiguous sentence, because 自分 can refer to either the main subject 道子 or to 一男. 自分's reference to 一男 is not a counterexample of 自分's strong tendency to refer to the subject, however, because 一男 is semantically the subject of the verb 行く 'go'. Also to be noted is that 道子 is an agent of the causative action, but 一男 is a passive experiencer of the causative action. Indeed, it is easier to look at 一男 as the object of the speaker's empathy, because is is a passive experiencer. It is very likely that 自分 is not an empathy marker but a contrastive marker when it refers to an agent 道子. 自分 cannot be used in relation with a deceased person, as one can hardly empathize with a deceased person.

b.ゆかりは歩きながら考えていた。 / 健一は自分が本当に好きなんだろうか。

ゆかりはあるきながらかんがえていた。 / けんいちはじぶんがほとうにすきなんだろうか。

Yukari was walking while thinking. / Does Kenichi really love me?

A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject with whom the speaker is empathizing.

a.中川は自分が京大に入れると思っていなかった。

なかがわはじぶんがきょうだいにはいれるとおもっていなかった。

Nakagawa didn't think that he could enter kyoto University.

b.一郎は冬子が自分に会いに来た時家にいなかった。

いちろうはふゆこがじぶんにあいにきたときうちにいなかった。

Ichiro wasn't at home when Fuyuko came to see him.

c.道子は一男に自分の車で行かせた。

みちこはかずおにじぶんのくるまでいかせた。

Michiko made Kazuo go there is his/her car.

d.ジョンはメアリーのことを思っていた。彼女は自分と結婚してくれるんだろうか。自分を捨てて、ボブと結婚するんだろうか。

ジョンはメアリーのことをおもっていた。かのじょはじぶんとけっこんしてくれるんだろうか。じぶんをすてて、ボブとけっこんするんだろうか。

John was thinking of Mary. Is she going to marry me? Is she going to leave me and marry Bob?

自分 (1) is an empahty marker that normally refers back to the subject of the main clause as in KS(a), Exs. (a), (b) and (c). or to the discourse topic as in KS(b) and Ex. (d). When 自分 is an empathy marker, its referent (i.e., the subject of the sentence) is normally a passive experiencer. In other words, the referent is not an agent (i.e., someone who initiates and/or completes and action). Ex. (c). is an ambiguous sentence, because 自分 can refer to either the main subject 道子 or to 一男. 自分's reference to 一男 is not a counterexample of 自分's strong tendency to refer to the subject, however, because 一男 is semantically the subject of the verb 行く 'go'. Also to be noted is that 道子 is an agent of the causative action, but 一男 is a passive experiencer of the causative action. Indeed, it is easier to look at 一男 as the object of the speaker's empathy, because is is a passive experiencer. It is very likely that 自分 is not an empathy marker but a contrastive marker when it refers to an agent 道子. 自分 cannot be used in relation with a deceased person, as one can hardly empathize with a deceased person.

a.日本人は自分の国の文化をユニークだと思っている・います。

にほんじんはじぶんのくにのぶんかをユニークだとおもっている・います。

The Japanese think that their country's culture is unique.

A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject, the referent of which is contrasted with s.o. else.

a.自分を知ることが一番難しい。

じぶんをしることがいちばんむずかしい。

To know yourself is the hardest.

b.マイクはいつも自分の寮の部屋で勉強している。

マイクはいつもじぶんのりょうのへやでべんきょうしている。

Mike is always studying in his own dorm room.

c.小林は自分からしたいと思った。

こばやしはじぶんからしたいとおもった。

Kobayashi voluntarily (lit. from himself) said that he wanted to do it.

d.先生はご自分の家で私に会って下さった。

せんせいはごじぶんのいえでわたし」にあってくさった。

The professor kindly met me at his own hown.

自分 is a contrastive marker if at least one of the three following conditions is met: (1) its referent is an agent (as in KS (b), (c), Exs. (b), (c)., and (d)). (2) the subject is generic (as in KS (a) and Ex. (a)). (3) 自分 cannot be be replaced by an implicit third person pronoun or by an explicit third person pronoun (such as 彼 'he' and 彼女 'she'). KS © satisfies the condition (3), because if 自分 is replaced by [zero; nothing] or 彼 'he', the meaning of the sentences changes into 'Kazuo encouraged him'.

Mary does everything by herself.

A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject, the referent of which is contrasted with s.o. else.

a.自分を知ることが一番難しい。

じぶんをしることがいちばんむずかしい。

To know yourself is the hardest.

b.マイクはいつも自分の寮の部屋で勉強している。

マイクはいつもじぶんのりょうのへやでべんきょうしている。

Mike is always studying in his own dorm room.

c.小林は自分からしたいと思った。

こばやしはじぶんからしたいとおもった。

Kobayashi voluntarily (lit. from himself) said that he wanted to do it.

d.先生はご自分の家で私に会って下さった。

せんせいはごじぶんのいえでわたし」にあってくさった。

The professor kindly met me at his own hown.

自分 is a contrastive marker if at least one of the three following conditions is met: (1) its referent is an agent (as in KS (b), (c), Exs. (b), (c)., and (d)). (2) the subject is generic (as in KS (a) and Ex. (a)). (3) 自分 cannot be be replaced by an implicit third person pronoun or by an explicit third person pronoun (such as 彼 'he' and 彼女 'she'). KS © satisfies the condition (3), because if 自分 is replaced by [zero; nothing] or 彼 'he', the meaning of the sentences changes into 'Kazuo encouraged him'.

A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject, the referent of which is contrasted with s.o. else.

a.自分を知ることが一番難しい。

じぶんをしることがいちばんむずかしい。

To know yourself is the hardest.

b.マイクはいつも自分の寮の部屋で勉強している。

マイクはいつもじぶんのりょうのへやでべんきょうしている。

Mike is always studying in his own dorm room.

小林は自分からしたいと思った。c.

こばやしはじぶんからしたいとおもった。

Kobayashi voluntarily (lit. from himself) said that he wanted to do it.

d.先生はご自分の家で私に会って下さった。

せんせいはごじぶんのいえでわたし」にあってくさった。

The professor kindly met me at his own hown.

自分 is a contrastive marker if at least one of the three following conditions is met: (1) its referent is an agent (as in KS (b), (c), Exs. (b), (c)., and (d)). (2) the subject is generic (as in KS (a) and Ex. (a)). (3) 自分 cannot be be replaced by an implicit third person pronoun or by an explicit third person pronoun (such as 彼 'he' and 彼女 'she'). KS © satisfies the condition (3), because if 自分 is replaced by [zero; nothing] or 彼 'he', the meaning of the sentences changes into 'Kazuo encouraged him'.

I will go either by train or by bus.

a.私は毎朝ジュースかミルクを飲む。

わたしはまいあさジュースかミルクをのむ。

I drink juice or milk every morning.

b.それはボブはマークがします。

それはボブはマークがします。

As for that, either Bob or Mark will do it.

c.肉が高かったか一郎が嫌いだったかどちらかだ。

にくがたかかったかいちろうがいくきれいだったかどちらかだ。

Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.

d.手紙を書くか電話を掛けるかどちらかして下さい。

てがみをかくかでんわをかけるかどちらかしてください。

Either write a letter or make a call, please.

e.食べるか話すかどちらかにしなさい。

たべるかはなすかどちらかにしなさい。

Decide on either eating or talking.

The basic function of か is to mark an alternative. It can mark either nouns or sentences. When it marks noun, the final か is usually omitted. When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker は must not be used. か cannot be used to connect two questions. In this case, それとも is used instead of か.

Either Tom will go or Mary will go.

a.私は毎朝ジュースかミルクを飲む。

わたしはまいあさジュースかミルクをのむ。

I drink juice or milk every morning.

b.それはボブはマークがします。

それはボブはマークがします。

As for that, either Bob or Mark will do it.

c.肉が高かったか一郎が嫌いだったかどちらかだ。

にくがたかかったかいちろうがいくきれいだったかどちらかだ。

Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.

d.手紙を書くか電話を掛けるかどちらかして下さい。

てがみをかくかでんわをかけるかどちらかしてください。

Either write a letter or make a call, please.

e.食べるか話すかどちらかにしなさい。

たべるかはなすかどちらかにしなさい。

Decide on either eating or talking.

The basic function of か is to mark an alternative. It can mark either nouns or sentences. When it marks noun, the final か is usually omitted. When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker は must not be used. か cannot be used to connect two questions. In this case, それとも is used instead of か.

Is Yoshiko going to college?

A sentence-final particle which indicates that the preceding sentence is interrogative.

a.あなたは学生ですか。

あなたはがくせいですか。

Are you a student?

c.友達は漢字が難しいかと聞いた。

ともだちはかんじがむずかしいかときいた。

My friend asked is kanji is difficult.

d.私はジャンに誰が来たかと尋ねた。

わたしはジャンにだれがきたかとたずねた。

I asked Jan who had come.

e.僕は山崎先生が昨日何を言ったか忘れてしまった。

ばくはやまざきがきのうなにをいったかわすれてしまった。

I've forgotten (completely) what Prof. Yamazaki said yesterday.

The question marker か is a special used of か which marks an alternative (i.e., か (1)). For example, KS(a) came from (1), with the paranthezised part omitted. (1) よし子は大学へ行きますか。（それとも行きませんか。） Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is marked by か whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. Note that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the word order is the same as that of the corresponding declarative sentence. Also, an interrogative sentence is pronounced with rising intonation whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. か remains in indirect questions as in KS(b), Exs. (c). and (d). When the informal forms of なtype adjectives and the copula precede the question marker か, だ drops. A possible reason is that だ, the informal form of です, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts with the question marker か, which expresses the speaker's uncertainty about something.

b.私はテリーにナンシが日本へ行くかと聞いた・聞きました。

わたしはテリーにナンシがにほんへいくかときいた・ききました。

I asked Terry whether Nancy was going to Japan.

A sentence-final particle which indicates that the preceding sentence is interrogative.

a.あなたは学生ですか。

あなたはがくせいですか。

Are you a student?

c.友達は漢字が難しいかと聞いた。

ともだちはかんじがむずかしいかときいた。

My friend asked is kanji is difficult.

d.私はジャンに誰が来たかと尋ねた。

わたしはジャンにだれがきたかとたずねた。

I asked Jan who had come.

e.僕は山崎先生が昨日何を言ったか忘れてしまった。

ばくはやまざきがきのうなにをいったかわすれてしまった。

I've forgotten (completely) what Prof. Yamazaki said yesterday.

The question marker か is a special used of か which marks an alternative (i.e., か (1)). For example, KS(a) came from (1), with the paranthezised part omitted. (1) よし子は大学へ行きますか。（それとも行きませんか。） Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is marked by か whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. Note that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the word order is the same as that of the corresponding declarative sentence. Also, an interrogative sentence is pronounced with rising intonation whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. か remains in indirect questions as in KS(b), Exs. (c). and (d). When the informal forms of なtype adjectives and the copula precede the question marker か, だ drops. A possible reason is that だ, the informal form of です, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts with the question marker か, which expresses the speaker's uncertainty about something.

鈴木さんが大学に入ったか〈どうか〉〈は〉知らない・知りません。

すずきさんがだいがくにはいったか〈どうか〉〈は〉しらない・しりません。

I don't know whether or not Mr. Sukuzi entered college.

A marker for an embedded yes-no question.

a.小川さんが結婚しているかどうか知っていますか。

おがわさんがけっこんしているかどうかしっていますか。

Do you know if Mr. Ogawa is married or not?

b.フォークナーの小説が面白いかどうか知らない。

フォークナーのしょうせつがおもしろいかどうかしらない。

I don't know if Faulkner's novels are interesting.

c.山口先生がお元気がどうか存じません。

やまぐちせんせいがおげんきがどうかぞんじません。

I don't know if Prof. Yamaguchi is healthy.

When the optional どうか is used, the embedded question has to be a yes-no question. If it is not used, then the question can be either a yes-no question or a WH-question. Typical final verbs include, among others, verbs of knowing, examining, understanding, asking, remembering, and deciding. Sinf か（どうか） can be used as a noun phrase that takes particles such as が or を.

Is Japanese interesting?

A sentence-final particle which marks yes-no questions in informal male speech.

a.日本を勉強するかい。

にほんをべんきょうするかい。

Will you study Japanese?

b.このアパートは静かかい。

このアパートはしずかかい。

Is this apartment quiet?

きみたちはがくせいかい。

Are you students?

d.その本は難しいのかい。

そのほんはむずかしいのかい。

Is the book difficult?

e.あの人は先生なのかい。

あのひとはせんせいなのかい。

Is that person a teacher?

Since かい is used in informal speech, preceding sentences must be in the informal form. かい is used only for yes-no questions. Questions in the KS (a) pattern and those in the KS (b) pattern correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively. Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping かい in male informal questions and using rising intonation.

Is Mr. Ueno going to America?

A sentence-final particle which marks yes-no questions in informal male speech.

a.日本を勉強するかい。

にほんをべんきょうするかい。

Will you study Japanese?

b.このアパートは静かかい。

このアパートはしずかかい。

Is this apartment quiet?

きみたちはがくせいかい。

Are you students?

d.その本は難しいのかい。

そのほんはむずかしいのかい。

Is the book difficult?

e.あの人は先生なのかい。

あのひとはせんせいなのかい。

Is that person a teacher?

Since かい is used in informal speech, preceding sentences must be in the informal form. かい is used only for yes-no questions. Questions in the KS (a) pattern and those in the KS (b) pattern correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively. Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping かい in male informal questions and using rising intonation.

It might rain in the afternoon.

a.今年の冬は大変寒くなるかもしれません。

ことしのふゆはたいへんさむくなるかもしれません。

It might be very cold this winter.

b.あの人は今日のパーティーのことを忘れたかもしれません。

あのひとはきょうのパーティーのことをわすれたかもしれません。

He might have forgotten about today's party.

c.この映画はあなたに詰らないかもしれません。

このえいがはあなたにつまらないかもしれません。

This movie might be uninteresting for you.

d.中国語の文法は日本語の文法より簡単かもしれない。

ちゅうごくごのぶんぽうはにほんごのぶんぽうよりかんたんかもしれない。

Chinese grammar might be simpler than Japanese grammar.

e.あれは鈴木先生かもしれないよ。

あれはすずきせんせいかもしれないよ。

That might be Prof. Suzuki.

b.あの先生の授業は詰らないかもしれない・かもしれません。

あのせんせいのじゅぎょうはつまらないかもしれない・かもしれません。

That teacher's class might be dull.

a.今年の冬は大変寒くなるかもしれません。

ことしのふゆはたいへんさむくなるかもしれません。

It might be very cold this winter.

b.あの人は今日のパーティーのことを忘れたかもしれません。

あのひとはきょうのパーティーのことをわすれたかもしれません。

He might have forgotten about today's party.

c.この映画はあなたに詰らないかもしれません。

このえいがはあなたにつまらないかもしれません。

This movie might be uninteresting for you.

d.中国語の文法は日本語の文法より簡単かもしれない。

ちゅうごくごのぶんぽうはにほんごのぶんぽうよりかんたんかもしれない。

Chinese grammar might be simpler than Japanese grammar.

e.あれは鈴木先生かもしれないよ。

あれはすずきせんせいかもしれないよ。

That might be Prof. Suzuki.

c.京都の桜はまで綺麗かもしれない・かもしれません。

They cherry blossoms in Kyoto might still be beautiful.

a.今年の冬は大変寒くなるかもしれません。

ことしのふゆはたいへんさむくなるかもしれません。

It might be very cold this winter.

b.あの人は今日のパーティーのことを忘れたかもしれません。

あのひとはきょうのパーティーのことをわすれたかもしれません。

He might have forgotten about today's party.

c.この映画はあなたに詰らないかもしれません。

このえいがはあなたにつまらないかもしれません。

This movie might be uninteresting for you.

d.中国語の文法は日本語の文法より簡単かもしれない。

ちゅうごくごのぶんぽうはにほんごのぶんぽうよりかんたんかもしれない。

Chinese grammar might be simpler than Japanese grammar.

e.あれは鈴木先生かもしれないよ。

あれはすずきせんせいかもしれないよ。

That might be Prof. Suzuki.

The party starts from eight o'clock.

A particle which indicates a starting point or a source.

a.今日の授業は一時から三時までです。

きょうのじゅぎょうはいちじからさんじまでです。

Today's class is from one o'clock till three o'clock.

b.このバスはニューヨークから来た。

このバスはニューヨークからきた。

This bus came from New York.

c.このから富士山が見えるよ。

このからふじさんがみえるよ。

You can see Mt. Fuji from here.

d.そのタイプライターは誰から借りたんですか。

そのタイプライターはだれからかりたんですか。

Who did you borrow the typewriter from?

さけはこめからつくる。

Sake is made out of rice.

から basically indicates a temporal or spatial starting point (Exs. (a), (b) and (c).) or a source (Exs (d), (e)) As seen in (d) and (e), a source can be a person, material, a cause or a reason.

雪子は晩ご飯を食べてから映画に行った・行きました。

After eating her supper, Yukiko went to a movie.

After/since a point in time at which s.t. takes place.

a.私は友達に電話してから家を出た。

わたしはともだちにでんわしてからうちをでた。

I left home after making a call to my friend.

b.ジョーンズさんはいつもシャワーを浴びてから寝ます。

ジョーンズさんはいつもシャワーをあびてからめます。

Mr. Jones always goes to bed after taking a shower.

c.私達がこの家を買ってからもう十年になる。

わたしたちがこのいえをかってからもうじゅうねんになる。

It's already been ten years since we bought this house.

d.二年に交通事故を起こしてから、ミラーさんは車に乗らない用にしています。

にねんにこうつうじこをおこしてから、ミラーさんはくるまにのらないようにしています。

Since he caused a traffic accident two years ago, Mr. Miller has been trying not to drive a car.

Vてから S meaning “S after doing s.t.' or 'S since ~ did s.t.'. The usage of から (2) is an extended use of から (1). てから is not to be confused with たから in which から is used as a conjunction of cause/reason. (1) a. ジョギングをしてからシャワーを浴びた。 (after jogging I took a shower) b. ジョギングをしたからシャワーを浴びた。 (because I jogged, I took a shower)

a.来年日本へ行くから日本語を勉強している・います。

らいねんにほんへいくからにほんごをべんきょうしている・います。

I'm studying Japanese because I'm going to Japan next year.

A subordinate conjunction which expresses a reason or a cause.

a.春子は十七だからまでお酒を飲めない。

はるこはじゅうしちだからまでおさけをのめない。

haruko is seventeen, so she can't drink sake yet.

b.今日は忙しいですから明日来て下さい。

きょうはいそがしいですからあしたきてください。

Please come tomorrow because I'm busy today.

c.どうして昨日学校を休んだんですか。 / 頭が痛かったからです。

どうしてきのうがっこうをやすんだんですか。 / あたまがいたかったからです。

Why were you absent from school yesterday? / It was because I had a headache.

S から represents a reason or a cause. Thus, S(1) から S(2) corresponds to 'S(2) because/since S(1)', 'Because/since S(1), S(2)', or “S(1), so S(2). Note that the order of S(1) and S(2) is not always the same in English, which in Japanese から clauses, (i.e., S(1)) always precede main clauses (i.e., S(2)). In subordinate clauses predicates are usually in the informal form. However, since the degree of subordination or dependency of S(1) in “S(1) から S(2)” is rather low, S(1) may be in the formal form in very formal speech, as in Ex. (b). When the main clause is known to the hearer from the context, the KS(b) pattern is used. In this case, the から clause must be in the informal form. In question-and-answer situations as in KS(b) and Ex. (c)., abbreviated forms are occasionally used. For example, speaker B may say (2) in the KS(b) situation. (2) 来年日本へ行きますから。 (because I'm going to Japan next year) In this sentence, the main clause 日本語を勉強しています。 “I'm studying Japanese' has been omitted.

b.どうして日本語を勉強しているんだ・ですか。 / 来年日本へ行くからだ・です。

どうしてにほんごをべんきょうしているんだ・ですか。 / らいねんにほんへいくからだ・です。

Why are you studying Japanese? / It's because I'm going to Japan next year.

A subordinate conjunction which expresses a reason or a cause.

a.春子は十七だからまでお酒を飲めない。

はるこはじゅうしちだからまでおさけをのめない。

haruko is seventeen, so she can't drink sake yet.

b.今日は忙しいですから明日来て下さい。

きょうはいそがしいですからあしたきてください。

Please come tomorrow because I'm busy today.

c.どうして昨日学校を休んだんですか。 / 頭が痛かったからです。

どうしてきのうがっこうをやすんだんですか。 / あたまがいたかったからです。

Why were you absent from school yesterday? / It was because I had a headache.

S から represents a reason or a cause. Thus, S(1) から S(2) corresponds to 'S(2) because/since S(1)', 'Because/since S(1), S(2)', or “S(1), so S(2). Note that the order of S(1) and S(2) is not always the same in English, which in Japanese から clauses, (i.e., S(1)) always precede main clauses (i.e., S(2)). In subordinate clauses predicates are usually in the informal form. However, since the degree of subordination or dependency of S(1) in “S(1) から S(2)” is rather low, S(1) may be in the formal form in very formal speech, as in Ex. (b). When the main clause is known to the hearer from the context, the KS(b) pattern is used. In this case, the から clause must be in the informal form. In question-and-answer situations as in KS(b) and Ex. (c)., abbreviated forms are occasionally used. For example, speaker B may say (2) in the KS(b) situation. (2) 来年日本へ行きますから。 (because I'm going to Japan next year) In this sentence, the main clause 日本語を勉強しています。 “I'm studying Japanese' has been omitted.

I wonder if Mr. Matsumoto will come.

A sentence-final particle which expresses the idea that the female speaker wonders about s.t.

a.あの先生の授業は面白いかしら。

あのせんせいのじゅぎょうはおもしろいかしら。

I wonder if that teacher's class is interesting.

b.幸子さんは何が好きかしら。

さちこさんはなにがすきかしら。

I wonder what Sachiko likes.

あのひとはだれかしら。

I wonder who that person is.

Etymologically, かしら comes from か知らない 'I don't know (if) ~', but now expresses the idea “I wonder”. かしら is usually used by female speakers in rather informal situations. The formulation rules of かなあ, are exactly the same as those for かしら. Sfml かしら is acceptable if the situation is very formal. Since かしら and かなあ mean 'I wonder' (present tense), they cannot be used for expression like “I wondered” and “ Mr. Smith wondered”. For such expression, “AはSinfかしら・かなあと思う” is used. Here, A is the person who wonders; と思う literally means 'think that'.

Please show me how to make a cake.

A noun-forming suffix that indicates a way or a manner in which one does s.t.

a.この漢字の書き方が分かりません。

このかんじのかきかたがわかりません。

I don't know how to write this kanji.

b.あの人の歩き方は面白いですね。

あのひちのあるきかたはおもしろいですね。

His manner of walking is amusing, isn't it?

c.日本語の勉強の仕方を教えて下さい。

にほんごのべんきょうのしかたをおしえてください。

Please teach me how to study Japanese language.

Vます＋方 is in itself ambiguous, meaning either 'way' or 'manner'. Thus, (1) 飲み方が大事です。 is ambiguous: it means either “The way of drinking is important” or “the manner in which one drinks is important.” The separate meaning clearer in an extended context: (2) この薬は飲み方が大事です。必ず食前に飲んで下さい。 (It's important to know how to take this medicine. Be sure to take it before every meal.) (3) スープは飲み方が大事です。 (In eating soup the manner (in which one eats) is important.) Sino-Japanese する verbs such as 勉強する 'study', 電話する 'telephone', 料理する 'cook' 説明する 'explain' and 相談する 'consult' need the particle の before 仕方 as in: (4) 勉強・電話・料理・説明の仕方 (a way/manner or studying / telephoning / cooking / explanation)

I taught in place of my teacher.

S.t. (including an action) replaces s.t. else

a.ビールのかわりに酒を買いました。

ビールのかわりにさけをかいました。

I bought sake instead of beer.

b.私のかわりに父が行ってもいいですか。

わたしのかわりにちちがいってもいいですか。

Can my father go there in place of me?

c.今日は夜おそくまで踊るかわりに明日は一日中勉強します。

きょうはよるおそくまでおどるかわりにあしたはいちにちじゅうべんきょうします。

I'll study all day tomorrow to make up for dancing until late tonight.

d.手伝ってあげるかわりに飲ませて下さい。

てつだってあげるかわりにのませてください。

I'll help you, so (to make up for it) please (lit. le me drink) buy me a drink, OK?

e.僕のアパートは不便なかわりに家賃が安い。

ぼくのアパートはふうべんなかわりにやちんがやすい。

My apartment is inconvenient, but the rent is cheap.

In N(1) のかわりにN(2), N(2) is regarded as the substitute for N(1), which is the originally intended item. In S(1)infかわりにS(2), an action or a state identified by S(2) takes place to make up for a counter-action or counter-stated represented in S(2).

b.土曜日に仕事をするかわりに月曜日は休む・休みます。

どうよびにしごとをするかわりにげつようびはやすむ・やすみます。

To make up for working on Saturdays, I take Mondays off.

S.t. (including an action) replaces s.t. else

a.ビールのかわりに酒を買いました。

ビールのかわりにさけをかいました。

I bought sake instead of beer.

b.私のかわりに父が行ってもいいですか。

わたしのかわりにちちがいってもいいですか。

Can my father go there in place of me?

c.今日は夜おそくまで踊るかわりに明日は一日中勉強します。

きょうはよるおそくまでおどるかわりにあしたはいちにちじゅうべんきょうします。

I'll study all day tomorrow to make up for dancing until late tonight.

d.手伝ってあげるかわりに飲ませて下さい。

てつだってあげるかわりにのませてください。

I'll help you, so (to make up for it) please (lit. le me drink) buy me a drink, OK?

e.僕のアパートは不便なかわりに家賃が安い。

ぼくのアパートはふうべんなかわりにやちんがやすい。

My apartment is inconvenient, but the rent is cheap.

In N(1) のかわりにN(2), N(2) is regarded as the substitute for N(1), which is the originally intended item. In S(1)infかわりにS(2), an action or a state identified by S(2) takes place to make up for a counter-action or counter-stated represented in S(2).

私は言わなかったけれでもトムは知っていた・いました。

Although I didn't tell him, Tom knew (about it).

A disjunctive subordinate conjunction that combines two sentences.

a.この本は高いけれどもいい本ですよ。

このほんはたかいけれどもいいほんですよ。

Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.

b.僕はドイツ語があまり好きじゃないけれでも勉強しなければならない。

ぼくはドイツごがあまりすきじゃないけれでもべんきょうしなければならない。

Although I don't like German very much, I have to study it.

c.大野さんは九十歳だけれどもとても元気だ。

おおのさんはきゅうじゅうさいだけれどもとてもげんきだ。

Although Mr. Ono is ninety years old, he is very healthy.

S(1) けれどもS(2) means 'Although S(1), S(2)'. Here, S(1) けれども is a subordinate clause, therefore it is usually in the informal form. However, in very polite speech, S(1) can be in the formal form, as in (1) この本は高いですけれどもいい本ですよ。 (Although it is expensive, this book is a good book). The informal forms of けれども (listed from least formal to most formal) are けど＜けども＜けれど.

To me the cries of a nightingale are clearly audible.

S.t. is passively and spontaneously audible.

a.その音は小さ過ぎて聞こえない。

そのおとはちいさすぎてきこえない。

That sound is too weak and is not audible.

b.大山さんの声は大きいので隣の部屋の人にもよく聞こえる。

おおやまさんのこえはおおきいのでとなりのへやのひとにもよくきこえる。

Mr. Oyama's voice is so loud that people in the neighbouring rooms can hear him.

c.私にはお寺の鐘の音が聞こえたが、弟は聞こえなかった。

わたしにはおてらのかねのねがきこえたが、おとうとはきこえなかった。

I could hear the sound of the temple bell, but my younger brother couldn't.

d.テーラーさんの作った文は変に聞こえる。

テーラーさんのつくったぶんはへんにきこえる。

The sentences which Mr. Taylor made sound strange.

ぼくはふゆがきらいだ。

I dislike winter.

b.ホワイトさんはフットボールが大嫌いです。

ホワイトさんはフットボールがだいきらいです。

Mr. White hates football.

嫌いだ is a なtype adjective which requires the “は-が consturction”. The experiencer (i.e., the person who dislikes some thing) is marked by は and the disliked object by が. Note that the disliked object is marked by が, not by を. In subordinate clauses, は marking the experiencer changes into が, as seen in (1) a. 私がチーズが嫌いなことはみんな知っている。(Everybody knowns that I don't like cheese.) b. 僕が嫌いな季節は冬です。 (The season I don't like is winter.) “Dislike a lot” is expressed by 大嫌い, as in Ex. (b).

I have a good suggestion for you.

a.大事なことはもう全部話しました。

だいじなことはもうぜんぶはなしました。

I already told you everything that's important.

b.先生が言ったことを覚えていますか。

せんせいがいったことをおぼえていますか。

Do you remember what (=the thing which) the teacher said?

c.試験のことは忘れなさい。

しけんのことはわすれなさい。

Forget about the exam.

こと means a thing which is intangible. N のこと, whose literal meaning is 'thing of N', is often used with such verbs as 知っている 'know' 話す 'talk' and 忘れる 'forget', and means 'know about N', 'talk about N', etc. こと is used as a nominaliser, too. Ex. (b), for instance, is ambiguous without proper context. That is, it means either 'Do you remember the thing which the teacher said?', or 'Do you remember (the fact) that the teacher said (it)?'.

Please tell me what you wrote in your thesis.

a.大事なことはもう全部話しました。

だいじなことはもうぜんぶはなしました。

I already told you everything that's important.

b.先生が言ったことを覚えていますか。

せんせいがいったことをおぼえていますか。

Do you remember what (=the thing which) the teacher said?

c.試験のことは忘れなさい。

しけんのことはわすれなさい。

Forget about the exam.

こと means a thing which is intangible. N のこと, whose literal meaning is 'thing of N', is often used with such verbs as 知っている 'know' 話す 'talk' and 忘れる 'forget', and means 'know about N', 'talk about N', etc. こと is used as a nominaliser, too. Ex. (b), for instance, is ambiguous without proper context. That is, it means either 'Do you remember the thing which the teacher said?', or 'Do you remember (the fact) that the teacher said (it)?'.

c.ブラウンさんは日本の大学のことをよく知っている・います。

ブラウンさんはにほんのだいがくのことをよくしっている・います。

Mr. Brown knows a lot (of things) about Japanese universities.

a.大事なことはもう全部話しました。

だいじなことはもうぜんぶはなしました。

I already told you everything that's important.

b.先生が言ったことを覚えていますか。

せんせいがいったことをおぼえていますか。

Do you remember what (=the thing which) the teacher said?

c.試験のことは忘れなさい。

しけんのことはわすれなさい。

Forget about the exam.

こと means a thing which is intangible. N のこと, whose literal meaning is 'thing of N', is often used with such verbs as 知っている 'know' 話す 'talk' and 忘れる 'forget', and means 'know about N', 'talk about N', etc. こと is used as a nominaliser, too. Ex. (b), for instance, is ambiguous without proper context. That is, it means either 'Do you remember the thing which the teacher said?', or 'Do you remember (the fact) that the teacher said (it)?'.

A nominalizer used to indicate the speaker's relative lack of empathy with the content of the sentence he/she is nominalizing.

a.若い時にいい友達を作ることはとても大事だ。

わかいときにいいともだちをつくることはとてもだいじだ。

It is very important to make good friends when one is young.

b.大学四年の時フランスに留学することを考えています。

だいがくよねんのときフランスにりゅがくすることをかんがえています。

I am thinking of studying in France during my senior year.

c.日本の文化が面白いことは分かるが、ユニークだとは思わない。

にほんのぶんかがおもしろいことはわかるが、ユニークだとはおもわない。

I know that Japanese culture is interesting, but I don't that it is unique.

d.スイスが綺麗なことは写真で知っています。

スイスがきれいなことはしゃしんでしっています。

From pictures I know that Switzerland is beautiful.

e.あの人がいい人であることは確かです。

あのひとがいいひとであることはたしかです。

He is without doubt a good person.

The nominaliser こと turns not just a verb or adjective but an entire sentence into a noun phrase. For example, in KS the sentence 小説を書く 'one writes a novel' because a complex nound phrase. Once a sentence as become a noun phrase, it can be used anywhere a regular noun phrase can be used. Thus, it can function as the subject, as in KS or Exs (a) and (e), or as the direct object, as in Exs (b) and (d), and so on.

a.私は中学校で英語を教えたことがあります。

わたしはちゅうがっこうでえいごをおしえたことがあります。

I have taught English at a junior high school.

b.小川さんはまだゴルフをしたことがない。

おがわさんはまだゴルフをしたことがない。

Mr. Ogawa hasn't played golf yet.

c.私は日本の小説をよく読んだことがある。

わたしはにほんのしょうせつをよくよんだことがある。

There was a time when I read a lot of Japanese novels.

d.スーザンは一時ジャズがとても好きだったことがある。

スーザンはいちジャズがとてもすきだったことがある。

There was a time when Susan liked jazz a lot.

e.私はプロ野球選手だったことがあります。

私はプロやきゅうせんしゅだったことがあります。

There was a time when I was a professional baseball player.

In general, Sinf-past ことがある expresses the idea that there was a time when someone or something was in some state or did something. More specifically, Sinf-past ことがある expresses one's experience. In this case, Sinf-past ことがある is an extended use of the possession expression “AはBがある”, where B is a past action rather than a possessed thing. This extended use of the expression of possession for the expression of experience in Japanese is parrallel to that in English. In the Sinf-past ことごある structure, a past time adverb can be used in S. (3) 私は五年前に日本へ行ったことがある。(I have been to Japan five years ago.) (3) expresses the ideas “I have been to Japan” and “It was five years ago” at the same time. However, in this usage, the time expressed cannot be too close to the present. (4) 私は昨日さしみを食べたことがる。 (I have eaten sashimi yesterday) is unacceptable.

There was a time when lettuce was very expensive.

a.私は中学校で英語を教えたことがあります。

わたしはちゅうがっこうでえいごをおしえたことがあります。

I have taught English at a junior high school.

b.小川さんはまだゴルフをしたことがない。

おがわさんはまだゴルフをしたことがない。

Mr. Ogawa hasn't played golf yet.

c.私は日本の小説をよく読んだことがある。

わたしはにほんのしょうせつをよくよんだことがある。

There was a time when I read a lot of Japanese novels.

d.スーザンは一時ジャズがとても好きだったことがある。

スーザンはいちジャズがとてもすきだったことがある。

There was a time when Susan liked jazz a lot.

e.私はプロ野球選手だったことがあります。

私はプロやきゅうせんしゅだったことがあります。

There was a time when I was a professional baseball player.

In general, Sinf-past ことがある expresses the idea that there was a time when someone or something was in some state or did something. More specifically, Sinf-past ことがある expresses one's experience. In this case, Sinf-past ことがある is an extended use of the possession expression “AはBがある”, where B is a past action rather than a possessed thing. This extended use of the expression of possession for the expression of experience in Japanese is parrallel to that in English. In the Sinf-past ことごある structure, a past time adverb can be used in S. (3) 私は五年前に日本へ行ったことがある。(I have been to Japan five years ago.) (3) expresses the ideas “I have been to Japan” and “It was five years ago” at the same time. However, in this usage, the time expressed cannot be too close to the present. (4) 私は昨日さしみを食べたことがる。 (I have eaten sashimi yesterday) is unacceptable.