Aida, if followed by ni, a particle of specific time point, means that the time span of an event identified by the main clause falls within the time span of an event identified by the aida-clause. Aida without ni indicates that the two events are assumed to cover the same span of time. Thus, if the main verb is a punctual verb, aida should be used with ni.

The adverb amari usually occurs in negative sentences, meaning not very (much).

Negative form : nai<br />

Two points are indicated by the Vte aru expression : <br>- someone did something to X (thus, Vte is usually a transitive verb)<br>- X is still in that state

メイソンさんは 日本[にっぽん]へ行[い]ったあとで 病気[びょうき]になった。<br/> 私[わたし]は 授業[じゅぎょう]のあとで 図書館[としょかん]に 行[い]った。

話せば<br />食べれば<br />来れば<br />すれば<br />高ければ<br />静かなら（ば）　/　静かで　あれば<br />Nなら（ば）　/　Nで　あれば

only; just; be ready to do s.t.; have just done s.t.; just did s.t.; be just doing s.t.; about

The dessert is ready to eat (the only thing left to do with the dessert is to eat it)<br />Tomoko is doing nothing but playing (the only thing Tomoko is doing is playing)

When used for s.o. else :<br>ビルは日本へ行けばよかったと思っている。<br>Bill wishes he had gone to Japan.

静か　だい<br />話す/話した　ん　だい<br />高い/高かった　ん　だい<br />静かな/静かだった　ん　だい<br />先生な/先生だった　ん　だい<br />

When dai is used with interrogative sentences, the sentences must be WH-questions. <br><br>Dai actually consists of the copula da and the particle i. Thus, it can follow only na-type adjective stems, nouns and noun　equivalents. <br />N dai can follow verbs and i-type adjectives　because ん is a nominalizer (the colloquial form of の) and it changes the preceding sentence into a noun　equivalent.

先生だけ（が/を）<br>話す/話した　だけ　だ/です<br>高い/高かった　だけ　だ/です<br>静かな/静かだった　だけ　だ/です<br>

V/Adj-i + だけ　で（は）　なく<br />Adj-na + な/だった + だけ　で（は）　なく<br />N　（＋だった）　だけ　で（は）　なく

話す/話した　だろう<br />高い/高かった　だろう<br />静か/静かだった　だろう<br />先生/先生だった　だろう<br />

先生　が/を　－＞　せんせい　でも<br />先生　と　でも (even with a teacher)<br />東京　から　でも (even from Tokyo)<br />

WH-word + demo means :<br />だれでも　no matter who it is<br />何でも no matter what it is<br />どれでも no matter which it is

S1 and S2 must be in the same form wheter formal or informal.<br />S2 is often omitted when it is understandable.

私[わたし]は三 時間[じかん]ごとに 薬[くすり]を 飲[の]んだ。<br /><br /> 正月[しょうがつ]は 家[いえ]ごとに 門松[かどまつ]を 立[た]てる。<br />

I took medicine every three hours.<br>They put up pine decorations at every house on New Year's Day.<br>

はじめる　is normally attached to a non-ponctual verb (such as yomu, kaku, miru...)

話す/話した　はず　だ<br>高い/高かった　はず　だ<br>静かな/静かだった　はず　だ<br>先生の/先生だった　はず　だ

Express the speaker expectation, not in the sense of hoping or looking forward to something, but in the sense that the proposition expressed should be true or come true. Thus, when the speaker uses hazu, he is not merely guessing, but stating a proposition based on reliable information or knowledge.

to the extent of; to the extent that ~; (not as) ~ as ~; about

I'm not as strong as Ken. (I'm not strong to Ken's extent)<br>This job is so easy that even a child can do it. (This job easy to the extent that even a child can do it.)

N + ほど　：　君[きみ]　ほど　(as you)<br>demonstrative + ほど　：　それ　ほど　(to that extent)<br>Sinf + ほど　：　家が倒れる　ほど　(to the extent that house would fall down)<br>

When hodo is preceded by a noun, the predicate must be negative.<br>When hodo is used with a quantifier, it means 'about'.<br>ビールを三本ほど　（about three beers)

Negative is expressed by Vneg nai hou ga ii<br>こーヒーを飲まないほうがいい。　（you'd better not drink coffee)

The yori part can be omitted if it is clear from the context or situation.<br />In the S1 hou ga S2 yori pattern, S1 can be either nonpast or <br />past. S2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the tense of S1 and <br />the main clause.

hoshii takes the wa-ga construction, where the experiencer is marked by wa and the desired object by ga. <br><br>The third person's desire is usually expressed by hoshigatte iru ' Lit. be showing the sign of wanting (s.t.)'. It is noted that when hoshigatte iru is used, the desired object is marked by o. <br><br><br>

When the experiencer wants a person X to do something, X is marked by ni. <br>If the experiencer is the third person, Vte moraitagatte iru (morau + tai + garu) '(lit.) be showing the sign of wanting to receive the favor of doing s.t. from s.o.' is used.

Ichiban cannot be affixed directly to a noun as in *ichiban sensei, meaning&nbsp;&nbsp;'the best teacher'. I t should precede an adjective, as in ichiban ii sensei. <br />

田中[たなか]さんは 来週[らいしゅう]アメリカへ/に 行[い]きます。<br /><br />私[わたし]は 東京[とうきょう]から 大阪[おおさか]までバスで 行[い]った。

iru expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for plant life or inanimate things.

iru is used as an auxiliary verb with V te and expresses the continuation of an action or state. In general, if Vte expresses an action which can continue or be repeated, Vte iru expresses the continuation of the action. If Vte is a verb indicating a momentary action which cannot be repeated, V te iru expresses the idea that something happened to X and X maintains the state which was created by that event. <br><br>When Vte is a motion verb such as iku 'go', kuru 'come' and kaeru 'return', the meaning of Vte iru is not 'be - ing '. For example, itte iru means 'to have gone to some place and to still be there'.

iru 'need' takes the wa-ga construction, where the experiencer is followed by wa and the necessary object by ga.<br><br>iru is a u-verb

日本人[にっぽんじん]は 自分[じぶん]の 国[くに]の 文化[ぶんか]をユニークだと 思[おも]っている。<br /><br />メアリさんは 自分[じぶん]で 何[なに]でもします。

The Japanese think that their country's culture is unique.<br>Mary does everything by herself.

The basic function of ka is to mark an alternative. It can mark either nouns or sentences. When it marks nouns, the final ka is usually omitted. When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker wa must not be used.

When the optional do ka is used, the embedded question has to be a yes-no question.

The probability of accuracy predicted by a kamoshirenai sentence is lower than that of a daro sentence and much lower than that of a ni chigainai.<br>low probability : kamoshirenai &lt; daro &lt; ni chigainai : high probability<br><br><br><br>

For temporal or spatial starting point.

The difference between te kara and te is that the former focuses more on chronological order and volitional planning than the latter does. <br>

来年[らいねん] 日本[にっぽん]へ 行[い]くから 日本語[にほんご]を 勉強[べんきょう]している。<br /><br /> 来年[らいねん] 日本[にっぽん]へ 行[い]くからです。

I'm studying Japanese because I'm going to Japan next year.<br>It's because I'm going to Japan next year.

Kashira is usually used by female speakers in rather informal speech. The male version is kanaa, which is used only in fairly informal situations. <br>

Sino-Japanese suru-verbs such as benkyo-suru' study', denwa-suru 'telephone', ryori-suru 'cook', setsumei-suru 'explain' and soudan-suru 'consuIt' need the particle no before shikata.<br>勉強/電話/料理/説明の仕[し]方。

in place of ~; instead of; to make up for ~; although; but

先生[せんせい]のかわりに 私[わたし]が 教[おし]えた。<br /><br /> 土曜日[どようび]に 仕事[しごと]をするかわりに 月曜日[げつようび]は 休[やす]みます。

The informal forms of keredomo (listed from least formal to most formal) are kedo&lt;kedomo&lt;keredo.

I can clearly hear the cries of a nightingale (To me the cries of a nightingale are clearly audible)

Kikoeru is different from the regular potential form of kiku 'hear' (i.e., kikeru), in that the former indicates a passive, auditory potentiality, whereas the latter indicates that the speaker (or the subject of sentence) can hear sound not passively but actively.

いいことを 教[おし]えてあげよう。<br /><br /> 論文[ろんぶん]に 書[か]いたことを 話[はな]してください。<br /><br />ブラウンさんは 日本[にっぽん]の 大学[だいがく]のことをよく 知[し]っています。<br />

I have a good suggestion for you (I'll tell you a good thing).<br>Please tell me what you wrote in your thesis.<br>Mr. Brown knows a lot (of things) about Japanese universities.

N no koto, whose literal meaning is 'thing of N', is often used with such verbs as shitte iru 'know', hanasu 'talk' and wasureru ' forget', and means 'know about N', 'talk about N'

Da after Adj (na) stem and N changes to na and de aru, respectively. <br>

s.o has done s.t.; s.o. has had an experience doing s.t.; there was a time when ~

Sinf nonpast<br>Da after Adj(na) stem and N changes to na and no / de aru, respectively. <br>

Cf. koto ga aru 196.<br>Sinf. nonpast koto ga aru expresses the idea that something happens from time to time.

N (animate) wa (- Vinf. nonpast) koto ga dekiru. where N is an animate experiencer and the noun phrase - Vinf.nonpast koto is a subject noun phrase nominalized by koto. The meaning of the structure is C N can V'.

it will be decided that ~; come about ~; be arranged that ~; turn out that ~

私[わたし]は 来年[らいねん] 大阪[おおさか]に 転勤[てんきん]することになった。<br /><br /> 日本[にっぽん]では 車[くるま]は 道[みち]の 左側[ひだりがわ]を 走[はし]ることになっています。

I'm going to be transferred to Osaka next year. (It has been decided that I will transfer to Osaka next year)<br>In Japan cars are supposed to be driven on the left side of the street.

This construction is used when some decision or arrangement is made by some unspecified agent. Semantically this construction is close to the passive, because the experiencer has no control over the event. <br>

Koto ni suru is a more complex version of N ni suru 'decide on N', 'make it N '.

indeed one does s.t. alright, (but ~); indeed ~ (but ~); do ~ (but ~)

話すことははなす<br />静かなことは静かだ<br />静かだったことは静かだった<br />いい人はいい人だ<br />いい人だったことはいい人だった<br />

The verb / adjective / noun before koto wa is normally marked in the informal form even if the final predicate is marked in the formal form. <br />

Kudasai is the polite imperative form of kudasaru, the honorific version of kureru ' give (me)' and is used as an auxiliary verb with the te-form of verbs.<br>Kure, the imperative form of kureru, can also be used in place of kudasai in informal male speech. ('kite kure' : come with me)<br>

Same usage as gurai.

kureru is used only when the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes.<br>The polite (honorific) version of kureru is kudasaru (kudasaimasu)<br>

do s.t. (for me or s.o.); do me or s.o. a favor by doing s.t.

The receiver must be the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with.<br />As in KS(B), if the person receiving the benefit of the action is the direct object, the indirect object is omitted :<br />道男は<span style="text-decoration: line-through;">私に</span>私をなぐさめてくれた<br />道男は<span style="text-decoration: line-through;">私に</span>なぐさめてくれた

私[わたし]はコンピューターが 少[すこ]し 分[わ]かって 来[き]た。<br /><br /> 私[わたし]はいろいろ 日本[にっぽん]の 歴史[れきし] 書[しょ]を 読[よ]んで 来[き]ました。

Now I have begun to understand computers.<br>Up to now I've been reading various Japanese histories.

Vte kuru expresses inception as in KS(A), or continuation of <br>s.t. up to a current point of time, as in KS(B)

きのうは三 時[じ]から五 時[じ]まで 友達[ともだち]とテニスをした。<br /><br /> 私[わたし]が 行[い]くまでうちで 待[ま]っていてください。

Yesterday I played tennis from three to five with my friend.<br />Please wait at home until I get there.

I'll come home by 10 o'clock.<br>Please read this book (in advance) by the time school starts.

ジャクソンさんは 日本[にっぽん]へいく 前[まえ]に 日本語[にほんご]を 勉強[べんきょう]した。<br /><br /> 旅行[りょこう]の 前[まえ]に 風邪[かぜ]を 引[ひ]きました。

When the speaker knows that something is about to happen but does not know <br />exactly when it is to happen, uchi ni 'before' is used instead of mae ni. <br />雨が<span style="text-decoration: line-through;">降るまえに</span>帰りましょう。<br />雨が降らないうちに帰りましょう。<br />

mai only prefix nouns indicating a time or period of time. <br>Goto ni also means 'every', but its usage differs from that of mai. First, goto ni is not a prefix but a suffix. Second, it is used with nouns of time preceded by numbers or specific dates.

Vinf past　まま <br>(電気を）つけたまま　(leaving the light on)<br>Adj-i　まま<br>大きいまま (as s.t. is big)<br>Adj-na な　まま<br>不便なまま (leaving s.t. inconvenient)<br>Nのまま<br>昔のまま (leaving s.t. as it was)

The verb before mama has to be nonpast if the verb is negative.<br>ドアを閉めないままでかけてしまった。<br>I leave my house with the door open.

The sentence in the KS(A) pattern, which includes the subject X ga, implies that' not others but X will do something'. If the sentence doesn't carry such an implication but simply states the first person's volition, the subject is usually omitted. <br>In invitation situations like KS(B), the subject is usually omitted.

A visible object is marked by ga, not by o. <br />Mieru can be used as a polite version of kuru 'come'.<br />お母さん、お客さんが見いえたよ。<br />(Mom, we have company!)

Nanimo and daremo are used only in negative sentences.

even; as many/much/long/... as; (not) even (one); (not) any

田中[たなか]さんも 中山[なかやま]さんもデパートに 勤[つと]めている。<br /> 京都[きょうと]へはバスでも 電車[でんしゃ]でも 行[い]けます。<br />このうちは 広[ひろ]くも 狭[せま]くもない。<br />

Both Mr. Tanaka and Mr. Nakayama are working for a departement store.<br>We can go to Kyoto either by bus or by eletric train.<br>This house is neither big nor small.

N　も　N　も<br>Adj-i stem くも　 Adj-i stem　くも<br>Adj-na stem でも　Adj-na stem　でも

Because the speaker presents a situation before mono (da) as if it were a tangible object, this structure tends to convey differing degrees of emotion. <br>Mono is contracted into mon in very colloquial speech.

The humble polite version of morau is itadaku. <br>The giver can also be marked by the source kara 'from'.

receive benefit from an action by s.o.; have s.t. done by s.o.; have s.o. do s.t.

na is a strong negative imperative and is seldom used except in highly emotional situations. However, the addition of yo after na serves to soften the force of the statement. <br>

Nanka is the informal, colloquial version of nado.

a conjunction which indicates that the action expressed by the preceding verb takes place concurrently or simultaneously with the action expressed in the main clause.

Vneg なければならない<br>Adj-i stem　く　なければならない<br>Adj-na stem　で　なければならない<br>N　で　なければならない

The contracted forms Vneg nakerya naranai and Vneg nakya(a) naranai are also used in conversation. Sometimes, naranai is omitted if the context is clear.

Vinf neg　なくなる<br>Adj-i stem 　く　なくなる<br>Adj-na stem では/じゃ　なくなる<br>N　では/じゃ　なくなる

do not do s.t. and ~; is not ~ and ~; because ~ do not do s.t.

Vinf neg 　なくて<br>Adj-i stem　く　なくて<br>Adj-na stem　では/じゃ　なくて<br>N　では/じゃ　なくて

a conjunction which indicates that the preceding sentence is the speaker's supposition about the truth of a present or past fact or the actualization of something in the future.

Nara is the simplified form of naraba, the conditional form of the copula da.<br />Since nara is the simplified conditional form of the copula, it requires a noun or a noun equivalent. Thus, if the preceding element is not a noun, it is nominalized by no, although this no is optional in modern Japanese. <br />

In contrast to nasai, kudasai is used by an inferior towards his superior when he asks a favor.

English tag question (such as isn’t itで；is it?; don’t you?; do you?); you know

if a time expression can be specified uniquely in terms of digits, the adverb can take ni; otherwise, it cannot.