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a.これ[．．．]本[．．．/(polite)]。

This is a book.

S.o. or s.t. is/was s.o. or s.t. or is/was in some state, or will do/does/did s.t.

“AはBだ” is probably the most basic sentence structure in Japanese. The very basic meaning of this construction is “A is B”. However, this pattern can convey more than that meaning. For example, the second sentence in (1) literally means 'My wife is tea', but actually means 'My wife drinks tea.' Here, the copula だ is used in place of 飲む 'drink'. (1) 私は毎朝コーヒーを飲む。家内は紅茶だ。 (I drink coffee every morning. My wife is tea / my wife drinks tea.) In fact, this だ・です structure is used frequently in conversation. In general, the copula can be used in place of a predicate if the meaning can be understood from context.

That person is a teacher.

My classes are till four o'clock.

d.今度の試合はワシントン大学とだ。

こんどのしあいはワシントンだいがくとだ。

The next game is against the University of Washington.

b.コンサート[．．．]八時から[．．．/(polite)]。

The concert is from eight o'clock.

S.o. or s.t. is/was s.o. or s.t. or is/was in some state, or will do/does/did s.t.

“AはBだ” is probably the most basic sentence structure in Japanese. The very basic meaning of this construction is “A is B”. However, this pattern can convey more than that meaning. For example, the second sentence in (1) literally means 'My wife is tea', but actually means 'My wife drinks tea.' Here, the copula だ is used in place of 飲む 'drink'. (1) 私は毎朝コーヒーを飲む。家内は紅茶だ。 (I drink coffee every morning. My wife is tea / my wife drinks tea.) In fact, this だ・です structure is used frequently in conversation. In general, the copula can be used in place of a predicate if the meaning can be understood from context.

That person is a teacher.

My classes are till four o'clock.

d.今度の試合はワシントン大学とだ。

こんどのしあいはワシントンだいがくとだ。

The next game is against the University of Washington.

雨[．．．]降っている・います。

A particle which indicates the subject.

が marks the subject of a sentence when the information expressed by the subject is first introduced in a discourse. When the subject is presented as the topic (that is, the information has already been introduced into the discourse), however, the topic marker は replaces が. Consider the following discourse, a typical opening in folktales, which illustrates the different used of が and は. (1) 昔々一人のおじいさんが住んでいました。おじいさんは貧乏背した。 In the first sentence, おじいさん 'old man' appears for the first time in the discourse; おじいさん is the subject but not the topic in this sentence. Therefore, it is marked by が. The second sentence tells something about the old man introduced in the first sentence. おじいさん is now the topic; therefore it is marked by は rather than が. Note the parallelism here between が and は in Japanese and 'a' and 'the' in English. が is also replaced by は if the subject is in contrast with another element. Since WH-words like 何, 誰, どこ can never be topics, they are never marked by. The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by が unless it is a contrasted element.

a.私の部屋はステレオがあります。

わたしのへやはステレオがあります。

There is no stereo in my room.

Oh, Noriko is running.

c.このレストランは何が美味しいですか。 / ステーキが美味しいです。

このレストランはなにがおいしいですか。 / ステーキがおいしいです。

What is good in this restaurant? / Steak is good.

坂本さんは煙草を吸わない・吸いません[．．．]。

さかもとさんはたばこをすわない・すいませんね。

Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke, does he? / Mr. Sakamoto, you don't smoke, do you?

A sentence-final particle that indicates the speaker's request for confirmation or agreement from the hearer about some shared knowledge.

In this construction the sentence preceding ね can be any informal or form sentence except nonpolite imperative. Thus, (1) a. **読めね。** b. 読めなさいね。 読んで下さいね。 ね can be used as a request for either confirmation or agreement from the addressee. When a sentence expresses the speaker's strong impression of something, ね indicates the speaker's request for agreement from the hearer, as in Ex. (a). When a sentence expresses something emotively neutral, ね indicates the speaker's request for confirmation from the hearer, as in KS and Exs. (b) and (c). Here, however, KS can also be a request for agreement, if the speaker is surprised that Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke. These two uses of ね have different intonations: the ね of agreement uses falling intonation and the ね of confirmation uses rising intonation. The ね of agreement becomes ねえ if the speaker is excited about the content of his/her statement. On the other hand, the ね of confirmation has no exclamatory overtones; it implies something like 'I am assuming X but can you confirm it?' Thus, in KS the speaker doesn't like people who smoke, and for some reason or other he/she wants to confirm that Mr. Sakamoto is not one of those people. ね is sometimes used in non-sentence-final position to draw the hearer's attention to something or to confirm that the hearer has understood what has been said up to that point.

a.今日はいい天気ですね。 / 本当にそうですね。

きょうはいいてんきですね。 / ほんとうにそうですね。

Today is a fine day, isn't it? / Isn't it!

You are a student, aren't you?

c.パーティーにいらっしゃいますね。

パーティーにいらっしゃいますね。

You are going to the party, aren't you?

坂本さんは煙草を吸わない・吸いません[．．．]。

さかもとさんはたばこをすわない・すいませんよ。

Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke, you know.

A sentence-final particle that indicates the speaker's (fairly) strong conviction or assertion about s.t. that is assumed to be known only to him. / I tell you; I'm tell you; you know; contrary to what you think

In this construction, the sentence preceding よ can be any informal or formal sentence except a question. A sentence preceding よ can be an informal or formal request. When よ is used in this way, the sentence becomes more forceful. Another sentence-final particle ね may be attached to Sよ, yielding meaning, 'I assert S and don't you agree?'. Sよね is used when the speaker wishes to mitigate the force of his/her assertion by talking as if the content of S were also known to the hearer. Sよね can also be used when the speaker is addressing someone who doesn't know about an asserted fact and there is another person nearby who is aware of it. In such circumstances, the speaker asks the person who shares the asserted fact for his/her agreement at the end of the sentence.

a.日本語は面白いですか。 / ええ、とても面白いですよ。

にほんごはおもしろいですか。 / ええ、とてもおもしろいですよ。

Is Japanese interesting? / Yes, it's very interesting, I tell you.

b.あの人はそんな本を買わないでしょう。 /　いいえ、買いますよ。

あのひとはそんなほんをかわないでしょう。 /　いいえ、かいますよ。

He probably won't buy that sort of book. / Yes, he'll buy it (contrary to what you think).

私も明日のパーティー行く[．．．]。

I'll go to tomorrow's party, too.

A sentence particle used in weak assertive or volitional sentences by a female speaker.

The sentence particel わ is used only in female speech and expresses the speaker's weak assertion or volition. In addition, わ sometimes expresses the speaker's intimacy or friendliness. わ can follow any declarative sentence, but cannot follow the volitional forms of verbs. (Note that わ cannot be used in questions.) Other sentence particles such as ね and よ can occur with わ. In this case, わ must precede these particles.

a.大木さんはもう帰りましたわ。

おおきさんはもうかえりましたわ。

Mr. Oki has already gone home.

Hisako is still a student.

This room is small.

I will talk to him.

A verb ending which indicates the first person's volition or invitation in formal speech. / I/We will do s.t.; Let's do s.t.

ましょう is a formal verb ending which is used to express the first person's volition (KS (a), Exs. (a) and (b)) or invitation (KS(b), Exs. (c). and (d)). The sentence in the KS(a) pattern, which includes the subject X が, implies that 'not others but X will go something'. If the sentence doesn't carry such an implication but simply states the first person's volition, the subject is usually omiited. In invitation situations like KS(b), the subject is usually omitted (Exs. (c). and (d)). ましょう with the question marker か asks whether the hearer will accep the speaker's volitional action or invitation (Exs. (b) and (d)).

わたしたちがてつだいましょう。

We will help you.

Shall I go there?

Let's drink beer.

Shall we go by car?

Let's go to a movie.

A verb ending which indicates the first person's volition or invitation in formal speech. / I/We will do s.t.; Let's do s.t.

ましょう is a formal verb ending which is used to express the first person's volition (KS (a), Exs. (a) and (b)) or invitation (KS(b), Exs. (c). and (d)). The sentence in the KS(a) pattern, which includes the subject X が, implies that 'not others but X will go something'. If the sentence doesn't carry such an implication but simply states the first person's volition, the subject is usually omiited. In invitation situations like KS(b), the subject is usually omitted (Exs. (c). and (d)). ましょう with the question marker か asks whether the hearer will accep the speaker's volitional action or invitation (Exs. (b) and (d)).

わたしたちがてつだいましょう。

We will help you.

Shall I go there?

Let's drink beer.

Shall we go by car?

a.私は電車[．．．]バス〈か〉で行く・行きます。

わたしはでんしゃかバス〈か〉でいく・いきます。

I will go either by train or by bus.

A particle which marks an alternative.

The basic function of か is to mark an alternative. It can mark either nouns or sentences. When it marks noun, the final か is usually omitted. When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker は must not be used. か cannot be used to connect two questions. In this case, それとも is used instead of か.

a.私は毎朝ジュースかミルクを飲む。

わたしはまいあさジュースかミルクをのむ。

I drink juice or milk every morning.

b.それはボブはマークがします。

As for that, either Bob or Mark will do it.

c.肉が高かったか一郎が嫌いだったかどちらかだ。

にくがたかかったかいちろうがいくきれいだったかどちらかだ。

Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.

d.手紙を書くか電話を掛けるかどちらかして下さい。

てがみをかくかでんわをかけるかどちらかしてください。

Either write a letter or make a call, please.

e.食べるか話すかどちらかにしなさい。

たべるかはなすかどちらかにしなさい。

Decide on either eating or talking.

b.トムが行く[．．．]メアリーが行く[．．．]どちらかだ・です。

トムがいくかメアリーがいくかどちらかだ・です。

Either Tom will go or Mary will go.

A particle which marks an alternative.

The basic function of か is to mark an alternative. It can mark either nouns or sentences. When it marks noun, the final か is usually omitted. When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker は must not be used. か cannot be used to connect two questions. In this case, それとも is used instead of か.

a.私は毎朝ジュースかミルクを飲む。

わたしはまいあさジュースかミルクをのむ。

I drink juice or milk every morning.

b.それはボブはマークがします。

As for that, either Bob or Mark will do it.

c.肉が高かったか一郎が嫌いだったかどちらかだ。

にくがたかかったかいちろうがいくきれいだったかどちらかだ。

Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.

d.手紙を書くか電話を掛けるかどちらかして下さい。

てがみをかくかでんわをかけるかどちらかしてください。

Either write a letter or make a call, please.

e.食べるか話すかどちらかにしなさい。

たべるかはなすかどちらかにしなさい。

Decide on either eating or talking.

a.よし子は大学へ行く・行きます[．．．]。

Is Yoshiko going to college?

A sentence-final particle which indicates that the preceding sentence is interrogative.

The question marker か is a special used of か which marks an alternative (i.e., か (1)). For example, KS(a) came from (1), with the paranthezised part omitted. (1) よし子は大学へ行きますか。（それとも行きませんか。） Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is marked by か whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. Note that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the word order is the same as that of the corresponding declarative sentence. Also, an interrogative sentence is pronounced with rising intonation whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. か remains in indirect questions as in KS(b), Exs. (c). and (d). When the informal forms of なtype adjectives and the copula precede the question marker か, だ drops. A possible reason is that だ, the informal form of です, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts with the question marker か, which expresses the speaker's uncertainty about something.

Are you a student?

c.友達は漢字が難しいかと聞いた。

ともだちはかんじがむずかしいかときいた。

My friend asked is kanji is difficult.

d.私はジャンに誰が来たかと尋ねた。

わたしはジャンにだれがきたかとたずねた。

I asked Jan who had come.

e.僕は山崎先生が昨日何を言ったか忘れてしまった。

ばくはやまざきがきのうなにをいったかわすれてしまった。

I've forgotten (completely) what Prof. Yamazaki said yesterday.

b.私はテリーにナンシが日本へ行く[．．．]と聞いた・聞きました。

わたしはテリーにナンシがにほんへいくかときいた・ききました。

I asked Terry whether Nancy was going to Japan.

A sentence-final particle which indicates that the preceding sentence is interrogative.

The question marker か is a special used of か which marks an alternative (i.e., か (1)). For example, KS(a) came from (1), with the paranthezised part omitted. (1) よし子は大学へ行きますか。（それとも行きませんか。） Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is marked by か whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. Note that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the word order is the same as that of the corresponding declarative sentence. Also, an interrogative sentence is pronounced with rising intonation whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question. か remains in indirect questions as in KS(b), Exs. (c). and (d). When the informal forms of なtype adjectives and the copula precede the question marker か, だ drops. A possible reason is that だ, the informal form of です, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts with the question marker か, which expresses the speaker's uncertainty about something.

Are you a student?

c.友達は漢字が難しいかと聞いた。

ともだちはかんじがむずかしいかときいた。

My friend asked is kanji is difficult.

d.私はジャンに誰が来たかと尋ねた。

わたしはジャンにだれがきたかとたずねた。

I asked Jan who had come.

e.僕は山崎先生が昨日何を言ったか忘れてしまった。

ばくはやまざきがきのうなにをいったかわすれてしまった。

I've forgotten (completely) what Prof. Yamazaki said yesterday.

Is Japanese interesting?

A sentence-final particle which marks yes-no questions in informal male speech.

Since かい is used in informal speech, preceding sentences must be in the informal form. かい is used only for yes-no questions. Questions in the KS (a) pattern and those in the KS (b) pattern correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively. Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping かい in male informal questions and using rising intonation.

Will you study Japanese?

Is this apartment quiet?

Are you students?

Is the book difficult?

Is that person a teacher?

b.上野さんはアメリカへ行くの[．．．]。

Is Mr. Ueno going to America?

A sentence-final particle which marks yes-no questions in informal male speech.

Since かい is used in informal speech, preceding sentences must be in the informal form. かい is used only for yes-no questions. Questions in the KS (a) pattern and those in the KS (b) pattern correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively. Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping かい in male informal questions and using rising intonation.

Will you study Japanese?

Is this apartment quiet?

Are you students?

Is the book difficult?

Is that person a teacher?

I wonder if Mr. Matsumoto will come.

A sentence-final particle which expresses the idea that the female speaker wonders about s.t.

Etymologically, かしら comes from か知らない 'I don't know (if) ~', but now expresses the idea “I wonder”. かしら is usually used by female speakers in rather informal situations. The formulation rules of かなあ, are exactly the same as those for かしら. Sfml かしら is acceptable if the situation is very formal. Since かしら and かなあ mean 'I wonder' (present tense), they cannot be used for expression like “I wondered” and “ Mr. Smith wondered”. For such expression, “AはSinfかしら・かなあと思う” is used. Here, A is the person who wonders; と思う literally means 'think that'.

a.あの先生の授業は面白いかしら。

あのせんせいのじゅぎょうはおもしろいかしら。

I wonder if that teacher's class is interesting.

b.幸子さんは何が好きかしら。

さちこさんはなにがすきかしら。

I wonder what Sachiko likes.

I wonder who that person is.

a.この町(に)は大学が三つ[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

このまち(に)はだいがくがみっつある・あります。

In this town there are three universities.

An inanimate thing exists. [be; exist; have]

ある expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate things including abstract things such as events and problems. The negative informal form of ある is not あらない but ない.The key sentence (1) pattern is used when a location is presented as a topic. In this case, what is exists in under focus. In this pattern, the location market に can optionally drop.

a.私のアパト〈に〉はテレビが二台ある。

わたしのアパト〈に〉はテレビがにだいある。

There are two TV sets in my apartment.

b.デトロイトはミシガン州にあるます。

デトロイトはミシガンしゅうにあるます。

Detroit is in the State of Michigan.

c.和田さんのうち〈に〉はクーラーがない。

わださんのうち〈に〉はクーラーがない。

There is no air-conditioner at Mr. Wada's.

b.エッフェル塔はパリに[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.

An inanimate thing exists. [be; exist; have]

ある expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate things including abstract things such as events and problems. The negative informal form of ある is not あらない but ない.The key sentence (1) pattern is used when a location is presented as a topic. In this case, what is exists in under focus. In this pattern, the location market に can optionally drop.

a.私のアパト〈に〉はテレビが二台ある。

わたしのアパト〈に〉はテレビがにだいある。

There are two TV sets in my apartment.

b.デトロイトはミシガン州にあるます。

デトロイトはミシガンしゅうにあるます。

Detroit is in the State of Michigan.

c.和田さんのうち〈に〉はクーラーがない。

わださんのうち〈に〉はクーラーがない。

There is no air-conditioner at Mr. Wada's.

それはもうジョンに話して[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

It's been told to John already.

S.t. has been done to s.t. and the resultant state of the action remains. [have been done; be done]

ある is used with Vて as an auxiliary verb. Two points are indicated by the Vてある expression. The agent is usually omitted because he is unimportant, unknown or obvious.

a.飲み物はもう買ってあります。

のみものはもうかってあります。

Drinks have already been bought.

The window has been open/is open.

a.この町〈に〉は日本人が沢山[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

このまち〈に〉はにほんじんがたくさんいる・います。

In this town are many Japanese.

An animate thing exists.

いる (1) expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for plant life or inanimate things. Two sentence patterns can be used with いる (1). In the KS(a) pattern, a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is under focus. In this pattern the location marker に can optionally drop. In the KS(b) pattern, on the other hand, what exists is presented as the topic and where it exists is under focus. An animate thing or a group or organisation of animate things such as a football team can also be in the location position, as seen in (2): 私〈に〉は子供が三人いる。 (Lit. there are three children with me/I have three children.) このチーム〈に〉はいいクオーターバックがいる。 (Lit. there is a good quarterback in this team.)

a.この動物園にはパンダがいます。

このどうぶつえんにはパンダがいます。

There are pandas in this zoo.

b.スチーブは今ロビンのアパートにいる。

スチーブはいまロビンのアパートにいる。

Steve is in Robin's apartment now.

b.リーはこの寮に[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

Lee is in this dorm.

An animate thing exists.

いる (1) expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for plant life or inanimate things. Two sentence patterns can be used with いる (1). In the KS(a) pattern, a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is under focus. In this pattern the location marker に can optionally drop. In the KS(b) pattern, on the other hand, what exists is presented as the topic and where it exists is under focus. An animate thing or a group or organisation of animate things such as a football team can also be in the location position, as seen in (2): 私〈に〉は子供が三人いる。 (Lit. there are three children with me/I have three children.) このチーム〈に〉はいいクオーターバックがいる。 (Lit. there is a good quarterback in this team.)

a.この動物園にはパンダがいます。

このどうぶつえんにはパンダがいます。

There are pandas in this zoo.

b.スチーブは今ロビンのアパートにいる。

スチーブはいまロビンのアパートにいる。

Steve is in Robin's apartment now.

佐々木さんは酒を飲んで[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

Mr. Sasaki is drinking sake.

S.o. or s.t. is doing s.t. he/she or it started some time ago, or is in a state created by an action he/she or it took some time ago.

いる is used as an auxiliary verb with Vて and expresses the continuation of an action or state. In general, if Vて expresses an action which can continue or be repeated, Vている expreses the continuation of the action. If the Vて is a verb indicating momentary action which cannot be repeated, Vている expresses the idea that something happen to X and X maintains the state which was created by that event. KS and Ex. (a) are examples of the first usage and Ex. (b), (c). and (d) are examples of the second usage. Note that in Ex. (d) that 知る, the dictionary form of 知って, means 'to get to know' and 知っている expresses the continuation of the state after the speaker got to know Miss Suzuki, which is expressed by 'know' in English. It is also noted, however, that 'not to know' is not 知っていない, but 知らない. Vている also expresses a habitual action, which is a special sort of repeated action. Example: 私は毎日四マイル走っている。 (I run four miles every day). When Vて is a motion verb such as 行く 'go', 来る 'come' and 帰る 'return', the meaning of Vている is not 'be ~ing'. For example, 行っている means 'to have gone to some place and still be there'. The verb 住む 'live' requires the “Vている” pattern if the sentence expresses a present state. Also, verbs like 言う 'say' and 思う 'think' with a third person subject require the “Vている” pattern if the sentence expresses a presente state.

かずえはしんぶんをよんでいる。

Kazue is reading a newspaper.

This apple is rotten.

A tree has fallen down (and is lying there).

d.私は鈴木さんを知っています。

わたしはすずきさんをしっています。

I know Miss Suzuki.

a.中山さんはテニスを[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

Mr. Nakayama plays tennis.

S.o./s.t. causes a state or action to take place. do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear

する (1) means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds to English 'do' or 'make'. KS(a) and Ex.(a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing s.t. KS(b) as well as Ex.(b) are cases where the subject is playing a social or dramatic role. Ksc.(c). and (d) and Ex. (c). have causative meanings. KS(c). and Ex. (c). require that either Adj(い)stem+く or Adj(な)stem+に, be used before する. KS(d) and Ex. (e) use a Noun+に in front of する. Sino-Japanese compounds+する such as 勉強する 'study' and 運転する 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(e) and Ex. (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can be also used as the direct object of する. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use する with loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. It is also common to use する with sound symbolisms, especially phenomines and psychomimes. する basically means some causative change that is under human control, whereas なる 'become' basically means spontaneous change that is almost beyond human control.

a.日本人は大抵土曜日も仕事をする。

にほんじんはたいていどようびもしごとをする。

The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.

b.ビルはハムレットをする積りだ。

ビルはハムレットをするつもりだ。

Bill is going to play Hamlet.

Yoko made her room clean.

ぼくはよくくるまをうんてんします。

I often drive a car.

e.一男はアメリカ人を妻にした。

かずおはアメリカじんをつまにした。

Kazuo made a wife of an American.

b.リーズさんは英語の先生を[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

リーズさんはえいごのせんせいをしている・います。

Mr. Leeds is an English teacher.

S.o./s.t. causes a state or action to take place. do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear

する (1) means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds to English 'do' or 'make'. KS(a) and Ex.(a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing s.t. KS(b) as well as Ex.(b) are cases where the subject is playing a social or dramatic role. Ksc.(c). and (d) and Ex. (c). have causative meanings. KS(c). and Ex. (c). require that either Adj(い)stem+く or Adj(な)stem+に, be used before する. KS(d) and Ex. (e) use a Noun+に in front of する. Sino-Japanese compounds+する such as 勉強する 'study' and 運転する 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(e) and Ex. (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can be also used as the direct object of する. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use する with loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. It is also common to use する with sound symbolisms, especially phenomines and psychomimes. する basically means some causative change that is under human control, whereas なる 'become' basically means spontaneous change that is almost beyond human control.

a.日本人は大抵土曜日も仕事をする。

にほんじんはたいていどようびもしごとをする。

The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.

b.ビルはハムレットをする積りだ。

ビルはハムレットをするつもりだ。

Bill is going to play Hamlet.

Yoko made her room clean.

ぼくはよくくるまをうんてんします。

I often drive a car.

e.一男はアメリカ人を妻にした。

かずおはアメリカじんをつまにした。

Kazuo made a wife of an American.

c.先生はテストを易しく[past/past polite]。

The teacher made his test easy.

S.o./s.t. causes a state or action to take place. do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear

する (1) means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds to English 'do' or 'make'. KS(a) and Ex.(a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing s.t. KS(b) as well as Ex.(b) are cases where the subject is playing a social or dramatic role. Ksc.(c). and (d) and Ex. (c). have causative meanings. KS(c). and Ex. (c). require that either Adj(い)stem+く or Adj(な)stem+に, be used before する. KS(d) and Ex. (e) use a Noun+に in front of する. Sino-Japanese compounds+する such as 勉強する 'study' and 運転する 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(e) and Ex. (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can be also used as the direct object of する. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use する with loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. It is also common to use する with sound symbolisms, especially phenomines and psychomimes. する basically means some causative change that is under human control, whereas なる 'become' basically means spontaneous change that is almost beyond human control.

a.日本人は大抵土曜日も仕事をする。

にほんじんはたいていどようびもしごとをする。

The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.

b.ビルはハムレットをする積りだ。

ビルはハムレットをするつもりだ。

Bill is going to play Hamlet.

Yoko made her room clean.

ぼくはよくくるまをうんてんします。

I often drive a car.

e.一男はアメリカ人を妻にした。

かずおはアメリカじんをつまにした。

Kazuo made a wife of an American.

d.木口は息子を医者に[past/past polite]。

Kiguchi caused his son to become a physician.

S.o./s.t. causes a state or action to take place. do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear

する (1) means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds to English 'do' or 'make'. KS(a) and Ex.(a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing s.t. KS(b) as well as Ex.(b) are cases where the subject is playing a social or dramatic role. Ksc.(c). and (d) and Ex. (c). have causative meanings. KS(c). and Ex. (c). require that either Adj(い)stem+く or Adj(な)stem+に, be used before する. KS(d) and Ex. (e) use a Noun+に in front of する. Sino-Japanese compounds+する such as 勉強する 'study' and 運転する 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(e) and Ex. (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can be also used as the direct object of する. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use する with loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. It is also common to use する with sound symbolisms, especially phenomines and psychomimes. する basically means some causative change that is under human control, whereas なる 'become' basically means spontaneous change that is almost beyond human control.

a.日本人は大抵土曜日も仕事をする。

にほんじんはたいていどようびもしごとをする。

The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.

b.ビルはハムレットをする積りだ。

ビルはハムレットをするつもりだ。

Bill is going to play Hamlet.

Yoko made her room clean.

ぼくはよくくるまをうんてんします。

I often drive a car.

e.一男はアメリカ人を妻にした。

かずおはアメリカじんをつまにした。

Kazuo made a wife of an American.

e.私は中国語を勉強[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

わたしはちゅうごくごをべんきょうしている・います。

I am studying Chinese.

S.o./s.t. causes a state or action to take place. do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear

する (1) means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds to English 'do' or 'make'. KS(a) and Ex.(a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing s.t. KS(b) as well as Ex.(b) are cases where the subject is playing a social or dramatic role. Ksc.(c). and (d) and Ex. (c). have causative meanings. KS(c). and Ex. (c). require that either Adj(い)stem+く or Adj(な)stem+に, be used before する. KS(d) and Ex. (e) use a Noun+に in front of する. Sino-Japanese compounds+する such as 勉強する 'study' and 運転する 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(e) and Ex. (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can be also used as the direct object of する. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use する with loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. It is also common to use する with sound symbolisms, especially phenomines and psychomimes. する basically means some causative change that is under human control, whereas なる 'become' basically means spontaneous change that is almost beyond human control.

a.日本人は大抵土曜日も仕事をする。

にほんじんはたいていどようびもしごとをする。

The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.

b.ビルはハムレットをする積りだ。

ビルはハムレットをするつもりだ。

Bill is going to play Hamlet.

Yoko made her room clean.

ぼくはよくくるまをうんてんします。

I often drive a car.

e.一男はアメリカ人を妻にした。

かずおはアメリカじんをつまにした。

Kazuo made a wife of an American.

f.京子は綺麗なスカーフを[nonpast/nonpast polite]。

きょうこはきれいなスカーフをしている・います。

Kyoko is wearing a beautiful scarf.

S.o./s.t. causes a state or action to take place. do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear

する (1) means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds to English 'do' or 'make'. KS(a) and Ex.(a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing s.t. KS(b) as well as Ex.(b) are cases where the subject is playing a social or dramatic role. Ksc.(c). and (d) and Ex. (c). have causative meanings. KS(c). and Ex. (c). require that either Adj(い)stem+く or Adj(な)stem+に, be used before する. KS(d) and Ex. (e) use a Noun+に in front of する. Sino-Japanese compounds+する such as 勉強する 'study' and 運転する 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in KS(e) and Ex. (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can be also used as the direct object of する. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use する with loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. It is also common to use する with sound symbolisms, especially phenomines and psychomimes. する basically means some causative change that is under human control, whereas なる 'become' basically means spontaneous change that is almost beyond human control.

a.日本人は大抵土曜日も仕事をする。

にほんじんはたいていどようびもしごとをする。

The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.

b.ビルはハムレットをする積りだ。

ビルはハムレットをするつもりだ。

Bill is going to play Hamlet.

Yoko made her room clean.

ぼくはよくくるまをうんてんします。

I often drive a car.

e.一男はアメリカ人を妻にした。

かずおはアメリカじんをつまにした。

Kazuo made a wife of an American.

a.石田先生は英語で[．．．]話しになったなりました。

いしだせんせいはえいごでおはなしになったなりました。

Prof. Ishida talked in English.

A prefix that expresses politeness.

The polite perfix お- is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to express the speaker's respect, modesty or politeness. お-Vますになる is an honorific polite expression and お-Vますする is a humble polite expression. お-Adj can be either an honorific polite expression, as in Exs. (a), (c)., and (d), or a simple polite expression, as in Ex. (b). お-cannot be attached to adjectives and nouns which begin with the お sound; foreign words; long words (じゃがいも 'potato'; じゃが 'potato'; ほうれん草 'spinach'). There are some exceptions to this rule. For example: お煙草 'tobacco'; ズボン 'trousers'; ビール 'beer'; ソース 'sauce'. These exceptions are words which have been part of the Japanese vocabulary long enough to sound like Japanese-origin words to native speakers. There are a few words which are always used with the polite prefix お or ご, for example: お腹 'stomach' and ご飯 'cooked rice, meal'.

a.田村先生は今とてもお忙しい。

たむらせんせいはいまとてもおいそがしい。

Prof. Tamura is very busy now.

It's hot day after day, isn't it?

c.上田先生はテニスがお上手です。

うえだせんせいはテニスがおじょうずです。

Prof. Ueda is good at tennis.

d.宮本さんの奥様はとても綺麗だ。

みやもとさんのおくさまはとてもきれいだ。

Mrs. Miyamoto is very pretty.

e.野村さんからお電話がありました。

のむらさんからおでんわがありました。

There was a phone call from Mr. Nomura.

b.私は昨日山崎先生に[．．．]会いした・しました。

わたしはきのうやまざきせんせいにおあいした・しました。

I met Prof. Yamazaki yesterday.

A prefix that expresses politeness.

The polite perfix お- is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to express the speaker's respect, modesty or politeness. お-Vますになる is an honorific polite expression and お-Vますする is a humble polite expression. お-Adj can be either an honorific polite expression, as in Exs. (a), (c)., and (d), or a simple polite expression, as in Ex. (b). お-cannot be attached to adjectives and nouns which begin with the お sound; foreign words; long words (じゃがいも 'potato'; じゃが 'potato'; ほうれん草 'spinach'). There are some exceptions to this rule. For example: お煙草 'tobacco'; ズボン 'trousers'; ビール 'beer'; ソース 'sauce'. These exceptions are words which have been part of the Japanese vocabulary long enough to sound like Japanese-origin words to native speakers. There are a few words which are always used with the polite prefix お or ご, for example: お腹 'stomach' and ご飯 'cooked rice, meal'.

a.田村先生は今とてもお忙しい。

たむらせんせいはいまとてもおいそがしい。

Prof. Tamura is very busy now.

It's hot day after day, isn't it?

c.上田先生はテニスがお上手です。

うえだせんせいはテニスがおじょうずです。

Prof. Ueda is good at tennis.

d.宮本さんの奥様はとても綺麗だ。

みやもとさんのおくさまはとてもきれいだ。

Mrs. Miyamoto is very pretty.

e.野村さんからお電話がありました。

のむらさんからおでんわがありました。

There was a phone call from Mr. Nomura.

c.今村さんはゴルフが[．．．]好きだ・好きです。

Mr. Imamura likes golf.

A prefix that expresses politeness.

The polite perfix お- is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to express the speaker's respect, modesty or politeness. お-Vますになる is an honorific polite expression and お-Vますする is a humble polite expression. お-Adj can be either an honorific polite expression, as in Exs. (a), (c)., and (d), or a simple polite expression, as in Ex. (b). お-cannot be attached to adjectives and nouns which begin with the お sound; foreign words; long words (じゃがいも 'potato'; じゃが 'potato'; ほうれん草 'spinach'). There are some exceptions to this rule. For example: お煙草 'tobacco'; ズボン 'trousers'; ビール 'beer'; ソース 'sauce'. These exceptions are words which have been part of the Japanese vocabulary long enough to sound like Japanese-origin words to native speakers. There are a few words which are always used with the polite prefix お or ご, for example: お腹 'stomach' and ご飯 'cooked rice, meal'.

a.田村先生は今とてもお忙しい。

たむらせんせいはいまとてもおいそがしい。

Prof. Tamura is very busy now.

It's hot day after day, isn't it?

c.上田先生はテニスがお上手です。

うえだせんせいはテニスがおじょうずです。

Prof. Ueda is good at tennis.

d.宮本さんの奥様はとても綺麗だ。

みやもとさんのおくさまはとてもきれいだ。

Mrs. Miyamoto is very pretty.

e.野村さんからお電話がありました。

のむらさんからおでんわがありました。

There was a phone call from Mr. Nomura.

d.[．．．]飲み物は何が宜しいです。

As for drinks, what would be good?

A prefix that expresses politeness.

The polite perfix お- is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to express the speaker's respect, modesty or politeness. お-Vますになる is an honorific polite expression and お-Vますする is a humble polite expression. お-Adj can be either an honorific polite expression, as in Exs. (a), (c)., and (d), or a simple polite expression, as in Ex. (b). お-cannot be attached to adjectives and nouns which begin with the お sound; foreign words; long words (じゃがいも 'potato'; じゃが 'potato'; ほうれん草 'spinach'). There are some exceptions to this rule. For example: お煙草 'tobacco'; ズボン 'trousers'; ビール 'beer'; ソース 'sauce'. These exceptions are words which have been part of the Japanese vocabulary long enough to sound like Japanese-origin words to native speakers. There are a few words which are always used with the polite prefix お or ご, for example: お腹 'stomach' and ご飯 'cooked rice, meal'.

a.田村先生は今とてもお忙しい。

たむらせんせいはいまとてもおいそがしい。

Prof. Tamura is very busy now.

It's hot day after day, isn't it?

c.上田先生はテニスがお上手です。

うえだせんせいはテニスがおじょうずです。

Prof. Ueda is good at tennis.

d.宮本さんの奥様はとても綺麗だ。

みやもとさんのおくさまはとてもきれいだ。

Mrs. Miyamoto is very pretty.

e.野村さんからお電話がありました。

のむらさんからおでんわがありました。

There was a phone call from Mr. Nomura.

a.私は[．．．]昼ご飯を食べた・食べました。

I have already eaten my lunch.

S.o. or s.t. is no longer in the same state that he/she or it was in some time ago. / (not) anymore; (not) any longer; already; yet; now

もう expresses the idea that someone or something is not in the same state he/she or it was in some time ago. Thus, もう corresponds to 'already' or 'now' in affirmative declarative sentences, 'yet' or 'already' in affirmative interrogative sentences, and '(not) anymore' or '(not) any longer' in negative sentences. The opposite concept of もう is expressed by まだ.

a.もう宿題をしましたか。 / はい、もうしました。

もうしゅくだいをしましたか。 / はい、もうしました。

Have you done your homework yet (or already)? / Yes, I 've already done it.

わたしはもうさけをのみません。

I won't drink sake any more.

はるおくんはもうだいじょうぶです。

Haruo is all right now.

b.ヒルさんは[．．．]日本語を勉強していない・いません。

ヒルさんはもうにほんごをべんきょうしていない・いません。

Mr. Hill is not studying Japanese any longer.

S.o. or s.t. is no longer in the same state that he/she or it was in some time ago. / (not) anymore; (not) any longer; already; yet; now

もう expresses the idea that someone or something is not in the same state he/she or it was in some time ago. Thus, もう corresponds to 'already' or 'now' in affirmative declarative sentences, 'yet' or 'already' in affirmative interrogative sentences, and '(not) anymore' or '(not) any longer' in negative sentences. The opposite concept of もう is expressed by まだ.

a.もう宿題をしましたか。 / はい、もうしました。

もうしゅくだいをしましたか。 / はい、もうしました。

Have you done your homework yet (or already)? / Yes, I 've already done it.

わたしはもうさけをのみません。

I won't drink sake any more.

はるおくんはもうだいじょうぶです。

Haruo is all right now.

a.木村さんは[．．．]昼ご飯を食べている・います。

きむらさんはまだひるごはんをたべている・います。

Mr. Kimura is still eating his lunch.

S.o. or s.t. is in some state he/she or it was in some time ago. / still; (not) yet

まだ expresses the idea that someone or something is in the same state that he/she or it was in some time ago. In affirmative sentences, まだ always corresponds to 'still'. In negative sentences, however, it corresponds to 'yet' when an action has not yet been taken, and 'still' in other situations, asn in Ex. (c). and KS(a), respectively.

Do you still have sake?

b.私はまだ日本へ行ったことがない。

わたしはまだにほんへいったことがない。

I have not been to Japan yet.

c.もう昼ご飯を食べましたか。 / いえ、まだ食べていません。・いい、まだです。

もうたごはんをたべましたか。 / いえ、まだたべていません。・いい、まだです。

Have you eaten your lunch yet? / No, I haven't eaten it yet. ・ No, not yet.

b.太田さんは[．．．]そのことを知らない・知りません。

おおたさんはまだそのことをしらない・しりません。

Mr. Ota still doesn't know about it.

S.o. or s.t. is in some state he/she or it was in some time ago. / still; (not) yet

まだ expresses the idea that someone or something is in the same state that he/she or it was in some time ago. In affirmative sentences, まだ always corresponds to 'still'. In negative sentences, however, it corresponds to 'yet' when an action has not yet been taken, and 'still' in other situations, asn in Ex. (c). and KS(a), respectively.

Do you still have sake?

b.私はまだ日本へ行ったことがない。

わたしはまだにほんへいったことがない。

I have not been to Japan yet.

c.もう昼ご飯を食べましたか。 / いえ、まだ食べていません。・いい、まだです。

もうたごはんをたべましたか。 / いえ、まだたべていません。・いい、まだです。

Have you eaten your lunch yet? / No, I haven't eaten it yet. ・ No, not yet.

a.これは先生[．．．]本だ・です。

This is my teacher's book.

A particle which, with the preceeding noun phrase, forms a phrase to modify a following noun phrase. / 's; of; in; at; for; by; from

Generally, の combines two noun phrases into a larger noun phrase. In AのB, Aの modifies B and indicates a specific member(s) of B among all the members of B. A and B in AのB relate to each other in various way, and these relationships are determined by context. In AのB, A is sometimes a noun phrase with a particle, as in KS(b). Note that の cannot be omitted in this case, because it indicates that the preceding noun phrase with a particle modifies the following noun phrase. Without の, the noun phrase with the predicate in the clause. The AのB construction can be extended as in AのBのCの[...]. In AのB, B can be omitted if it is apparent from the context. Examples: a. これは私の（本）です。 b. このレストランの（ステーキ）はよくありません。

a.私の本 / 学校の名前 / 今日の新聞

わたしのほん / がっこうのなまえ / きょうのしんぶん

my book / the name of the school / today's paper

にほんのてら / えきのでんわ

a temple in Japan / a telephone at the station

びじゅつのほん / にほんごのしけん

a book on fine arts / an exam on Japanese

d.桜の花 / 桃の木 / バスの切符 / 風邪の薬

さくらのはな / もものき / バスのきっぷ / かぜのくすり

a cherry blossom / a peach tree / a bus ticket / cold medicine

e.日本語の先生 / 音楽の学生

にほんごのせんせい / おんがくのがくせい

a teacher of Japanese / a student of music

b.これは友達から[．．．]手紙だ・です。

This is a letter from my friend.

A particle which, with the preceeding noun phrase, forms a phrase to modify a following noun phrase. / 's; of; in; at; for; by; from

Generally, の combines two noun phrases into a larger noun phrase. In AのB, Aの modifies B and indicates a specific member(s) of B among all the members of B. A and B in AのB relate to each other in various way, and these relationships are determined by context. In AのB, A is sometimes a noun phrase with a particle, as in KS(b). Note that の cannot be omitted in this case, because it indicates that the preceding noun phrase with a particle modifies the following noun phrase. Without の, the noun phrase with the predicate in the clause. The AのB construction can be extended as in AのBのCの[...]. In AのB, B can be omitted if it is apparent from the context. Examples: a. これは私の（本）です。 b. このレストランの（ステーキ）はよくありません。

a.私の本 / 学校の名前 / 今日の新聞

わたしのほん / がっこうのなまえ / きょうのしんぶん

my book / the name of the school / today's paper

にほんのてら / えきのでんわ

a temple in Japan / a telephone at the station

びじゅつのほん / にほんごのしけん

a book on fine arts / an exam on Japanese

d.桜の花 / 桃の木 / バスの切符 / 風邪の薬

さくらのはな / もものき / バスのきっぷ / かぜのくすり

a cherry blossom / a peach tree / a bus ticket / cold medicine

e.日本語の先生 / 音楽の学生

にほんごのせんせい / おんがくのがくせい

a teacher of Japanese / a student of music

a.私は大きい[．．．]を買った・買いました。

I bought a big one.

A dependent indefinite pronoun. / one

The indefinite pronoun の is a dependent pronoun; it cannot be used by itself. It must be modified by an adjective or a relative clause. の is used in place of a noun when what it refers to is clear from the context or the situation. Things referred to by の are not necessarily tangible. Example: (1) 今まで聞いたアイデアの中では田村君が言ったのが一番よさそうだ。(Among the ideas we've heard so far, the one Mr. Tamura told us seems the best.)

a.どんな車が欲しいですか。 / 小さいのが欲しいです。

どんなくるまがほしいですか。 / ちいさいのがほしいです。

What kind of car do you want? / I want a small one.

b.友達がワインを飲みたがったので昨日買ったのを出した。

ともだちがワインをのみたがったのできのうかったのをだした。

My friend wanted to drink wine, so I served the one I bought yesterday.

b.私は去年買った[．．．]を使った・使いました。

わたしはきょねんかったのをつかった・つかいました。

I used the one I bought last year.

A dependent indefinite pronoun. / one

The indefinite pronoun の is a dependent pronoun; it cannot be used by itself. It must be modified by an adjective or a relative clause. の is used in place of a noun when what it refers to is clear from the context or the situation. Things referred to by の are not necessarily tangible. Example: (1) 今まで聞いたアイデアの中では田村君が言ったのが一番よさそうだ。(Among the ideas we've heard so far, the one Mr. Tamura told us seems the best.)

a.どんな車が欲しいですか。 / 小さいのが欲しいです。

どんなくるまがほしいですか。 / ちいさいのがほしいです。

What kind of car do you want? / I want a small one.

b.友達がワインを飲みたがったので昨日買ったのを出した。

ともだちがワインをのみたがったのできのうかったのをだした。

My friend wanted to drink wine, so I served the one I bought yesterday.

a.日本語を教える[．．．]は難しい・難しいです。

にほんごをおしえるのはむずかしい・むずかしいです。

Teaching Japanese is difficult.

A nominalizer which is used when the nominalized sentence expresses a directly perceptible event. / that ~; to do s.t.; doing s.t.

の makes a noun equivalent from a sentence. KS(a) and Ex. (a) are examples of sentences where nominalized sentences are used in subject position, and KS(b) and Exs. (b) and (c). are examples where nominalized sentences are used as direct objects. A nominalized sentence can occur in any position where a noun phrase can appear, except in the position of B in “AはBだ”. In that situation, the nominalizer こと is used. Nominalized sentences are subordinate clauses, and, therefore, the topic marker は cannot occur. There is another nominalizer, こと. の and こと are sometimes mutually interchangeable. However, in general, の is used when the preceding clause expresses something rather concrete or perceptible, while こと is used when the preceding clause expresses something rather abstract or imperceptible. In KS(b), Ex. (b), for example, こと cannot be used because the nominalized clauses in these examples all express concrete, perceptible events.

a.日本語へ行くのは簡単です。

にほんごへいくのはかんたんです。

Going to Japan is easy.

b.私は小林さんがピアノを弾いているのを聞いた。

わたしはこばやしさんがピアノをひいているのをきいた。

I heard Ms. Kobayashi playing the piano.

c.クラークさんがフランスへ行くのを知っていますか。

クラークさんがフランスへいくのをしっていますか。

Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?

b.私は雪子さんがビールを飲む[．．．]を見た・見ました。

わたしはゆきこさんがビールをのむのをみた・みました。

I saw Yukiko drink beer.

A nominalizer which is used when the nominalized sentence expresses a directly perceptible event. / that ~; to do s.t.; doing s.t.

の makes a noun equivalent from a sentence. KS(a) and Ex. (a) are examples of sentences where nominalized sentences are used in subject position, and KS(b) and Exs. (b) and (c). are examples where nominalized sentences are used as direct objects. A nominalized sentence can occur in any position where a noun phrase can appear, except in the position of B in “AはBだ”. In that situation, the nominalizer こと is used. Nominalized sentences are subordinate clauses, and, therefore, the topic marker は cannot occur. There is another nominalizer, こと. の and こと are sometimes mutually interchangeable. However, in general, の is used when the preceding clause expresses something rather concrete or perceptible, while こと is used when the preceding clause expresses something rather abstract or imperceptible. In KS(b), Ex. (b), for example, こと cannot be used because the nominalized clauses in these examples all express concrete, perceptible events.

a.日本語へ行くのは簡単です。

にほんごへいくのはかんたんです。

Going to Japan is easy.

b.私は小林さんがピアノを弾いているのを聞いた。

わたしはこばやしさんがピアノをひいているのをきいた。

I heard Ms. Kobayashi playing the piano.

c.クラークさんがフランスへ行くのを知っていますか。

クラークさんがフランスへいくのをしっていますか。

Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?

a.何をしている[(abbreviated)/．．．/(polite)]。

What are you doing?

A sentence ending which indicates that the speaker is explaining or asking for an explanation about some information shared with the hearer, or is talking about something emotively, as if it were of common interest to the speaker and the hearer. / The explanation is that ~; The reason is that ~; The fact is that ~; It is that ~

In conversation, のだ・です often becomes んだ・です. In informal speech, male speakers use んだ and female speakers use の. Basically, S のだ is used when the speaker is explaining or asking for an explanation about information shared with the hearer. The information is often what the speaker and the hearer have observed or heard. For example, in KSs (a) A uses のです because he is asking for an explanation about what he sees B doing. B also uses のです because he is explaining his actions. In Ex. (a), as in KS, A uses んです because A observes that B isn't drinking sake and wants an explanation for that. And, B also uses んです because he is explaining about what A observed. In Ex. (b), the speaker uses んです in the second sentence because it is an explanation about the information which has been given in the first sentence. S のだ is also used when no information is shared by the speaker and the hearer and the speaker is not explaining or asking for an explanation about anything. In this case, the speaker is talking as if some information were shared with the hearer and the effects of this are for example, to involve the hearer in the affairs he is talking about and/or to impose his idea upon the hearer or, at least, to empathise his idea emotively.

a.どうしてお酒を飲まないんですか。 / 私はまだ十七なんです。

どうしておさけをのまないんですか。 / わたしはまだじゅうしちなんです。

Why don't you drink sake? / (The reason is that) I'm still seventeen.

b.僕は今日のパーティーに行けません。宿題が沢山あるんです。

ぼくはきょうのパーティーにいけません。しゅくだいがたくさんあるんです。

I can't go to today's party. I have a lot of homework.

c.あなたと結婚したいんです。

あなたとけっこんしたいんです。

I want to marry you.

b.日本語を勉強している[(abbreviated)/．．．/(polite)]。

I'm studying Japanese.

A sentence ending which indicates that the speaker is explaining or asking for an explanation about some information shared with the hearer, or is talking about something emotively, as if it were of common interest to the speaker and the hearer. / The explanation is that ~; The reason is that ~; The fact is that ~; It is that ~

In conversation, のだ・です often becomes んだ・です. In informal speech, male speakers use んだ and female speakers use の. Basically, S のだ is used when the speaker is explaining or asking for an explanation about information shared with the hearer. The information is often what the speaker and the hearer have observed or heard. For example, in KSs (a) A uses のです because he is asking for an explanation about what he sees B doing. B also uses のです because he is explaining his actions. In Ex. (a), as in KS, A uses んです because A observes that B isn't drinking sake and wants an explanation for that. And, B also uses んです because he is explaining about what A observed. In Ex. (b), the speaker uses んです in the second sentence because it is an explanation about the information which has been given in the first sentence. S のだ is also used when no information is shared by the speaker and the hearer and the speaker is not explaining or asking for an explanation about anything. In this case, the speaker is talking as if some information were shared with the hearer and the effects of this are for example, to involve the hearer in the affairs he is talking about and/or to impose his idea upon the hearer or, at least, to empathise his idea emotively.

a.どうしてお酒を飲まないんですか。 / 私はまだ十七なんです。

どうしておさけをのまないんですか。 / わたしはまだじゅうしちなんです。

Why don't you drink sake? / (The reason is that) I'm still seventeen.

b.僕は今日のパーティーに行けません。宿題が沢山あるんです。

ぼくはきょうのパーティーにいけません。しゅくだいがたくさんあるんです。

I can't go to today's party. I have a lot of homework.

c.あなたと結婚したいんです。

あなたとけっこんしたいんです。

I want to marry you.

お酒を沢山飲んだ[．．．]眠くなった・なりました。

おさけをたくさんのんだのでねむくなった・なりました。

Because I drank a lot of sake, I got sleepy.

A subordinate conjunction which expresses a reason or a cause. / so; since; because

Etymologically, ので is the てform of のだ. However, in modern Japanese it is used as a conjunction to indicate reason or cause.

a.宿題が沢山あるのでパーティー行けません。

しゅくだいがたくさんあるのでパーティーいけません。

Since I have a lot of homework, I can't do to the party.

b.その本は高かったので買わなかった。

そのほんはたかかったのでかわなかった。

Because that book was expensive, I didn't buy one.

c.私の部屋は静かなのでよく勉強出来ます。

わたしのへやはしずかなのでよくべんきょうできます。

My room is quiet, so I can study (there) well.

d.ジェーンはまだ中学生なので車を運転出来ない。

ジェーンはまだちゅうがくせいなのでくるまをうんてんできない。

Because Jane is still a junior high school student, she can't drive a car.

私は日本語[．．．]勉強している・います。

わたしはにほんごをべんきょうしている・います。

I'm studying Japanese.

A particle which marks a direct object.

を marks the direct object. It is noted, however, that the direct object in English is not always marked by を in Japanese. In some constructions, the direct object marker を can be replaced by the subject marker が. を cannot occur more than once in a clause, whether it is the direct object marker (i.e., を (1)) or the space marker (i.e., を (2)). Thus, in the causative construction, for example, the causee can be marked only by に if another element in the same clause is marked by を. If the direct object is presented as a topic or a constrastive element, を is replaced by は.

a.前田さんは昨日車を買った。

まえださんはきのうくるまをかった。

Mr. Maeda bought a car yesterday.

What will you drink?

私は五番街[．．．]歩いた・歩きました。

I walked along Fifth Avenue.

A particle which indicates a space in / on / across / through / along which s.o. or s.t. moves. / in; on; across; through; along; over

When a sentence involves the verb のぼる 'climb', there is an important difference between the use of the particle を and that of に, as seen in (1): (1) a. ドンは東京タワーをのぼった。 (Don scaled Tokyo Tower.) b. ドンは東京トワーニのぼった。 (Don went up Tokyo Tower.)

a.公園を通って帰りましょう。

こうえんをとおってかえりましょう。

Let's go home passing through the park.

b.鶴が湖の上を飛んでいます。

つるがみずうみのうえをとんでいます。

Cranes are flying over the lake.

c.日本では車は道の左側を走ります。

にほんではくるまはみちのひだりがわをはります。

In Japan cars drive on the left side of the street.

d.そこの交差点を右に曲がって下さい。

そこのこうさてんをみぎにまがってください。

Please turn to the right at the intersection there.

a.毎日漢字を勉強している[．．．]よく覚えられない・覚えられません。

まいにちかんじをべんきょうしているのによくおぼえられない・おぼえられません。

Although I'm studying kanji every day, I cannot memorize them well.

Contrary to everbody's expectation based on the sentence preceding [X], the proposition in the following [X] is the case. / even though; despite the fact that ~; although; but; in spite of the fact that ~

のに is the nominalizer の plus the particle に 'to', meaning 'in contrast to the fact that ~'. The のに clause expresses a highly presupposed, speaker-orientated action or state. In other words, the speaker of S(1) のに S(2) is personally involved with the proposition of S(1). This personal involvement tends to create some emotive overtone. In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is predictable, the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence expresses a feeling of discontent on the part of the speaker. (1) a. そんなもの要らないよ。 (I don't need that kind of stuff.) b. せっかく上げると言うのに。 (Although I'm kindly saying that I'll give it to you. / I'm saying I'll give it to you, you know.)

a.中学と高校で六年間も英語を勉強したのにまだ英語が話せません。

ちゅうがくとこうこうでろくじかんもえいごをべんきょうしたのにまだえいごがはなせません。

I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior high, but I still cannot speak it.

b.寒いのにオーパーを着ないで出かけた。

さむいのにオーパーをきないででかけた。

Although it was cold, he went out without wearing an overcoat.

c.あの人はピアノが上手なのにめったに弾きません。

あのひとはピアノがじょうずなのにめったにひきません。

He is good at piano, but seldom plays.

d.父は九十歳なのにまだ働いています。

ちちはきゅうじゅうさいなのにまだはたらいています。

My father is still working in spite of the fact that he is ninety years old.

b.このステーキは高い[．．．]美味しくない・美味しくありません。

このステーキはたかいのにおいしくない・おいしくありません。

In spite of the fact that steak is expensive, it isn't delicious.

Contrary to everbody's expectation based on the sentence preceding [X], the proposition in the following [X] is the case. / even though; despite the fact that ~; although; but; in spite of the fact that ~

のに is the nominalizer の plus the particle に 'to', meaning 'in contrast to the fact that ~'. The のに clause expresses a highly presupposed, speaker-orientated action or state. In other words, the speaker of S(1) のに S(2) is personally involved with the proposition of S(1). This personal involvement tends to create some emotive overtone. In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is predictable, the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence expresses a feeling of discontent on the part of the speaker. (1) a. そんなもの要らないよ。 (I don't need that kind of stuff.) b. せっかく上げると言うのに。 (Although I'm kindly saying that I'll give it to you. / I'm saying I'll give it to you, you know.)

a.中学と高校で六年間も英語を勉強したのにまだ英語が話せません。

ちゅうがくとこうこうでろくじかんもえいごをべんきょうしたのにまだえいごがはなせません。

I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior high, but I still cannot speak it.

b.寒いのにオーパーを着ないで出かけた。

さむいのにオーパーをきないででかけた。

Although it was cold, he went out without wearing an overcoat.

c.あの人はピアノが上手なのにめったに弾きません。

あのひとはピアノがじょうずなのにめったにひきません。

He is good at piano, but seldom plays.

d.父は九十歳なのにまだ働いています。

ちちはきゅうじゅうさいなのにまだはたらいています。

My father is still working in spite of the fact that he is ninety years old.

c.清水さんはゴルフが下手な[．．．]大好きだ・大好きです。

しみずさんはゴルフがへたなのにだいすきだ・だいすきです。

Although Mr. Shimizu is not good at golf, he loves it.

Contrary to everbody's expectation based on the sentence preceding [X], the proposition in the following [X] is the case. / even though; despite the fact that ~; although; but; in spite of the fact that ~

のに is the nominalizer の plus the particle に 'to', meaning 'in contrast to the fact that ~'. The のに clause expresses a highly presupposed, speaker-orientated action or state. In other words, the speaker of S(1) のに S(2) is personally involved with the proposition of S(1). This personal involvement tends to create some emotive overtone. In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is predictable, the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence expresses a feeling of discontent on the part of the speaker. (1) a. そんなもの要らないよ。 (I don't need that kind of stuff.) b. せっかく上げると言うのに。 (Although I'm kindly saying that I'll give it to you. / I'm saying I'll give it to you, you know.)

a.中学と高校で六年間も英語を勉強したのにまだ英語が話せません。

ちゅうがくとこうこうでろくじかんもえいごをべんきょうしたのにまだえいごがはなせません。

I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior high, but I still cannot speak it.

b.寒いのにオーパーを着ないで出かけた。

さむいのにオーパーをきないででかけた。

Although it was cold, he went out without wearing an overcoat.

c.あの人はピアノが上手なのにめったに弾きません。

あのひとはピアノがじょうずなのにめったにひきません。

He is good at piano, but seldom plays.

d.父は九十歳なのにまだ働いています。

ちちはきゅうじゅうさいなのにまだはたらいています。

My father is still working in spite of the fact that he is ninety years old.

d.ホールさんはアメリカ人な[．．．]肉が嫌いだ・嫌いです。

ホールさんはアメリカじんなのににくがきらいだ・きらいです。

In spite of the fact that Mr. Hall is an American, he doesn't like meat.

Contrary to everbody's expectation based on the sentence preceding [X], the proposition in the following [X] is the case. / even though; despite the fact that ~; although; but; in spite of the fact that ~

のに is the nominalizer の plus the particle に 'to', meaning 'in contrast to the fact that ~'. The のに clause expresses a highly presupposed, speaker-orientated action or state. In other words, the speaker of S(1) のに S(2) is personally involved with the proposition of S(1). This personal involvement tends to create some emotive overtone. In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is predictable, the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence expresses a feeling of discontent on the part of the speaker. (1) a. そんなもの要らないよ。 (I don't need that kind of stuff.) b. せっかく上げると言うのに。 (Although I'm kindly saying that I'll give it to you. / I'm saying I'll give it to you, you know.)

a.中学と高校で六年間も英語を勉強したのにまだ英語が話せません。

ちゅうがくとこうこうでろくじかんもえいごをべんきょうしたのにまだえいごがはなせません。

I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior high, but I still cannot speak it.

b.寒いのにオーパーを着ないで出かけた。

さむいのにオーパーをきないででかけた。

Although it was cold, he went out without wearing an overcoat.

c.あの人はピアノが上手なのにめったに弾きません。

あのひとはピアノがじょうずなのにめったにひきません。

He is good at piano, but seldom plays.

d.父は九十歳なのにまだ働いています。

ちちはきゅうじゅうさいなのにまだはたらいています。

My father is still working in spite of the fact that he is ninety years old.

a.先生[．．．]間違う・間違います。

Even a teacher makes mistakes.

The てform of です plus も “even”.

WH-word+でも yeilds the following meaning depending on which WH-word is used. 誰でも (no matter who it is; anyone); 何でも (no matter what it is; anything); いつでも (no matter when; anytime); どこれも (no matter where it is; any place); どれでも (no mater which it is).

a.子供でもそんなことは分かりますよ。

こどもでもそんなことはわかりますよ。

Even a child can understand that sort of thing.

b.お会いしたいんですが、日曜日でも構いませんか。

おあいしたいんですが、にちようびでもかまいませんか。

I'd like to see you, but it is all right to see you even on Sunday?

c.あの人は魚でも肉でも食べます。

あのひとはさかなでもにくでもたべます。

He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat.

b.私は難しい仕事[．．．]する・します。

I will even do a difficult job.

The てform of です plus も “even”.

WH-word+でも yeilds the following meaning depending on which WH-word is used. 誰でも (no matter who it is; anyone); 何でも (no matter what it is; anything); いつでも (no matter when; anytime); どこれも (no matter where it is; any place); どれでも (no mater which it is).

a.子供でもそんなことは分かりますよ。

こどもでもそんなことはわかりますよ。

Even a child can understand that sort of thing.

b.お会いしたいんですが、日曜日でも構いませんか。

おあいしたいんですが、にちようびでもかまいませんか。

I'd like to see you, but it is all right to see you even on Sunday?

c.あの人は魚でも肉でも食べます。

あのひとはさかなでもにくでもたべます。

He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat.

c.ここから[．．．]富士山が見える・見えます。

Even from here you can see Mt. Fuji.

The てform of です plus も “even”.

WH-word+でも yeilds the following meaning depending on which WH-word is used. 誰でも (no matter who it is; anyone); 何でも (no matter what it is; anything); いつでも (no matter when; anytime); どこれも (no matter where it is; any place); どれでも (no mater which it is).

a.子供でもそんなことは分かりますよ。

こどもでもそんなことはわかりますよ。

Even a child can understand that sort of thing.

b.お会いしたいんですが、日曜日でも構いませんか。

おあいしたいんですが、にちようびでもかまいませんか。

I'd like to see you, but it is all right to see you even on Sunday?

c.あの人は魚でも肉でも食べます。

あのひとはさかなでもにくでもたべます。

He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat.

A particle which marks a topic or a contrastive element. / talking about ~; as for ~; the

The origin of は can be traced to the conditional marker ば. However, in contemporary Japanese, は is used, in general, to mark information which the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer's register. In other words, when は marks X, the speaker usually assumes that the hears knows what X refers to. Thus, noun phrases which can be marked by は in ordinary circumstances are as follows: (A) common nouns whose referents have already been introduced into the discourse linguistically or extra-linguistically. It is noted that は never marks WH-words such as 何 'what' and 誰 'who'. More specifically, は marks a topic and /or a constrastive element. When は is used as a topic marker, as in XはY X is something the rest of the sentence (i.e., Y) is about, and the focus of the sentence falls on Y or part of Y. The topic Xは normally appears at the beginning of a sentence. When は is used in negative sentences, it markes the negated element. This is a special use of は as a contrastive marker.

a.ジョーンズさんは今日本語を勉強している。

ジョーンズさんはいまにほんごをべんきょうしている。

Mr. Jones is studying Japanese now.

b.この町には大学が二つある。

このまちにはだいがくがふたつある。

There are two universities in this town.

c.私はビールは飲みますが酒は飲みません。

わたしはビールはのみますがさけはのみません。

I drink beer but don't drink sake.

d.春子には人形を、秋子には絵本を上げた。

はるこにはにんぎょうを、あきこにはえほんをあげた。

I gave Haruko a doll and Akiko a picture book.

b.杉田さん[．．．]行きますが私[．．．]行きません。

Mr. Sugita will go (there) but I won't go.

A particle which marks a topic or a contrastive element. / talking about ~; as for ~; the

The origin of は can be traced to the conditional marker ば. However, in contemporary Japanese, は is used, in general, to mark information which the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer's register. In other words, when は marks X, the speaker usually assumes that the hears knows what X refers to. Thus, noun phrases which can be marked by は in ordinary circumstances are as follows: (A) common nouns whose referents have already been introduced into the discourse linguistically or extra-linguistically. It is noted that は never marks WH-words such as 何 'what' and 誰 'who'. More specifically, は marks a topic and /or a constrastive element. When は is used as a topic marker, as in XはY X is something the rest of the sentence (i.e., Y) is about, and the focus of the sentence falls on Y or part of Y. The topic Xは normally appears at the beginning of a sentence. When は is used in negative sentences, it markes the negated element. This is a special use of は as a contrastive marker.

a.ジョーンズさんは今日本語を勉強している。

ジョーンズさんはいまにほんごをべんきょうしている。

Mr. Jones is studying Japanese now.

b.この町には大学が二つある。

このまちにはだいがくがふたつある。

There are two universities in this town.

c.私はビールは飲みますが酒は飲みません。

わたしはビールはのみますがさけはのみません。

I drink beer but don't drink sake.

d.春子には人形を、秋子には絵本を上げた。

はるこにはにんぎょうを、あきこにはえほんをあげた。

I gave Haruko a doll and Akiko a picture book.

I, too, am a student.

A particle which indicates that a proposition about the preceding element X is also true when another similar proposition is true.

In general, when the element X も appears in a sentence, a related sentence with the element Y (plus partice if necessary) in place of X も is presupposed. For example, when a speaker states (1), a sentence like (2) is presupposed. (1) 私はニューヨークへも行った。(2)私はボストンへ行った。 Thus, when も appears in a sentence, X も is always the element under focus in that sentence. There are cases in which X も is used, although it does not exactly replace the element Y in the presupposed sentence. For example, (3b) can be spoken after (3a): (3) a. 私の家は居間が狭い。b.それに台所も不便だ。 In this case, the speaker implies that his house in inconvenient when he says (3a), and thus this implication is the presupposition of (3b), where the speaker elaborates on the inconvenience.

a.ハートさんは日本へ行った。ルイスさんも（日本へ）行った。

ハートさんはにほんへいった。ルイスさんも（にほんへ）いった。

Mr. Hart went to Japan. Mr. Lewis also went to Japan.

b.林さんはテニスとします。（彼は）ゴルフもします。

はやしさんはテニスとします。（かれは）ゴルフもします。

Mr. Hayashi plays tennis. He plays golf, too.

c.この町では新しい魚が買えません。隣の町でも（新しいか魚が）買えません。

このまちではあたらしいさかながかえません。となりのまちでも（あたらしいかさかなが）かえません。

You can't buy fresh fish in this town. You can't buy it in the next town, either.

b.私はスペイン語[．．．]話す・話します。

I speak Spanish, too.

A particle which indicates that a proposition about the preceding element X is also true when another similar proposition is true.

In general, when the element X も appears in a sentence, a related sentence with the element Y (plus partice if necessary) in place of X も is presupposed. For example, when a speaker states (1), a sentence like (2) is presupposed. (1) 私はニューヨークへも行った。(2)私はボストンへ行った。 Thus, when も appears in a sentence, X も is always the element under focus in that sentence. There are cases in which X も is used, although it does not exactly replace the element Y in the presupposed sentence. For example, (3b) can be spoken after (3a): (3) a. 私の家は居間が狭い。b.それに台所も不便だ。 In this case, the speaker implies that his house in inconvenient when he says (3a), and thus this implication is the presupposition of (3b), where the speaker elaborates on the inconvenience.

a.ハートさんは日本へ行った。ルイスさんも（日本へ）行った。

ハートさんはにほんへいった。ルイスさんも（にほんへ）いった。

Mr. Hart went to Japan. Mr. Lewis also went to Japan.

b.林さんはテニスとします。（彼は）ゴルフもします。

はやしさんはテニスとします。（かれは）ゴルフもします。

Mr. Hayashi plays tennis. He plays golf, too.

c.この町では新しい魚が買えません。隣の町でも（新しいか魚が）買えません。

このまちではあたらしいさかながかえません。となりのまちでも（あたらしいかさかなが）かえません。

You can't buy fresh fish in this town. You can't buy it in the next town, either.

c.私は村山さんに[．．．]プレゼントを上げる・上げます。

わたしはむらやまさんにもプレゼントをあげる・あげます。

I will give a present to Mr. Murayama, too.

A particle which indicates that a proposition about the preceding element X is also true when another similar proposition is true.

In general, when the element X も appears in a sentence, a related sentence with the element Y (plus partice if necessary) in place of X も is presupposed. For example, when a speaker states (1), a sentence like (2) is presupposed. (1) 私はニューヨークへも行った。(2)私はボストンへ行った。 Thus, when も appears in a sentence, X も is always the element under focus in that sentence. There are cases in which X も is used, although it does not exactly replace the element Y in the presupposed sentence. For example, (3b) can be spoken after (3a): (3) a. 私の家は居間が狭い。b.それに台所も不便だ。 In this case, the speaker implies that his house in inconvenient when he says (3a), and thus this implication is the presupposition of (3b), where the speaker elaborates on the inconvenience.

a.ハートさんは日本へ行った。ルイスさんも（日本へ）行った。

ハートさんはにほんへいった。ルイスさんも（にほんへ）いった。

Mr. Hart went to Japan. Mr. Lewis also went to Japan.

b.林さんはテニスとします。（彼は）ゴルフもします。

はやしさんはテニスとします。（かれは）ゴルフもします。

Mr. Hayashi plays tennis. He plays golf, too.

c.この町では新しい魚が買えません。隣の町でも（新しいか魚が）買えません。

このまちではあたらしいさかながかえません。となりのまちでも（あたらしいかさかなが）かえません。

You can't buy fresh fish in this town. You can't buy it in the next town, either.

お母さんは[．．．]〈ですか〉。

How's your mother?

An interrogative adverb which asks about the state of someone/something or the way of doing something.

The polite version of どう is いかが. In very informal speech ですか is omitted after どう or いかが. どう and いかが are also used to offer or suggest something, as in Exs. (b) and (c). In this case, どう or いかが are asking about the state of the hearer's mind regarding the offer or suggestion rather that about the state of what is being offered or suggested. どう is also used to ask the way of doing something. The idiomatic expression どうして 'lit. doing what' is used to ask manners, reasons or causes.

a.新しいアパートはどうですか。

あたらしいアパートはどうですか。

How's your new apartment?

How is the coffee?/Would you like coffee?/How about coffee?

How about Saturday?

東京からサンフランシスコまで飛行機で九時間[．．．]かかる・かかります。

とうきょうからサンフランシスコまでひこうきでくじかんくらいかかる・かかります。

It's about nine hours by plane from Tokyo to San Francisco.

Approximate quanitity or extent. / appromixmately; about

くらい may be freely replaced by ぐらい without a change in meaning.

a.その車は幾らぐらいでしたか。 / 百五十万円くらいでした。

そのくるまはいくらぐらいでしたか。 / ごひゃくじゅうまんえんくらいでした。

About how much was that car? / It was about 1,500,000 yen.

b.スミスさんは京都に四ヶ月くらい行っていました。

スミスさんはきょうとによんかげつくらいいっていました。

Mr. Smith was in Kyoto for about four months.

c.山田さんぐらい英語が出来れば楽しいでしょうね。

やまださんぐらいえいごができればたのしいでしょうね。

It must be fun to be able to speak English as well as Mr. Yamada (lit. to the extent of Mr. Yamada).

d.私だったそれくらいのことは分かりますよ。

わたしだったそれくらいのことはわかりますよ。

Even I can understand that sort of thing (lit. things of that extent).

私は先週京都[．．．]旅行に行った行きました。

わたしはせんしゅうきょうとへりょこうにいったいきました。

I went on a trip to Kyouto last week.

A particle that indicates the direction toward which some directional movement or action proceeds.

a.私は札幌のうちへ飛行機で帰った。

わたしはさっぽろのうちへひこうきでかえった。

I went back home to Sapporo by plane.

b.地震だったのでいそいで外へ出た。

じしんだったのでいそいでそとへでた。

It was an earthquake, so I went outside quickly.

c.父へ手紙を出したが、まだ返事が来ない。

ちちへてがみをだしたが、まだへんじがこない。

I sent a letter to my father, but his reply has not come yet.

車が動き[past/past polite]。

The car started to move.

Something that has been latent is realized.

だす in Vます+だす is used as an auxiliary verb. When it is used as a full verb, it means 'cause something to become visible'. Vます+だす is normally ambiguous; one meaning is '~ out' and the other is 'begin to ~'. Thus, 作り出す・つくりだす means 'turn out' or 'begin to make'. Vます+終わる・おわる 'finish ~ing' is an antonym of Vます+だす/始める・はじめる.

Suddenly it began to rain.

b.一歳になって初めて歩き出した。

いっさいになってはじめてあるきだした。

He started to walk only after he became a year old.

c.そのアイディアは誰が考え出したんですか。

そのアイディアはだれがかんがえだしたんですか。

Who thought out that idea?

d.一時間ぐらいかけてとうとうその本屋を探し出した。

いちじかんぐらいかけてとうとうそのほんやをさがしだした。

After spending about an hour, I finally located that bookstore.

私達は喫茶店[．．．]コーヒーを飲んだ・飲みました。

わたしたちはきっさてんでコーヒーをのんだ・のみました。

We drank coffee at a coffee shop.

A particle which indicates location, expect for the location of existence.

に (4)；に (6)；を (2)

で (1) cannot be used to indicate location of existence. However, if the existential verb ある (inanimate things) exit' occurs with an event, で is used.

a.ゆり子はデパートで働いています。

ゆり子はデパートではたらいています。

Yuriko is working at a department store.

b.オーストラリアでは十二月は夏だ。

オーストラリアではじゅうにがつはなつだ。

In Australia it is summer in December.

c.島崎さんは日本では元気でした。

しまざきさんはにほんではげんきでした。

Mr. Shimazaki was healthy in Japan.

d.ヘレンは始めて舞台で歌った。

ヘレンははじめてぶたいでうたった。

Helen sang on the stage for the first time.

パーティーは八時[．．．]始まる・始まります。

パーティーははちじからはじまる・はじまります。

The party starts from eight o'clock.

A particle which indicates a starting point or a source.

から basically indicates a temporal or spatial starting point (Exs. (a), (b) and (c).) or a source (Exs (d), (e)) As seen in (d) and (e), a source can be a person, material, a cause or a reason.

a.今日の授業は一時から三時までです。

きょうのじゅぎょうはいちじからさんじまでです。

Today's class is from one o'clock till three o'clock.

b.このバスはニューヨークから来た。

このバスはニューヨークからきた。

This bus came from New York.

c.このから富士山が見えるよ。

You can see Mt. Fuji from here.

d.そのタイプライターは誰から借りたんですか。

そのタイプライターはだれからかりたんですか。

Who did you borrow the typewriter from?

Sake is made out of rice.

雪子は晩ご飯を食べて[．．．]映画に行った・行きました。

ゆきこはばんごはんをたべてからえいがにいった・いきました。

After eating her supper, Yukiko went to a movie.

After/since a point in time at which s.t. takes place.

あとで；てform of verb

Vてから S meaning “S after doing s.t.' or 'S since ~ did s.t.'. The usage of から (2) is an extended use of から (1). てから is not to be confused with たから in which から is used as a conjunction of cause/reason. (1) a. ジョギングをしてからシャワーを浴びた。 (after jogging I took a shower) b. ジョギングをしたからシャワーを浴びた。 (because I jogged, I took a shower)

a.私は友達に電話してから家を出た。

わたしはともだちにでんわしてからうちをでた。

I left home after making a call to my friend.

b.ジョーンズさんはいつもシャワーを浴びてから寝ます。

ジョーンズさんはいつもシャワーをあびてからめます。

Mr. Jones always goes to bed after taking a shower.

c.私達がこの家を買ってからもう十年になる。

わたしたちがこのいえをかってからもうじゅうねんになる。

It's already been ten years since we bought this house.

d.二年に交通事故を起こしてから、ミラーさんは車に乗らない用にしています。

にねんにこうつうじこをおこしてから、ミラーさんはくるまにのらないようにしています。

Since he caused a traffic accident two years ago, Mr. Miller has been trying not to drive a car.

マイク[．．．]ディック[．．．]は学生だ・です。

Mike and Dick are students.

A particle which lists things exhaustively. / and

と is used to list things exhaustively. The final と is usally omitted, but the others are not. Thus, “A,B,C and D” is usually expressed as “AとBとCとD”. と connects noun phrases only. Thus, it cannot be used for 'and' in sentences. “N(1)とN(2)(とN(3)．．．)” is a noun phrase; it can occur anywhere nouns can occur. When N(1)とN(2) is used as the subject of a sentence, the sentence may be ambiguous. In Ex. (d), for example, without any adequate context we cannot tell if Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis together. If the predicate contains reciprocal words such as 似る 'resemble', 同じだ 'be the same' and 結婚する 'marry', however, sentences with “N(1)とN(2)” in the subject position are not ambiguous, as seen in Ex. (e).

わたしはえいごとにほんごをはなす。

I speak English and Japanese.

b.ミルズさんは来年ドイツとフランスとスペインへ行く積もりだ。

ミルズさんはらいねんドイツとフランスとスペインへいくつもりだ。

Mr. Mills is planning to go to Germany, France and Spain next year.

c.ステーキはナイフとフォークで食べる。

ステーキはナイフとフォークでたべる。

We eat steak with a knife and fork.

d.山本さんとスミスさんがテニスをしている。

やまもとさんとスミスさんがテニスをしている。

Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis.

e.日本語とトルコ語は似ている。

にほんごとトルコごはにている。

Japanese and Turkish are alike.

私はアンディー[．．．]一緒にパーティーに行った・行きました。

わたしはアンディーといっしょうにパーティーにいった・いきました。

I went to a party (together) with Andy.

A particle marking the NP which maintains a reciprocal relationship with the subject of a clause. / with; as; from

When Y is the subject of a clause, Xと indicates that X and Y have a reciprocal relationship. For example, in Ex. (a), the fact that Tom often plays tennis with John necessarily means that John often plays tennis with Tom; in other words, it means that they have a reciprocal relationship. Thus, と often corresponds to the English 'with', as in 'in the company of'. と also appears with such reciprocal verbs and adjectives as 結婚する 'marry', 喧嘩する 'quarrel', 話し合う 'discuss with', 似る 'resemble', 違う 'differ' and 同じだ 'be the same'. (See Exs. (b), (c). and (d).) In reciprocal sentences, the subject and X in Xと are interchangeable. For example, Ex. (b) can be restated as (1) みどりは一郎と結婚した。 (Midori married Ichiro) Ex. (b) is described from Ichiro's point of view, while (1) is described from Midori's point of view.

a.トムはジョンとよくテニスをする。

トムはジョンとよくテニスをする。

Tom often plays tennis with John.

いちろうはみどりとけっこんした。

Ichiro married Midori.

c.この車は僕の車と同じです。

このくるまはぼくのくるまとおなじです。

This car is the same as my car.

d.日本のきゅうりはアメリカのきゅうりと少し違います。

にほんごのきゅうりはアメリカのきゅうりとすこしちがいます。

Japanese cucumbers are a little different from American ones.

a.ジムは日本へ行[．．．]勉強した・勉強しました。

ジムはにほんへいってべんきょうした・べんきょうしました。

Jim went to Japan and studied (there).

The てform ending of verbs and いtype adjectives (The てform ending of なtype adjectives and the てform of the copular is で.) / and; -ing

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

b.ここのステーキは安く[．．．]美味しい・美味しいです。

ここのステーキはやすくておいしい・おいしいです。

Steaks here are inexpensive and delicious.

The てform ending of verbs and いtype adjectives (The てform ending of なtype adjectives and the てform of the copular is で.) / and; -ing

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

c.このアパートは静か[．．．]いい・いいです。

This apartment is quiet and good.

The てform ending of verbs and いtype adjectives (The てform ending of なtype adjectives and the てform of the copular is で.) / and; -ing

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

d.私の父は先生[．．．]高校で英語を教えている・います。

わたしのちちはせんせいでこうこうでえいごをおしえている・います。

My father is a teacher and teaches English at senior high school.

The てform ending of verbs and いtype adjectives (The てform ending of なtype adjectives and the てform of the copular is で.) / and; -ing

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

a.スミスさん[．．．]〈が〉来た・来ました。

Only Mr. Smith came.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

b.私は日本へ一度[．．．]行った・行きました。

わたしはにほんへいちどだけいった・いきました。

I went to Japan only once.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

c.雪子さんとはデートした[．．．]だ・です。

I just dated Yukiko, that's all.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

d.この家は大きい[．．．]だ・です。

This house is big, that's all.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

e.このお菓子は色が綺麗な[．．．]だ・です。

This cake has pretty colours, that's all.

A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding.

When だけ modifers a preceding noun, as in Exs. (a), (b), (c)., and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, expect for the particles が,を, and は, which can optionally used only after だけ. The optional positionings of the particles other than が, を, and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is place on the particle, yeilding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of N+Prt+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of N+だけ+Prt.

a.佐藤さんだけ〈が〉会議に出ました。

さとうさんだけ〈が〉かいぎにでました。

Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.

b.小さい和英辞典だけ〈を〉買いました。

ちいさいわえいじてんだけ〈を〉かいました。

I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.

c.僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。

ぼくにだけ・だけにはなしてください。

Please tell it only to me/to me alone.

d.この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きまし。

このくるまはアルコールでだけ・だけでうごきまし。

This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else.

e.あの先生には一度だけ会いました。

あのせんせいにはいちどだけあいました。

I met that professor only once.

a.ジムは日本へ行[．．．]勉強した・勉強しました。

ジムはにほんへいってべんきょうした・べんきょうしました。

Jim went to Japan and studied (there).

The てform ending of verbs and いtype adjectives (The てform ending of なtype adjectives and the てform of the copular is で.) / and; -ing

The てform functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the last element of the predicate of a clause is the てform, it means that that clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate or clause follows it. For example, in Ex.(b) the last element of the predicate of the first clause if 過ぎて, the てform of 過ぎる 'do s.t. too much', and 過ぎて is followed by another clause 頭が痛い 'lit(my) head aches'. The meaning of the てform varies according to context, but generally, it corresponds to and or -ing in participial constructions. When the てform links two predicates, the relationship the two is often one of following: A(1): the action or state expressed by the first predicate; A(2): the action or state expressed by the second predicate. The てform can be repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the particle と (1) makes an exhaustive listing of nouns, the てform can list verbs and adjectives exhaustively. てform verbs are also used with such expressions as いる (2) 'be doing ~', から 'after' and はいけない 'must not do ~'.

a.私はコートを脱いでハンガーに掛けた。

わたしはコートをぬいでハンガーにかけた。

Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.

b.ワインを飲み過ぎて頭が痛い。

ワインをのみすぎてあたまがいたい。

I've drunk too much wine and have a headache.

わたしのへやはせまくてくらい。

My room is small and dark.

d.このスープは辛くて飲めない。

このスープはからくてのめない。

This soup is salty (or (spicy) hot) and I can't drink it.

e.私はテニスが大好きでよく友達とする。

わたしはテニスがだいすきでよくともだちとする。

I love tennis and often play with my friends.

b.ここのステーキは安く[．．．]美味しい・美味しいです。

ここのステーキはやすくておいしい・おいしいです。

Steaks here are inexpensive and delicious.

The てform ending of verbs and いtype adjectives (The てform ending of なtype adjectives and the てform of the copular is で.) / and; -ing

The てform functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the last element of the predicate of a clause is the てform, it means that that clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate or clause follows it. For example, in Ex.(b) the last element of the predicate of the first clause if 過ぎて, the てform of 過ぎる 'do s.t. too much', and 過ぎて is followed by another clause 頭が痛い 'lit(my) head aches'. The meaning of the てform varies according to context, but generally, it corresponds to and or -ing in participial constructions. When the てform links two predicates, the relationship the two is often one of following: A(1): the action or state expressed by the first predicate; A(2): the action or state expressed by the second predicate. The てform can be repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the particle と (1) makes an exhaustive listing of nouns, the てform can list verbs and adjectives exhaustively. てform verbs are also used with such expressions as いる (2) 'be doing ~', から 'after' and はいけない 'must not do ~'.

a.私はコートを脱いでハンガーに掛けた。

わたしはコートをぬいでハンガーにかけた。

Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.

b.ワインを飲み過ぎて頭が痛い。

ワインをのみすぎてあたまがいたい。

I've drunk too much wine and have a headache.

わたしのへやはせまくてくらい。

My room is small and dark.

d.このスープは辛くて飲めない。

このスープはからくてのめない。

This soup is salty (or (spicy) hot) and I can't drink it.

e.私はテニスが大好きでよく友達とする。

わたしはテニスがだいすきでよくともだちとする。

I love tennis and often play with my friends.

c.このアパートは静か[．．．]いい・いいです。

This apartment is quiet and good.

The てform ending of verbs and いtype adjectives (The てform ending of なtype adjectives and the てform of the copular is で.) / and; -ing

The てform functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the last element of the predicate of a clause is the てform, it means that that clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate or clause follows it. For example, in Ex.(b) the last element of the predicate of the first clause if 過ぎて, the てform of 過ぎる 'do s.t. too much', and 過ぎて is followed by another clause 頭が痛い 'lit(my) head aches'. The meaning of the てform varies according to context, but generally, it corresponds to and or -ing in participial constructions. When the てform links two predicates, the relationship the two is often one of following: A(1): the action or state expressed by the first predicate; A(2): the action or state expressed by the second predicate. The てform can be repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the particle と (1) makes an exhaustive listing of nouns, the てform can list verbs and adjectives exhaustively. てform verbs are also used with such expressions as いる (2) 'be doing ~', から 'after' and はいけない 'must not do ~'.

a.私はコートを脱いでハンガーに掛けた。

わたしはコートをぬいでハンガーにかけた。

Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.

b.ワインを飲み過ぎて頭が痛い。

ワインをのみすぎてあたまがいたい。

I've drunk too much wine and have a headache.

わたしのへやはせまくてくらい。

My room is small and dark.

d.このスープは辛くて飲めない。

このスープはからくてのめない。

This soup is salty (or (spicy) hot) and I can't drink it.

e.私はテニスが大好きでよく友達とする。

わたしはテニスがだいすきでよくともだちとする。

I love tennis and often play with my friends.

d.私の父は先生[．．．]高校で英語を教えている・います。

わたしのちちはせんせいでこうこうでえいごをおしえている・います。

My father is a teacher and teaches English at senior high school.

The てform ending of verbs and いtype adjectives (The てform ending of なtype adjectives and the てform of the copular is で.) / and; -ing

The てform functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the last element of the predicate of a clause is the てform, it means that that clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate or clause follows it. For example, in Ex.(b) the last element of the predicate of the first clause if 過ぎて, the てform of 過ぎる 'do s.t. too much', and 過ぎて is followed by another clause 頭が痛い 'lit(my) head aches'. The meaning of the てform varies according to context, but generally, it corresponds to and or -ing in participial constructions. When the てform links two predicates, the relationship the two is often one of following: A(1): the action or state expressed by the first predicate; A(2): the action or state expressed by the second predicate. The てform can be repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the particle と (1) makes an exhaustive listing of nouns, the てform can list verbs and adjectives exhaustively. てform verbs are also used with such expressions as いる (2) 'be doing ~', から 'after' and はいけない 'must not do ~'.

a.私はコートを脱いでハンガーに掛けた。

わたしはコートをぬいでハンガーにかけた。

Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.

b.ワインを飲み過ぎて頭が痛い。

ワインをのみすぎてあたまがいたい。

I've drunk too much wine and have a headache.

わたしのへやはせまくてくらい。

My room is small and dark.

d.このスープは辛くて飲めない。

このスープはからくてのめない。

This soup is salty (or (spicy) hot) and I can't drink it.

e.私はテニスが大好きでよく友達とする。

わたしはテニスがだいすきでよくともだちとする。

I love tennis and often play with my friends.

a.田中さん[．．．]中山さん[．．．]デパートに勤めている・います。

たかなさんもなかやまさんもデパートにつとめている・います。

Both Mr. Tanaka and Mr. Nakayama are working for a department store.

The reapeated use of a particle meaning 'also' to list elements belonging to the same part of speech. / both ~ and ~; neither ~ nor

Nounも Nounも can be used as the subject as in Ex. (a), as the direct object as in Ex. (b), as in the indirect as in Ex. (c). or in any other way in which a regular noun phrase is used. Although Nounも Nounも can be an indefinitely long noun phrase, normally Nounも is not repeated more than three or four times. The predicate that corresponds to the Nounも Nounも phrase can be affirmative as in Exs. (a) and (c). or negative as in Exs. (b), (d), and (e).

a.日本人もアメリカ人もよく働く。

にほんじんもアメリカじんもよくはたらく。

Both Japanese and Americans work hard.

b.山川さんは酒も煙草もやりません。

やまわかさんはさけもたばこもやりません。

Mr. Yamakawa neither drinks nor smokes.

c.弟にも妹にも本を買ってやりました。

おとうとにもいもうとにもほんをかってやりました。

I bought books for both my younger brother and sister.

d.和枝は美人でも不美人でもない。

かずえはびじんでもふびじんでもない。

Kazue is neither beautiful nor ugly.

e.この建物は綺麗でも立派でもありません。

このたてものはきれいでもりっぱでもありません。

This building is neither pretty nor magnificent.

b.京都へはバスで[．．．]電車で[．．．]行ける・行けます。

きょうとへはバスでもでんしゃでもいける・いけます。

We can go to Kyoto by both bus and electric train.

The reapeated use of a particle meaning 'also' to list elements belonging to the same part of speech. / both ~ and ~; neither ~ nor

Nounも Nounも can be used as the subject as in Ex. (a), as the direct object as in Ex. (b), as in the indirect as in Ex. (c). or in any other way in which a regular noun phrase is used. Although Nounも Nounも can be an indefinitely long noun phrase, normally Nounも is not repeated more than three or four times. The predicate that corresponds to the Nounも Nounも phrase can be affirmative as in Exs. (a) and (c). or negative as in Exs. (b), (d), and (e).

a.日本人もアメリカ人もよく働く。

にほんじんもアメリカじんもよくはたらく。

Both Japanese and Americans work hard.

b.山川さんは酒も煙草もやりません。

やまわかさんはさけもたばこもやりません。

Mr. Yamakawa neither drinks nor smokes.

c.弟にも妹にも本を買ってやりました。

おとうとにもいもうとにもほんをかってやりました。

I bought books for both my younger brother and sister.

d.和枝は美人でも不美人でもない。

かずえはびじんでもふびじんでもない。

Kazue is neither beautiful nor ugly.

e.この建物は綺麗でも立派でもありません。

このたてものはきれいでもりっぱでもありません。

This building is neither pretty nor magnificent.

c.このうちは広く[．．．]狭く[．．．]ない・ありません。

This house is neither big nor small.

The reapeated use of a particle meaning 'also' to list elements belonging to the same part of speech. / both ~ and ~; neither ~ nor

Nounも Nounも can be used as the subject as in Ex. (a), as the direct object as in Ex. (b), as in the indirect as in Ex. (c). or in any other way in which a regular noun phrase is used. Although Nounも Nounも can be an indefinitely long noun phrase, normally Nounも is not repeated more than three or four times. The predicate that corresponds to the Nounも Nounも phrase can be affirmative as in Exs. (a) and (c). or negative as in Exs. (b), (d), and (e).

a.日本人もアメリカ人もよく働く。

にほんじんもアメリカじんもよくはたらく。

Both Japanese and Americans work hard.

b.山川さんは酒も煙草もやりません。

やまわかさんはさけもたばこもやりません。

Mr. Yamakawa neither drinks nor smokes.

c.弟にも妹にも本を買ってやりました。

おとうとにもいもうとにもほんをかってやりました。

I bought books for both my younger brother and sister.

d.和枝は美人でも不美人でもない。

かずえはびじんでもふびじんでもない。

Kazue is neither beautiful nor ugly.

e.この建物は綺麗でも立派でもありません。

このたてものはきれいでもりっぱでもありません。

This building is neither pretty nor magnificent.

a.今日はテニスもした[．．．]、映画も見た・見ました。

きょうはテニスもしたし、えいがもみた・みました。

I not only played tennis but also saw a movie today.

A conjuntion to indicated 'and' in an emphatic way. / and what's more; not only ~ but also ~; so

As in Ex. (a), し can be repeated more than once in a clause, just like Vて '~and' can be repeated. There are times when a sentence ends with し in order to weaken the sentence and obscure the cause/reason: (1) a. 明日えいがに行きませんか。 b. 　えっ、明日ですか。明日は試験があるし、．．． When the speaker wished to be very polite, the clause before し can be in the formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in: (2) 今日は天気もいいですし、どこかへ行きましょうか。

a.仕事もあったし、結婚もできたし、とても嬉しいです。

しごともあったし、けっこんもできたし、とてもうれしいです。

Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I'm very happy.

b.今日は天気もいいし、どこへ行きましょうか。

きょうはてんきもいいし、どこへいきましょうか。

It's a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?

c.あの人は美人だし、頭もいい。

あのひとはびじんだし、あたまもいい。

She's beautiful and what's more she's bright.

d.切符は買ってあるし、是非見に行きましょう。

きっぷはかってあるし、ぜひみにいきましょう。

I've bought a ticket for you, so let's go see it, by all means.

b.ここは夏は暑い[．．．]、冬は寒い・寒いです。

ここはなつはあついし、ふゆはさむい・さむいです。

Here it's hot in the summer, and what's more, it's cold in the winter.

A conjuntion to indicated 'and' in an emphatic way. / and what's more; not only ~ but also ~; so

As in Ex. (a), し can be repeated more than once in a clause, just like Vて '~and' can be repeated. There are times when a sentence ends with し in order to weaken the sentence and obscure the cause/reason: (1) a. 明日えいがに行きませんか。 b. 　えっ、明日ですか。明日は試験があるし、．．． When the speaker wished to be very polite, the clause before し can be in the formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in: (2) 今日は天気もいいですし、どこかへ行きましょうか。

a.仕事もあったし、結婚もできたし、とても嬉しいです。

しごともあったし、けっこんもできたし、とてもうれしいです。

Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I'm very happy.

b.今日は天気もいいし、どこへ行きましょうか。

きょうはてんきもいいし、どこへいきましょうか。

It's a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?

c.あの人は美人だし、頭もいい。

あのひとはびじんだし、あたまもいい。

She's beautiful and what's more she's bright.

d.切符は買ってあるし、是非見に行きましょう。

きっぷはかってあるし、ぜひみにいきましょう。

I've bought a ticket for you, so let's go see it, by all means.

c.このアパートは綺麗だ[．．．]、安い・安いです。

このアパートはきれいだし、やすい・やすいです。

This apartment is clean, and what's more, it's inexpensive.

A conjuntion to indicated 'and' in an emphatic way. / and what's more; not only ~ but also ~; so

As in Ex. (a), し can be repeated more than once in a clause, just like Vて '~and' can be repeated. There are times when a sentence ends with し in order to weaken the sentence and obscure the cause/reason: (1) a. 明日えいがに行きませんか。 b. 　えっ、明日ですか。明日は試験があるし、．．． When the speaker wished to be very polite, the clause before し can be in the formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in: (2) 今日は天気もいいですし、どこかへ行きましょうか。

a.仕事もあったし、結婚もできたし、とても嬉しいです。

しごともあったし、けっこんもできたし、とてもうれしいです。

Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I'm very happy.

b.今日は天気もいいし、どこへ行きましょうか。

きょうはてんきもいいし、どこへいきましょうか。

It's a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?

c.あの人は美人だし、頭もいい。

あのひとはびじんだし、あたまもいい。

She's beautiful and what's more she's bright.

d.切符は買ってあるし、是非見に行きましょう。

きっぷはかってあるし、ぜひみにいきましょう。

I've bought a ticket for you, so let's go see it, by all means.

d.遊びたいんです・だが明日は試験だ[．．．]遊べない・遊べません。

あそびたいんです・だがあしたはしけんだしあそべない・あそべません。

I would like ot play, but there is an exam tomorrow, and I can't fool around.

A conjuntion to indicated 'and' in an emphatic way. / and what's more; not only ~ but also ~; so

As in Ex. (a), し can be repeated more than once in a clause, just like Vて '~and' can be repeated. There are times when a sentence ends with し in order to weaken the sentence and obscure the cause/reason: (1) a. 明日えいがに行きませんか。 b. 　えっ、明日ですか。明日は試験があるし、．．． When the speaker wished to be very polite, the clause before し can be in the formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in: (2) 今日は天気もいいですし、どこかへ行きましょうか。

a.仕事もあったし、結婚もできたし、とても嬉しいです。

しごともあったし、けっこんもできたし、とてもうれしいです。

Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I'm very happy.

b.今日は天気もいいし、どこへ行きましょうか。

きょうはてんきもいいし、どこへいきましょうか。

It's a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?

c.あの人は美人だし、頭もいい。

あのひとはびじんだし、あたまもいい。

She's beautiful and what's more she's bright.

d.切符は買ってあるし、是非見に行きましょう。

きっぷはかってあるし、ぜひみにいきましょう。

I've bought a ticket for you, so let's go see it, by all means.

私は日本語の新聞を読む[．．．]辞書を使う・使います。

わたしはにほんごのしんぶんをよむのにじしょをつかう・つかいます。

I used a dictionary to read Japanese newspapers.

In the process or for the purpose of doing s.t. expressed in the の-nominalized clause. / in the process of doing ~; (in order) to do ~; for the purpose of ~

に (5)；為（に）・ため（に）

In the のに (2) consturction, only informal, nonpast, volitional verbs can precede のに. When the のに clause is used as the topic (i.e., S のには), の is often deleted in conversation, as in (1). すき焼きを作るには何が要りませんか。(What do you need to make sukiyaki?)

a.すき焼きを作るのには何が要りますか。

すきやきをつくるのにはなにがいりますか。

What do you need to make sukiyaki?

b.このレポートを書くのに一ヶ月かかりました。

このレポートをかくのにいっかげつかかりました。

It took me a month to write this paper.

c.会社に行くのにバスと電車を使ったいる。

かいしゃにいくのにバスとでんしゃをつかったいる。

I am using the bus and the train to get to my company.

a.「雪国」[．．．]小説を読んだ・読みました。

「ゆきぐに」というしょうせつをよんだ・よみました。

I read a novel called Snow Country.

A phrase marking information which identifies or explains the noun following the phrase. / called; that says ~; that

という is a combination of the quote marker と and いう 'call, say'. The head noun in KS(b) is a noun of communication, such as 話し 'story', ニュース 'news', 知らせ 'information' 手紙 'letter' and 噂 'rumou'. The head noun in KS(c) is a noun of human emotion, such as 悲しみ 'sadness', 感じ 'feeling', 気 'feeling', 気持ち 'feeling' 恐れ 'fear' and 喜び 'joy'. という is optional if the preceding element is not a noun or a clause which represents and quotation, as in KS(c). and Exs. (c). and (d). When という is used at the end of a sentence, it means hearsay (“I heard that ~, They say ~, It is said that ~”). The sentence-final という is used only in written Japanese.

a.「七人の侍」という映画を見たことがありますか。

「しちじんのさむらい」というえいがをみたことがありますか。

Have you ever seen the film called Seven Samurai?

b.ジューンが日本へ行くという話は本当ですか。

ジューンがにほんへいくというはなしはほんとうですか。

Is the story that June is going to Japan true?

c.その人に会いたくないという気持ちはよく分かります。

そのひとにあいたくないというきもちはよくわかります。

I am well aware of your feeling that you don't want to see him.

d.友達が今日来るということをすっかり忘れていた。

ともだちがきょうくるということをすっかりわすれていた。

I completely forgot the fact that my friend is coming today.

b.山田さんが入院した[．．．]知らせを聞いた・聞きました。

やまださんがにゅういんしたというしらせをきいた・ききました。

I heard the news that Mr. Yamada has been hospitalized.

A phrase marking information which identifies or explains the noun following the phrase. / called; that says ~; that

という is a combination of the quote marker と and いう 'call, say'. The head noun in KS(b) is a noun of communication, such as 話し 'story', ニュース 'news', 知らせ 'information' 手紙 'letter' and 噂 'rumou'. The head noun in KS(c) is a noun of human emotion, such as 悲しみ 'sadness', 感じ 'feeling', 気 'feeling', 気持ち 'feeling' 恐れ 'fear' and 喜び 'joy'. という is optional if the preceding element is not a noun or a clause which represents and quotation, as in KS(c). and Exs. (c). and (d). When という is used at the end of a sentence, it means hearsay (“I heard that ~, They say ~, It is said that ~”). The sentence-final という is used only in written Japanese.

a.「七人の侍」という映画を見たことがありますか。

「しちにんのさむらい」というえいがをみたことがありますか。

Have you ever seen the film called Seven Samurai?

b.ジューンが日本へ行くという話は本当ですか。

ジューンがにほんへいくというはなしはほんとうですか。

Is the story that June is going to Japan true?

c.その人に会いたくないという気持ちはよく分かります。

そのひとにあいたくないというきもちはよくわかります。

I am well aware of your feeling that you don't want to see him.

d.友達が今日来るということをすっかり忘れていた。

ともだちがきょうくるということをすっかりわすれていた。

I completely forgot the fact that my friend is coming today.

c.もっと頑張らなくては（ならない）[．．．]気持ちがある・あります。

もっとがんばらなくては（ならない）というきもちがある・あります。

I have the feeling that I have to keep hanging in there.

A phrase marking information which identifies or explains the noun following the phrase. / called; that says ~; that

という is a combination of the quote marker と and いう 'call, say'. The head noun in KS(b) is a noun of communication, such as 話し 'story', ニュース 'news', 知らせ 'information' 手紙 'letter' and 噂 'rumou'. The head noun in KS(c) is a noun of human emotion, such as 悲しみ 'sadness', 感じ 'feeling', 気 'feeling', 気持ち 'feeling' 恐れ 'fear' and 喜び 'joy'. という is optional if the preceding element is not a noun or a clause which represents and quotation, as in KS(c). and Exs. (c). and (d). When という is used at the end of a sentence, it means hearsay (“I heard that ~, They say ~, It is said that ~”). The sentence-final という is used only in written Japanese.

a.「七人の侍」という映画を見たことがありますか。

「しちにんのさむらい」というえいがをみたことがありますか。

Have you ever seen the film called Seven Samurai?

b.ジューンが日本へ行くという話は本当ですか。

ジューンがにほんへいくというはなしはほんとうですか。

Is the story that June is going to Japan true?

c.その人に会いたくないという気持ちはよく分かります。

そのひとにあいたくないというきもちはよくわかります。

I am well aware of your feeling that you don't want to see him.

d.友達が今日来るということをすっかり忘れていた。

ともだちがきょうくるということをすっかりわすれていた。

I completely forgot the fact that my friend is coming today.

a.アメリカ人[．．．]フットボールが好きだ・好きですね。

アメリカじんってフットボールがすきだ・すきですね。

Speaking of Americans, they love football, don't they?

A colloquial topic-introducer. / Speaking of ~

（の）は；～と言えば・～といえば（ったら）

You should not use Adj(な)stem って, unless it is an Adj(な) that can be used also as a noun as in: 健康 'healthy/health', 孤独 'lonely/loneliness', 親切 'kind/kindness', etc. You should not confuse って (1) with って (2) of hearsay. って (1) tends to co-occur with the sentence-final particles ね or よ.

Speaking of kanji, they are interesting, I tell you.

b.日本人ってよく写真を撮りますね。

にほんじんってよくしゃしんをとりますね。

Speaking of Japanese people, they love taking pictures, don't they?

c.外国で暮らすって難しいね。

がいこくでくらすってむずかしいね。

Living in a foreign country is hard, isn't it?

d.木が多いっていいものだね。

It's good to have many trees, isn't it?

It's good to have a spacious house, isn't it?

b.漢字を覚える[．．．]大変だ・大変ですね。

かんじをおぼえるってたいへんだ・たいへんですね。

To memorize kanji, it's terribly hard, isn't it?

A colloquial topic-introducer. / Speaking of ~

（の）は；～と言えば・～といえば（ったら）

You should not use Adj(な)stem って, unless it is an Adj(な) that can be used also as a noun as in: 健康 'healthy/health', 孤独 'lonely/loneliness', 親切 'kind/kindness', etc. You should not confuse って (1) with って (2) of hearsay. って (1) tends to co-occur with the sentence-final particles ね or よ.

Speaking of kanji, they are interesting, I tell you.

b.日本人ってよく写真を撮りますね。

にほんじんってよくしゃしんをとりますね。

Speaking of Japanese people, they love taking pictures, don't they?

c.外国で暮らすって難しいね。

がいこくでくらすってむずかしいね。

Living in a foreign country is hard, isn't it?

d.木が多いっていいものだね。

It's good to have many trees, isn't it?

It's good to have a spacious house, isn't it?

a.私は日本にいた[．．．]（に）お茶を習った・習いました。

わたしはにほんにいたとき（に）おちゃをならった・ならいました。

I learned the tea ceremony when I was in Japan.

A dependent noun which indicates the time when s.o./s.t. will do/does/did s.t. or the time when s.o./s.t. will be/is/was in some state. / at the time when; when

時, by itself, means 'time', but when it is used as a dependent noun with a modifying phrase or clause, it means 'at the time when' or 'when'. The clause preceding 時 is a type of relative clause; therefore the basic rules for relative clauses apply to this construction. The following two rules are particularly important: (A) If the subject of the 時 clause is different from that of the main clause, it is marked by が. (B) The predicate form is usually imformal except that だ after Adj(な)stem and N changes to な and の, respectively. The partical に after 時 is optional. With に, time is emphasized and sometimes comes under focus. If S(2) in S(1)時S(2) is in the past tense and S(1) expresses a state, the tense of S(1) can be either past or nonpast.

a.松本さんは朝ご飯を食べる時いつもテレビを見る。

まつもとさんはあさごはんをたべるときいつもテレビをみる。

Mr. Matsumoto always watches TV when he eats his breakfast.

b.テリーはジュースが安い時に沢山買って置いた。

テリーはジュースがやすいときにたくさんかっておいた。

Terry bought a lot of juice when it was cheap.

c.僕は静かな時しか本を読まない。

ぼくはしずかなときしかほんをよまない。

I read only when it's quiet.

d.私が大学生だった時妹はまだ三つだった。

わたしがだいがくせいだったときいもうとはまだみっつだった。

When I was a college student, my sister was only three.

e.これは出発の時に渡します。

これはしゅっぱつのときにわたします。

I'll give this to you at the time of your departure.

b.浩は試験の[．．．]（に）風邪を引いた・引きました。

ひろしはしけんのとき（に）かぜをひいた・ひきました。

Hiroshi caught a cold at exam time.

A dependent noun which indicates the time when s.o./s.t. will do/does/did s.t. or the time when s.o./s.t. will be/is/was in some state. / at the time when; when

時, by itself, means 'time', but when it is used as a dependent noun with a modifying phrase or clause, it means 'at the time when' or 'when'. The clause preceding 時 is a type of relative clause; therefore the basic rules for relative clauses apply to this construction. The following two rules are particularly important: (A) If the subject of the 時 clause is different from that of the main clause, it is marked by が. (B) The predicate form is usually imformal except that だ after Adj(な)stem and N changes to な and の, respectively. The partical に after 時 is optional. With に, time is emphasized and sometimes comes under focus. If S(2) in S(1)時S(2) is in the past tense and S(1) expresses a state, the tense of S(1) can be either past or nonpast.

a.松本さんは朝ご飯を食べる時いつもテレビを見る。

まつもとさんはあさごはんをたべるときいつもテレビをみる。

Mr. Matsumoto always watches TV when he eats his breakfast.

b.テリーはジュースが安い時に沢山買って置いた。

テリーはジュースがやすいときにたくさんかっておいた。

Terry bought a lot of juice when it was cheap.

c.僕は静かな時しか本を読まない。

ぼくはしずかなときしかほんをよまない。

I read only when it's quiet.

d.私が大学生だった時妹はまだ三つだった。

わたしがだいがくせいだったときいもうとはまだみっつだった。

When I was a college student, my sister was only three.

e.これは出発の時に渡します。

これはしゅっぱつのときにわたします。

I'll give this to you at the time of your departure.

a.どうして行かないの？ / だって、忙しい[．．．]。

どうしていかないの？ / だって、いそがしいもの。

How come you don't go there? / 'Cause I'm busy.

The speaker presents some situation as if it were a tangible object. / because; how coul ~!; used to; should like to; should

Because the speaker presents a situation before もの（だ）as if it were a tangible object, this structure tends to convey differing degrees of emotion. Kss (a) though (e) represent emotive excuse, exlamation, nostaligic reminiscence, desire and indirect command, respectively. Note, however, that the emotion expressed here is not an instantaneously appearing emotion instigated by a current event by an emotion nurtured in one's mind foa relatively long period of time. When もの indicates a reason or an excuse it is used only in very informal speech. もの is contracted into もん in very colloquial speech.

a.どうして食べないの？ / だって、不味いもの。

どうしてたべないの？ / だって、まずいもの。

Why don't you eat it? / 'Cause it doesn't taste good.

b.どうしてその本、読まないんだい？ / だって、よく分からないんだもの。

どうしてそのほん、よまないんだい？ / だって、よくわからないんだもの。

Why don't you read that book? / 'Cause I don't understand it well.

c.よくそんな馬鹿なことをしたものだ！

よくそんなばかなことをしたものだ！

How could you do such a foolish thing!

d.月日の立つのは早いものだ。