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BehaviorismCognitive Construct (Bruner, Ausubel & Piaget)Task Analysis Humanistic ApproachSituated CognitionConstructivismMultiple IntelligencesPrinciples of instruction, Elaboration Theory of Instruction
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PioneersIvan Pavlov, John Broadus Watson, Edward Thorndike and Burrhus Frederic Skinner.Piaget, Bruner, Ausubel Gagne, BloomRogers,Maslow,Comb,FreibergJean Lave, Etienne WengerDewey, Vygotsky, Piaget,Montessori,Fluery,Hutchinson, von GlaserfeldHoward GardnerReigeluth, Merrill
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Key Conceptsstimuli, immediate feedback, conciousness, introspection, negative reinforcement, conditioning,differentiation, drill and practice, response, feedback, punishment, extinction, rewardCognitive stages of development, disequilibrum, prior knowledge, metacognition, adaptation, accommodation, inquiry based learningintellectual development and examiming the tasks in a detailed wayself discovery,students` needs,humanistic objectives,not precisely defined behaviorsLearning Communities/Community of practice, Embodiment, affordancecritical thinking, reasoning,knowledge construction with personal experiences,problem solvingintelligences as visual, musical, natural, bodily-kinesthetical, mathematical, intra and interpersonal, verbalmacro-level learning, problem-based, tasks activities, activation, integration
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Definition of LearningThey define learning as change in observable behavior and this observable behavior occurs after reinforced practice with appropriate stimuli. It differentiates the desired/ predetermined response/answer/ behavior among other possible alternatives with a certain stimuli.autonomous learning which includes notion on relation with prior and new knowledge or processing information and storing it in memory including processes of attention, recognition, encoding, chunking, rehearsal, retrieval step by step, you can do betterDoing better gradually, performing in a sequence of steps (Bloom's taxonomy) Learning occurs naturally through cultures, contexts, and activities. Situated learning examples include more “apprentice-like” situations such as carpenters, mechanics, printers, and sculptors.internally constructed understandings of how students` world functionseach individual has its own understanding and learning, so they may have different ways of reflecting what they have learnt or they have different capacities to learn.with the help of the existing knowledge, integrating new knowledge into real-life situations
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Teacher/Instructor RoleCenter of the instructional process, source of knowledge, awarder,punisher, behavior shaper, provider positive or negative reinforcement, commander of the lecture, classroom order provider, manager and evaluator of learning, identifier of learning goals, controller of contingencies of reinforcements.Facilitator enhancing encoding and retrieval, organizer of the content according to the needs of the studentsthe person who is responsible to determine correct task or actvity according to students' intellectual development- facilitator, discoverer of the self,counselor,psychotherapist,guiderTeacher must provide “zones of proximal development” just beyond what a student can accomplish alone, but not to a level of impossibility. Teacher scaffolding is needed. Also Teachers must arrange the interaction between environment and student.weaver, faciliatator, mediator,Mediator of the knowledge to different capacities each learner has; designer and conductor of the instruction
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Teaching/Instructional MethodsPunishment,time-out, modeling, extinction, Token Economy, behavioral contact, escape and avodiance, drill and practice, positive and negative reinforcement,reward, Premack Principle, immediate and delayed feedback, questioning, unit by unit teaching.Interiorization, making connections to prior knowledge or past experiences, usage of advance organizers tasks in terms of cognitive, psychomotor and emotional skills ans analysis of themConsidering 1.Humanistic Objectives:self-fulfillment, emotional well being, creativity, commitment,intelligent behavior and 2.Internal life of persons that makes us human as values, loves,hates,aspirations etc.(realistic) project/problem-based learning-Propositing situations for students to solve-Students reflect on what they learn-Invite students to question and construct their learningTeachers and schools provide an environment supporting 8 MIconcept maps, summarizer, synthesiser, acronyms
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Instructional modelsDirect Instruction, Programmed Instruction(Linear and Branching Programming), Computer Based Instruction, Mastery Learning, Conditioning Models,Personalized System of Instruction, Precision Teaching.Individualization, Cognitive apprenticeship, Keller's ARCS modeldecide and do Act in accordance with the students`needs who are , decision-makers, following Maslow`s hierarych needs pyramidCognitive Apprenticeship, Anchored Instruction, cooperative learning-Student centered , flexible models that adress to needs of studentsPersonal Instructional Modelsimple to complex, prior knowledge relation
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Source of motivationExtrinsic motivation (rewards, punishment); Stimulus to activate the learner; Positive and Negative Reinforcementprior knowledge, previous experiences need assessment-Internal motivation.Teachers as psychotherapists can be a source of motivatorAuthentic activities, meaningful practices. Instrinsic Motivation (focus on realia), strong goals.Students are internally motivatedMajor motivation comes from not only its stand point towards “g” intelligence but also making each student believe they are intelligent, they are all stars.producing something in the end and motivaiton of creating
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Strengths-Requires objectives (Measurable and observable behaviors) and standardized tests; Effective for misbehavior (Here the reason for misbehavior should be examined. Behavioristic classroom may create this misbehavior because of its strictness.); Effective for reaching curricular objectives, Easy to measure the outcomes; Easy to find instructional resources.Consideration of the learner as the focus of the design process, learning how to learn applicability and validity of instruction and sequence from simpler to harder- give the opportunity to discover their true self-ability-consider individual differences,democratic classroom environment,deals with unobservable behaviors of learning,no competence no stresshands-on experience, less or no effort to convert theoretical knowledge to practice.- able to interpret information from multiple perspectives- boost creativity and higher order thinking-improve the ability to solve real problems-There are a lot of activities, materials, books available and some schools get benefits of them. However, it is an approach going along well with other approach mixing with behaviorism, constructivism or humanism. learning by doing, students are active and free
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WeaknessesSeeing mind as a blacbox, ignorance of individual differences, cognitive processes, needs and interests of leaners and intrinsic motivation Ignorance of the students' interests and needs, providing the learner with a certain way to do the things based upon some cues, assumption that each brain uses the same operational systems during learning Time consuming and task uniqeness, not having clear or sequential steps-time constraint: problems with pacing-diffucilties at different levels and classes-assesment could be a problemnot the best approach for all domains/topics, limited range of application.-takes time to implement & assess real-problem situations-does not fit to all types of learning such as astract concepts in Math & Science-Intelligences types as capacity have not been found by neuroscientists or cogntitive scientists; Defining students intelligences with unreliable inventories may label a learner in a different way; Difficult to find those inventories as well; Each lesson may not go on using 8 types of intelligences, more help would be needed for teachers.it is not applicable to all learning situations or environements
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Evaluation/AssessmentStandardized tests, Teacher observation, Open-ended or close ended questions with one right answer; Standardized tests and delayed feedbacks for summative assesment and evaluation; Immediate feedbacks for formative assessmentdiscovery learning, exercises on memorization, experimenting in the environmentcompare and contrast, analyzing, observation-Portfolios, projects Focus of assessment: "the process of learning, perception, and problem solving." It must become an integrated, ongoing, and seamless part of the learning environment. Assessment must provide important feedback to both teacher and students.-Process based assessment such as Projects, portfolios,tasks,essays,problems,solutions,flowchartsAssessment of every intelligence is different, standardized tests, items should not be used for assessing musical intelligent person. However, preparation and designation of those asessment techniques are still not commoncomparing the product in the end with the teaching objective
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CritiqueIt focuses on only measurability and repetitive actions.Precision Teaching can be used in any models different than behaviorism since it focuses on "tool skills". There are some behaviors that you could not observe and predefine.Not so much humanistic, ignorance of the human aspect, assumption that each brain has the same kind of operation without considering other elements in learning if it is done by people who know their job, it should be used all the time and it should be done before instruction to get the best result. however, because each lesson od task is unique, this makes task analyzers' job harder.-Though encourage creativity and respect individual learning, there may be problems regarding timing and planning of the curriculum- Each individual can progress in his/her own interest, skill and pacing - Assessment can be a burden for teachers as it would take time to assess process-based documents. not every learning is context dependend, some tasks may allow knowledge transfer from previous practices, there is also some value in individual learning (no need for complex social environment for some cases)Creating a constructivist atmospehere may be difficult as not every individual would feel like to create or take the initiative for his learning- Timing could be a problem because of the pacing issue in schools- It may not be suitable for every topic to teach especially abstract topics such as Mathematics and Science.Its lack of empirical evidence; Risk of labeling students with an unreliable inventories and scales; Not feasable teacher to provide 8 types of MI while lecturing; Students deprived of other intelligence type and they can not find a chance to improve them; Not well defined to divide ability and intelligence.
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