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Introductory Psychology

Module 4:

States of Consciousness

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Affirmations

I am brave and courageous
It is ok to ask for help
I am better when I create a healthy balance in my life

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Recall

Explain the role of neurotransmitters in the nervous system. How do they facilitate communication between neurons?
What are the lobes of the brain?
What are the parts of the limbic system?
What do we mean by nature and nurture?

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Role of Neurotransmitters in the Nervous System: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another 'target' neuron. They are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptors on the next neuron. This binding can either excite or inhibit the receiving neuron, thus facilitating communication between neurons and playing a vital role in regulating a wide range of physiological and psychological processes.

Lobes of the Brain: The human brain is divided into four main lobes:

Frontal Lobe: Associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem-solving.

Parietal Lobe: Involved in perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

Temporal Lobe: Responsible for auditory processing, memory, and speech.

Occipital Lobe: Primarily concerned with visual processing.

Parts of the Limbic System: The limbic system is a complex set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation. The main components include:

Amygdala: Plays a key role in emotion, particularly fear and anger.

Hippocampus: Important in learning and memory, particularly in forming new memories.

Hypothalamus: Regulates several metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous system, including hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

Thalamus: Acts as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex.��Nature: This term refers to the genetic influences and biological factors that contribute to a person's characteristics, traits, and behaviors. It emphasizes the role of genetics, inherited traits, and biological predispositions that shape who we are.

Nurture: In contrast, nurture emphasizes the role of environmental influences, including upbringing, social interactions, education, culture, and life experiences. It suggests that behavior and development are shaped by external factors after birth.

The nature-nurture debate is often framed as an either/or dichotomy, but most psychologists recognize that both genetic and environmental factors interact in complex ways to shape human development. Exploring how genes and environment work together to influence traits and behaviors can lead to a more nuanced understanding of individual differences, mental health, and other psychological phenomena.

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Key Integrative Theme

Theme A: Psychological science relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develop.

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Two Truths and a Lie

Which of these is the lie?

C. Hypnosis has real therapeutic benefits.

B. Coffee and alcohol have similar effects on perception and consciousness.

A.It is possible to see something but still not be consciously aware of it.

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Activity: Have students identify the false statement from this grouping.

Answer: B is false. ��Coffee: Caffeine, the primary active substance in coffee, is a stimulant. It tends to increase alertness, improve reaction times, and sharpen focus. It works by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain, which helps increase the levels of other neurotransmitters like dopamine and norepinephrine. This can create feelings of heightened energy and perception.

Alcohol: On the other hand, alcohol is a depressant. It slows down the central nervous system and inhibits brain functions. This can lead to a relaxed feeling, impaired judgment, slower reaction times, and reduced motor coordination. Higher levels of consumption can even alter perception and consciousness, leading to confusion, impaired memory, and unconsciousness.

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Consciousness Learning Goals

1 Describe consciousness

2 Understand blindsight

Deepen your understanding and form connections within these skills:

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Consciousness and Biological Rhythms

Consciousness is awareness of internal and external stimuli
Biological rhythms are internal rhythms of biological activity
A circadian rhythm is a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of 24 hours such as our sleep wake cycle

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Blindsight

Blindsight refers to a phenomenon in which individuals who are blind in a particular area of their visual field, due to damage to the primary visual cortex, are still able to respond to visual stimuli in that area without consciously perceiving them.

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Blindsight

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Section 1 Apply It: Blindsight

Imagine that you want to conduct a study following the scientific method about one of the following topics:

What is Blindsight?
Does it surprise you to think that your body might be reacting to information you are not consciously able to perceive?
How often do you think your body is reacting to stimuli you are not aware of?

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Activity #1 from Instructor Resources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/10QmnP3gpU67-2OJVdgrADRGLDb1JdslRg3zfPAwkl_w/edit#heading=h.r6dpzme5311w

Instructions

Review blindsight and research introduced in the text by Tony Ro.
Divide into groups�Divide students into groups of four: touch, taste, smell, and sound.
Instructions�Keeping in mind the work of Dr. Tony Ro which demonstrated that our brain processes visual stimuli which we are not consciously able to perceive:
Try to design a research experiment which might be able to demonstrate that our brain processes and reacts to sensory (touch) information that we are not consciously aware of.
Try to design a research experiment which might be able to demonstrate that our brain processes and reacts to gustatory (taste) information that we are not consciously aware of.
Try to design a research experiment which might be able to demonstrate that our brain processes and reacts to olfactory (smell) information that we are not consciously aware of.
Try to design a research experiment which might be able to demonstrate that our brain processes and reacts to auditory (sound) information that we are not consciously aware of.

Working with your group, use the scientific method to come up with a research question, hypothesis, and experimental design.

Share findings�Have each group share the results of their discussion and their proposed research study. You could have students present on it to the class, or have them use paper to create a simple “poster” presentation, as if they were presenting on their research at a conference. Have each group either leave their poster at their desk or hang it on the wall and have students walk around to read through each of the ideas. You may have students pick their favorite experimental idea and discuss those as a class.

Discussion (As needed)

After each group presents, the class can be asked to discuss the proposed experiment:

Does this experiment seem like it could demonstrate that our brain processes and reacts to information we are not consciously aware of? Why or why not?

After all groups have presented, the class could be asked to consider:

How often do you think our brains react to sensory information we are not consciously aware of?

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Sleep Learning Goals

1 Explain circadian rhythms and how they can be disrupted

2 Describe the brain structures and hormones involved in sleep

3 Describe theories about the function of sleep

4 Understand the difference between REM and non-REM sleep

5 Describe the stages of sleep

6 Compare and contrast theories about why we dream

Deepen your understanding and form connections within these skills:

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The Biological Clock

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Sleep Disruptions

Jet lag: collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment
Rotating shift work: work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis
Sleep debt: result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis

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Consequences of Insufficient Sleep

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What is Sleep?

Low levels of physical activity
Reduced sensory awareness.
Regulated by homeostatic and circadian mechanisms
Patterns of activity of the brain measured by electroencephalography (EEG) shown at right

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Areas of the Brain Involved in Sleep

Pineal gland secretes melatonin
Pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone

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Why We Sleep

Adaptive Function – Sleep conserves energy or keeps us safe from predation but little research supports these ideas
Cognitive Function – Sleep is necessary for cognitive function and memory formation

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REM and NREM Sleep

Sleep can be divided into two different general phases:

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids
Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness.
Non-REM (NREM) sleep is subdivided into three stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves

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Sleep Stages

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EEG Recordings During Sleep

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Stages of NREM Sleep

Stage 1 sleep: first stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep; the period during which a person drifts off to sleep
Stage 2 sleep: second stage of sleep; the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles
Stage 3 sleep: third stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves

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Why Do We Dream? Some Theories

Emotional sleep/dream theory: dreams are a way for the brain to process and integrate emotional and cognitive experiences that occur during waking life; Cartwright also proposed that dreams are a form of problem-solving.
Activation-synthesis theory: dreams represent a synthesis of the more or less random electrical brain activation that occurs during REM sleep. This theory posits that humans construct dream stories after they wake up, in a natural attempt to make sense of the nonsensical.
Threat-simulation theory: Dreaming repeatedly simulates potential threatening events, thus enhancing the mechanisms required for efficient threat avoidance

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Why Do We Dream? Some Theories

Expectation-fulfillment theory: Dreaming discharges emotional arousals that haven’t been expressed during the day
Continual-activation theory: in order for the brain to maintain healthy functioning, it must constantly be creating and consolidating new long-term memories. When external sensory input falls below the minimum level required to create these memories, our brain begins supplying input from our memories.
Memory consolidation theory: based on the idea that dreaming plays a role in the consolidation and processing of memories. This theory suggests that while we sleep, our brains process and consolidate the memories and experiences of the day, integrating new information with existing knowledge.

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Question

1 Which of the following best describes the latent content of a dream, according to Sigmund Freud's interpretation of dreams?

A) The actual storyline or visual content of a dream as experienced by the dreamer.

B) The hidden meaning or symbolic interpretation of a dream, often related to unconscious desires or fears.

C) A shared repository of information believed to be universal across all human beings.

D) The process by which the brain attempts to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep.

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Section 2 Apply It: Sleep

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Background: Students completed this matching activity https://lumenlearning.h5p.com/content/1291844662684547198

Activity:

Divide the class into groups or pairs.
Provide each group with a list of the research methods discussed thus far: case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, archival, longitudinal, cross-sectional, correlational, and experimental research (note that correlational and experimental research are introduced by covered in more depth in the next section).
Ask each group to choose one of the research methods and come up with a hypothetical research question that could be studied using that method. For example, if a group chose case studies, they might come up with a question like "What are the common experiences and symptoms of individuals with eating disorders?"
Have a group share their research question. Have the rest of the class guess which research method would work best to answer the question (this could even be set up as a voting activity).
Have the presenting group reveal their answer and explain why they chose the particular research method they did.
During or after all groups have presented, lead a class discussion about the strengths and limitations of each research method and when it might be most appropriate to use them.

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Sleep Disorders Learning Goals

1 Explain disruptions in biological rhythms

2 Describe the symptoms and treatments for common sleep disorders

Deepen your understanding and form connections within these skills:

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Sleep Disorders: Sleep Apnea

Sleep apnea is when a sleeper’s breathing stops for 10–20 seconds or longer multiple times in an hour
Symptoms: snoring and fatigue
Treatment: Continuous Positive Air Pressure (CPAP) machines

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Sleep Disorders: Insomnia

Insomnia: consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week for at least one month’s time

Treatments:

Exercise
Limiting stimulant use
Cognitive behavioral therapy

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Sleep Disorders: Narcolepsy

Someone with narcolepsy cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times
Treatment: Amphetamines

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Section 3 Apply It: Sleep and Sleep Disorders

A friend of yours tells you that she watches movies on her laptop every night before bed in order to “help her fall asleep.” Use evidence collected in this study to create an argument for your friend about why her strategy for falling asleep might be counter-productive.

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Drugs and Substances Learning Goals

1 Describe how substance abuse disorders are diagnosed

2 Describe depressants and the impact of their use

3 Describe stimulants and the impact of their use

4 Describe opioids and the impact of their use

5 Describe hallucinogens and the impact of their use

6 Compare and contrast between depressants, stimulants, opioids, and hallucinogens

Deepen your understanding and form connections within these skills:

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Substance Abuse Disorder

Substance Abuse Disorder: addictive disorder where the person has a compulsive pattern of drug use

Physical dependence involves changes in normal bodily functions
The user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use
Tolerance occurs when a person requires more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses
Psychological dependence is an emotional need for the drug

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Types of Psychoactive Drugs

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Depressants

Alcohol
Suppress central nervous system activity
Agonists of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system

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Activity Three from Instructor Resources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/10QmnP3gpU67-2OJVdgrADRGLDb1JdslRg3zfPAwkl_w/edit

Background

This activity will involve the watching of two video clips in class with each video clip being followed by a short discussion. Students will fill in handouts while they watch each video before being asked to take part in a class-wide discussion. Instructors should make preparations to be able to show video clips in class and to have enough handouts printed such that there are enough for every student.

Worksheet: Module 4 Activity 3 Worksheet

Answer Key for Instructors: Answer Key: M4 The Effects of Alcohol and Marijuana

Topic Alignment: Drugs and Substances
Learning Outcomes:

Describe depressants and the impact of their use
Describe hallucinogens and the impact of their use

APA Learning Outcome: Integrative Theme F: Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways.
Source: Joseph Slade for Lumen Learning, CC-BY.

Time Estimate: 25 minutes

Instructions

Distribute Worksheet
Watch the first video�As a class, watch the TEDed video “How Does Alcohol Make You Drunk” (5:25) by Judy Grisel. Have students fill in the first half of the worksheet while they watch the video.
Discussion�Ask students for their initial reactions, if they were surprised by any video content, or if the video content was in-line with their expectations. Ask if students have any questions about answering any questions on the handout. Use the following sample questions as needed to guide a discussion:
Sample Question: How does ethanol cause drunkenness? �Sample Answer: Neurons become less communicative when GABA is turned up and Glutamate is turned down. Alcohol can also stimulate the production of dopamine and endorphins.
Sample Question: Why does ethanol have such a wide range of effects on different people?�Sample Answer: A person may have consumed alcohol on an empty stomach versus after a big meal. People may differ in the rates at which alcohol is broken down by liver processing enzymes. Women tend to have a smaller volume of blood, thus creating higher blood alcohol levels when consuming the same amount of alcohol as a male of similar size and weight. People may differ in their baseline levels of dopamine or endorphins.
Sample Question: Why would a drink on an empty stomach deliver more alcohol to the blood than a drink after a big meal? �Sample Answer: The pyloric sphincter closes access to the small intestine so that the stomach might digest the meal. If the stomach is empty, the pyloric sphincter is open and alcohol can move directly on to the small intestine. Alcohol enters the blood primarily through the small intestine.
Sample Question: Why might a woman have a higher blood alcohol concentration after drinking the same amount of alcohol as a man of similar weight? �Sample Answer: Women tend to have a higher percentage of fat, which requires less blood than muscle. Thus women tend to have less blood than men of similar weight. The same amount of ingested alcohol distributed in a lower volume of blood leads to higher blood alcohol concentrations.
Watch the second video�As a class, watch the TEDed video “Is marijuana bad for your brain?”(6:43) by Anees Bahji. Have students fill in the second half of the worksheet while they watch the video.
Discussion�Ask students for their initial reactions, if they were surprised by any video content, or if the video content was in-line with their expectations. Ask if students have any questions about answering any questions on the handout. Use the following sample questions as needed to guide a discussion:
Sample Question: Why don’t we know very much about marijuana’s mechanisms of action and effects? �Sample Answer: Because in 1970 the drug was classified as a schedule 1 drug, meaning that it was illegal and had no recognized medical benefits. Little medical research has been performed in the United States because of this classification.
Sample Question: Why might younger people under 25 consider limiting their use of marijuana?�Sample Answer: In people younger than 25, cannabinoid receptors are more concentrated in the white matter. White matter is involved in communication, learning, memory, and emotions. Overuse of marijuana may affect the brain’s ability to develop white matter tracts and grow new connections, potentially damaging long-term learning and problem-solving. The risk is higher the younger that you are. It is unknown whether such damage is reversible.
Sample Question: How do cannabinoids differ from other neurotransmitters?�Sample Answer: Cannabinoids travel in the opposite direction of most neurotransmitters, providing feedback and modulating the activity of the sending neuron’s neurotransmitter activity. Cannabinoids also affect receptors all over the brain and body. Neurotransmitters tend to have a more selective influence.

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Stimulants

Cocaine, amphetamines, MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, caffeine

increase overall levels of neural activity
agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system

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Opioids

Heroin, morphine, methadone, codeine

Decrease pain
Naturally, the body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria
Extremely high potential for abuse

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Hallucinogens

Marijuana, psylocybin (shrooms), mescaline (peyote), LSD

Result in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences
Impact different neurotransmitters

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Activity Three from Instructor Resources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/10QmnP3gpU67-2OJVdgrADRGLDb1JdslRg3zfPAwkl_w/edit

Background

This activity will involve the watching of two video clips in class with each video clip being followed by a short discussion. Students will fill in handouts while they watch each video before being asked to take part in a class-wide discussion. Instructors should make preparations to be able to show video clips in class and to have enough handouts printed such that there are enough for every student.

Worksheet: Module 4 Activity 3 Worksheet

Answer Key for Instructors: Answer Key: M4 The Effects of Alcohol and Marijuana

Topic Alignment: Drugs and Substances
Learning Outcomes:

Describe depressants and the impact of their use
Describe hallucinogens and the impact of their use

APA Learning Outcome: Integrative Theme F: Applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways.
Source: Joseph Slade for Lumen Learning, CC-BY.

Time Estimate: 25 minutes

Instructions

Distribute Worksheet
Watch the first video�As a class, watch the TEDed video “How Does Alcohol Make You Drunk” (5:25) by Judy Grisel. Have students fill in the first half of the worksheet while they watch the video.
Discussion�Ask students for their initial reactions, if they were surprised by any video content, or if the video content was in-line with their expectations. Ask if students have any questions about answering any questions on the handout. Use the following sample questions as needed to guide a discussion:
Sample Question: How does ethanol cause drunkenness? �Sample Answer: Neurons become less communicative when GABA is turned up and Glutamate is turned down. Alcohol can also stimulate the production of dopamine and endorphins.
Sample Question: Why does ethanol have such a wide range of effects on different people?�Sample Answer: A person may have consumed alcohol on an empty stomach versus after a big meal. People may differ in the rates at which alcohol is broken down by liver processing enzymes. Women tend to have a smaller volume of blood, thus creating higher blood alcohol levels when consuming the same amount of alcohol as a male of similar size and weight. People may differ in their baseline levels of dopamine or endorphins.
Sample Question: Why would a drink on an empty stomach deliver more alcohol to the blood than a drink after a big meal? �Sample Answer: The pyloric sphincter closes access to the small intestine so that the stomach might digest the meal. If the stomach is empty, the pyloric sphincter is open and alcohol can move directly on to the small intestine. Alcohol enters the blood primarily through the small intestine.
Sample Question: Why might a woman have a higher blood alcohol concentration after drinking the same amount of alcohol as a man of similar weight? �Sample Answer: Women tend to have a higher percentage of fat, which requires less blood than muscle. Thus women tend to have less blood than men of similar weight. The same amount of ingested alcohol distributed in a lower volume of blood leads to higher blood alcohol concentrations.
Watch the second video�As a class, watch the TEDed video “Is marijuana bad for your brain?”(6:43) by Anees Bahji. Have students fill in the second half of the worksheet while they watch the video.
Discussion�Ask students for their initial reactions, if they were surprised by any video content, or if the video content was in-line with their expectations. Ask if students have any questions about answering any questions on the handout. Use the following sample questions as needed to guide a discussion:
Sample Question: Why don’t we know very much about marijuana’s mechanisms of action and effects? �Sample Answer: Because in 1970 the drug was classified as a schedule 1 drug, meaning that it was illegal and had no recognized medical benefits. Little medical research has been performed in the United States because of this classification.
Sample Question: Why might younger people under 25 consider limiting their use of marijuana?�Sample Answer: In people younger than 25, cannabinoid receptors are more concentrated in the white matter. White matter is involved in communication, learning, memory, and emotions. Overuse of marijuana may affect the brain’s ability to develop white matter tracts and grow new connections, potentially damaging long-term learning and problem-solving. The risk is higher the younger that you are. It is unknown whether such damage is reversible.
Sample Question: How do cannabinoids differ from other neurotransmitters?�Sample Answer: Cannabinoids travel in the opposite direction of most neurotransmitters, providing feedback and modulating the activity of the sending neuron’s neurotransmitter activity. Cannabinoids also affect receptors all over the brain and body. Neurotransmitters tend to have a more selective influence.

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Section 4 Apply It: Psychoactive Drugs

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Section 5 Learning Goals

1 Describe hypnosis and meditation

Deepen your understanding and form connections within these skills:

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Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli

Dissociation view: dissociated state of consciousness
Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis: people perform a social role

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Meditation

Clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus

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Section 5 Apply It: Meditation

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Quick Review

What are consciousness and circadian rhythms?
What are disruptions in biological rhythms, including sleep debt?
What are areas of the brain and hormone secretions involved in sleep?
What theories explain the function of sleep?
What are the stages of sleep?
What is the difference between REM and non-REM sleep?

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More Quick Review

What theories explain why we dream?
What are the symptoms and treatments for insomnia, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy?
How are substance abuse disorders are diagnosed?
How do depressants, stimulants, opioids, and hallucinogens impact the brain and body? How are they similar and different?
What are hypnosis and meditation?

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Attributions

Illustrations are from Storyset
Images from Pexels & Unsplash
Add additional attributions here……
Remember to add image alt text

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