COMPUTER NETWORKS
MODULE 3
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Introduction to Network Layer
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NETWORK-LAYER SERVICES
Encapsulating the payload in a network-layer packet at the source and decapsulating the payload from the network-layer packet at the destination.
The source host receives the payload from an upper-layer protocol, adds a header that contains the source and destination addresses and some other information that is required by the network-layer protocol and delivers the packet to the data-link layer.
If the packet is fragmented at the source or at routers along the path, the network layer is responsible for waiting until all fragments arrive, reassembling them, and delivering them to the upper-layer protocol.
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The network layer is responsible for routing the packet from its source to the destination.
There is more than one route from the source to the destination.
The network layer is responsible for finding the best one among these possible routes.
The network layer needs to have some specific strategies for defining the
best route.
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Forwarding can be defined as the action applied by each router when a packet arrives at one of its interfaces.
The decision-making table a router normally uses for applying this action is sometimes called the forwarding table and sometimes the routing table.
When a router receives a packet from one of its attached networks, it needs to forward the packet to another attached network (in unicast routing) or to some attached networks (in multicast routing)
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Forwarding process
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Other Services
First, since there is no error control in this layer, the job of the network
layer at the receiver is so simple that it may rarely be overwhelmed.
Second, the upper layers that use the service of the network layer can implement buffers to receive data from the network layer as they are ready and do not have to consume the data as fast asit is received.
Third, flow control is provided for most of the upper-layer protocols that use the services of the network layer, so another level of flow control makes the net-work layer more complicated and the whole system less efficient
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Due to the error control mechanism at the upper layers, the sender may send duplicates of the lost packets. If the congestion continues, sometimes a situation may reach a point where the system collapses and no datagrams are delivered.
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PACKET SWITCHING
Data communication switching techniques are divided into two broad
categories, circuit switching and packet switching
Only packet switching is used at the network layer because the unit of data at this layer is a packet. Circuit switching is mostly used at the physical layer
At the network layer, a message from the upper layer is divided into manageable
packets and each packet is sent through the network
Packet-switched network can use two different approaches to route the packets: the
datagram approach and the virtual circuit approach
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The idea was that the network layer is only responsible for delivery of packets from the source to the destination.
The packets in a message may or may not travel the same path to their destination
When the network layer provides a connectionless service, each packet traveling in
the Internet is an independent entity; there is no relationship between packets belonging to the same message.
The switches in this type of network are called routers
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A connectionless packet-switched network
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Forwarding process in a router when used in a connectionless network
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In a connection-oriented service (also called virtual-circuit approach), there is a relationship between all packets belonging to a message. Before all datagrams in a message can be sent, a virtual connection should be set up to define the path for the datagrams.
After connection setup, the datagrams can all follow the same path
In this type of service, not only must the packet contain the source and destination addresses, it must also contain a flow label, a virtual circuit identifier that defines the virtual path the packet should follow
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A virtual-circuit packet-switched network
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To create a connection-oriented service, a three-phase process is used: setup, data
transfer, and teardown.
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Setup Phase
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Request packet
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1. Source A sends a request packet to router R1.
2. Router R1 receives the request packet. It knows that a packet going from A to B
goes out through port 3. The router creates an entry in its table for this virtual circuit, but it is only able to fill three of the four columns. The router assigns the incoming port (1) and chooses an available incoming label (14) and the outgoing port (3). It does not yet know the outgoing label, which will be found during the acknowledgment step. The router then forwards the packet through port 3 to router R3.
3. Router R3 receives the setup request packet. The same events happen here as at router R1; three columns of the table are completed: in this case, incoming port (1), incoming label (66), and outgoing port (3).
4. Router R4 receives the setup request packet. Again, three columns are completed: incoming port (1), incoming label (22), and outgoing port (4).
5. Destination B receives the setup packet, and if it is ready to receive packets from A, it assigns a label to the incoming packets that come from A, in this case 77.This label lets the destination know that the packets come from A, and not from other sources.
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Acknowledgment Packet
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2. Router R4 sends an acknowledgment to router R3 that contains its incoming label in the table, chosen in the setup phase. Router R3 uses this as the outgoing label in the table.
3. Router R3 sends an acknowledgment to router R1 that contains its incoming label in the table, chosen in the setup phase. Router R1 uses this as the outgoing label in the table.
4. Finally router R1 sends an acknowledgment to source A that contains its incoming label in the table, chosen in the setup phase.
5. The source uses this as the outgoing label for the data packets to be sent to destination B
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Data-Transfer Phase
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Teardown Phase
In the teardown phase, source A, after sending all packets to B, sends a special packet called a teardown packet.
Destination B responds with a confirmation packet. All routers delete the corresponding entries from their tables.
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IPV4 ADDRESSES
The identifier used in the IP layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite to identify the connec-
tion of each device to the Internet is called the Internet address or IP address.
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a host or a router to the Internet. The IP address is the address of the connection, not the
host or the router, because if the device is moved to another network, the IP address
may be changed.
IPv4 addresses are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and only one,
connection to the Internet
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Address Space
An address space is the total number of addresses used by the protocol.
If a protocol uses b bits to define an address, the address space is 2b because each bit can have two different values (0 or 1).
IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296
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Notation
There are three common notations to show an IPv4 address: binary notation (base 2),
dotted-decimal notation (base 256), and hexadecimal notation (base 16).
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Hierarchy in Addressing
A 32-bit IPv4 address is also hierarchical, but divided only into two parts. The first
part of the address, called the prefix, defines the network; the second part of the
address, called the suffix, defines the node (connection of a device to the Internet).
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Classful Addressing
An IPv4 address was designed with a fixed-length prefix, but to accommodate both small and large networks, three fixed-length prefixes were designed instead of one (n = 8, n = 16, and n = 24). The whole address space was divided into five classes (class A, B, C, D, and E). This scheme is referred to as classful addressing.
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Address Depletion
class A can be assigned to only 128 organizations in the world, but each organization needs to have a single network (seen by the rest of the world) with 16,777,216 nodes (computers in this single network). Since there may be only a few organizations that are this large, most of the addresses in this class were wasted (unused).
Class B addresses were designed for midsize organizations, but many of the addresses in this class also remained unused.
Class C addresses have a completely different flaw in design. The number of addresses that can be used in each network (256) was so small that most companies were not comfortable using a block in this address class.
Class E addresses were almost never used, wasting the whole class
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Subnetting and Supernetting
In subnetting, a class A or class B block is divided into several subnets. Each subnet has a larger prefix length than the original network.
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Classless Addressing
Subnetting and supernetting in classful addressing did not really solve the address depletion problem
The short-term solution still uses IPv4 addresses, but it is called classless addressing.
In classless addressing, variable-length blocks are used that belong to no
classes. We can have a block of 1 address, 2 addresses, 4 addresses, 128 addresses, and so on
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Prefix Length: Slash Notation
The notation is informally referred to as slash notation and formally as classless interdomain routing or CIDR
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Extracting Information from an Address
1. The number of addresses in the block is found as N = 2 32−n.
2. To find the first address, we keep the n leftmost bits and set the (32 − n) rightmost bits all to 0s.
3. To find the last address, we keep the n leftmost bits and set the (32 − n) rightmost bits all to 1s.
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Address Mask
Another way to find the first and last addresses in the block is to use the address mask.
The address mask is a 32-bit number in which the n leftmost bits are set to 1s and the rest of the bits (32 − n) are set to 0s. A computer can easily find the address mask because it is the complement of (2 32 − n − 1). The reason for defining a mask in this way is that it can be used by a computer program to extract the information in a block, using the three bit-wise operations NOT, AND, and OR.
1. The number of addresses in the block N = NOT (mask) + 1.
2. The first address in the block = (Any address in the block) AND (mask).
3. The last address in the block = (Any address in the block) OR [(NOT (mask)]
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Network Address
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Block Allocation
The ultimate responsibility of block allocation is given to a global authority called the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).
For the proper operation of the CIDR, two restrictions need to be applied to the
allocated block.
1. The number of requested addresses, N, needs to be a power of 2. The reason is that N = 232 − n or n = 32 − log2N. If N is not a power of 2, we cannot have an integer value for n.
2. The requested block needs to be allocated where there is an adequate number of contiguous addresses available in the address space. However, there is a restriction on choosing the first address in the block. The first address needs to be divisible by the number of addresses in the block. The reason is that the first address needs to be the prefix followed by (32 − n) number of 0s. The decimal value of the first address is then
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Address Aggregation
One of the advantages of the CIDR strategy is address aggregation (sometimes called address summarization or route summarization). When blocks of addresses are combined to create a larger block, routing can be done based on the prefix of the larger block.
ICANN assigns a large block of addresses to an ISP.
Each ISP in turn divides its assigned block into smaller subblocks and grants the subblocks to its customers.
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Special Addresses
Five special addresses that are used for special purposes: this-host address, limited-broadcast address, loopback address, private addresses, and multicast addresses.
This-host Address
The only address in the block 0.0.0.0/32 is called the this-host address. It is used when-
ever a host needs to send an IP datagram but it does not know its own address to use as the source address.
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Limited-broadcast Address
The only address in the block 255.255.255.255/32 is called the limited-broadcast address.
It is used whenever a router or a host needs to send a datagram to all devices in a network.
The routers in the network, however, block the packet having this address as the destination; the packet cannot travel outside the network
Loopback Address
The block 127.0.0.0/8 is called the loopback address. A packet with one of the
addresses in this block as the destination address never leaves the host; it will remain in
the host. Any address in the block is used to test a piece of software in the machine
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Private Addresses
Four blocks are assigned as private addresses: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16, and 169.254.0.0/16.
Multicast Addresses
The block 224.0.0.0/4 is reserved for multicast addresses.
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
DHCP is an application-layer program, using the client-server paradigm, that actually helps TCP/IP at the network layer
DHCP has found such widespread use in the Internet that it is often called a plug-
and-play protocol. In can be used in many situations.
A network manager can configure DHCP to assign permanent IP addresses to the host and routers.
DHCP can also be con- figured to provide temporary, on demand, IP addresses to hosts. The second capability can provide a temporary IP address to a traveller to connect her laptop to the Internet while she is staying in the hotel.
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DHCP Message Format
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DHCP Operation
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Network Address Resolution (NAT)
Network Address Translation (NAT). The technology allows a site to use a set of private addresses for internal communication and a set of global Internet addresses (at least one) for communication with the rest of the world.
The site must have only one connection to the global Internet through a NAT-capable router that runs NAT software.
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(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, Affiliated to VTU, Karnataka)
12/14/2024
46
Using One IP Address
Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, Affiliated to VTU, Karnataka)
/skit.org.in
/skit.org.in
/skit.org.in
Sri Krishna Institute of Technology
(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, Affiliated to VTU, Karnataka)
12/14/2024
47