Unit 2 chapter 9:
Development
EG, age 4 with his birthday present of “all the Thai food.”
9.1 The Lifespan and Physical Development in Childhood
Developmental Psychology
Zygote
Embryo
Fetus
Teratogens
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Habituation
Maturation
Conception
A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuses to form one fertilized cell.
Your most fortunate of moments!
Out of the 200 million sperm and 5000 total eggs ‘you’ won the race and had perfect timing that month.
Prenatal Development
Prenatal Development
zygote called an embryo
Embryo: 6 Weeks
Notice the large neural tube and the formation of heart tube and other internal organs outside the body.
The embryo detail visible under microscope. Electrical activity in heart tube, debatable if heartbeat.
Size of lentil.
Embryo: 7 weeks
by the liver now instead of the
yolk sac. Yolk sac is the white.
Blueberry sized unformed
Placenta, sac, and embryo.
Fetus: 9 Weeks, no longer an embryo
Fetus:10 Weeks
Fetus: 12-13 Weeks
Fetus at 14-15 Weeks:
16-18 Weeks:
20 Week fetus:
25 weeks or 5 Months:
25 weeks:
30 Weeks:
32 Weeks:
Birth: 38-42 Weeks
Teratogen:Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Reflexes
Specific reflexes
Moro reflex – when startled, baby will throw arms and legs out and head back and then pull them into body
Toe curling reflex – stroke outer sole and baby spreads toes, stroke inner sole and baby curls toes.
Sucking reflex – touch roof of baby’s mouth and she will suck
Grasping reflex – put finger in baby’s palm and baby will grab
Tonic Neck Reflex – if baby’s head is turned to side, baby makes “on guard” move with arms
Temperament
they do react, it is mild
Temperament
Perceptual Abilities
Cognitive Development in the Newborn
Investigators study infants becoming habituated to objects over a period of time. Infants pay more attention to new objects than habituated ones, which shows they are learning
Developing Brain
The developing brain overproduces neurons. Peaking around 28 billion at 7 months, these neurons are pruned to 23 billion at birth. The greatest neuronal spurt is in the frontal lobe enabling the individual to think rationally.
Physical Development
Maturation
Motor Development
Typical maturation (box and whisker plot)
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal devt
9.2 Social Development in Childhood
Attachment
Critical period
Temperament
Imprinting
Baumrind’s 4 parenting styles- know each and their results
Erickson’s 8 Stages- know each of them and their virtue
What is attachment?
an emotional tie
with another person; shown in
young children by their seeking
closeness to their caregiver and
showing distress on separation
This striking parent-infant attachment bond is a powerful survival impulse that keeps
infants close to their caregivers.
What is stranger anxiety?
the fear of
strangers that infants commonly
display, beginning by about
8 months of age
When does separation anxiety peak?
Children’s anxiety over separation
anxiety from parents peaks at around 13 months,
then gradually declines.
What conditions create anxiety?
How does attachment to a caregiver occur?
For many years, psychologists reasoned that infants became attached to those who satisfied their need for nourishment.
The Harlows recognized that the monkey’s intense need for the blanket contradicted the idea that attachment derives from an association with nourishment.
Harlows’ research design
Psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow raised monkeys with two artificial mothers—one a bare wire cylinder with a wooden head and an attached feeding bottle, the other a cylinder with no bottle but covered with foam rubber and wrapped with terry cloth.
What were the assumptions in the Harlow study?
When raised with both, the monkeys overwhelmingly
preferred the comfy cloth mother.
Like other infants clinging to their live mothers, the monkey babies would cling to their cloth mothers when anxious.
What were the conclusions of the Harlow study?
When exploring their environment, they used her as a secure base, as if attached to her by an invisible elastic band that stretched only so far before pulling them back. Researchers soon learned that other qualities—rocking, warmth, and feeding—made the cloth mother even more appealing.
What is the critical period for �development of attachment?
Another key to attachment is familiarity.
In many animals, attachments based on familiarity form during a critical period—an optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development.
(Bornstein, 1989)
the critical period
For goslings, ducklings,
or chicks, the critical period falls in the hours shortly after hatching, when the first moving object they see is normally their mother. From then on, the young fowl follow her, and her alone.
How did Konrad Lorenz explore �imprinting in geese?
Do humans imprint?
Children—unlike ducklings—do not imprint. However, they do become attached, during a less precisely defined sensitive period, to what they’ve known.
Mere exposure to people and things fosters fondness.
Children like to reread the same books, rewatch the same movies, reenact family traditions. They prefer to eat familiar foods, live in the same familiar neighborhood, attend school with the same old
friends.
What accounts for children’s �attachment differences?
Mary Ainsworth designed the
strange situation experiment.
She observed mother-infant pairs at home during their first six months. Later she observed the 1-year-old infants in a strange situation (usually a laboratory playroom) with and without their mothers.
What was the strange situation design?
a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while
their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions
are observed
Ainsworth found that sensitive, responsive mothers had infants who were securely attached.
Insensitive, unresponsive mothers had infants who were insecurely attached.
What is the difference between a secure and insecure attachment?
secure attachment
demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver,
show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find
comfort in the caregiver’s return
insecure attachment
demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious
attachment or an avoidant
attachment that resists closeness
What are two types of insecure attachment?
anxious attachment
People constantly crave acceptance but remain vigilant to signs of possible rejection.
avoidant attachment
People experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others.
How does an insecure attachment effect romantic relationships?
In romantic relationships, an anxious attachment style
creates constant concern over rejection, leading people to cling to their partners.
An avoidant attachment style decreases commitment and increases conflict.
(DeWall et al., 2011; Overall et al., 2015)
What is temperament?
a person’s innate and inborn
characteristic emotional reactivity
and intensity
Types of Temperament
The Difficult Child tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engaging in irregular daily routines and is slow to accept new experiences.
The Easy Child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishing regular routines in infancy and adapts easily to new experiences.
The Slow to Warm Up Child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, shows low adaptability and displays a low intensity of mood.
Can an infant’s temperament influence attachment?
How does temperament impact parenting?
This helps explain why parenting correlates with children’s behavior; it’s partly because children with difficult temperaments
elicit and react more to negative parenting.
(Slagt et al., 2016)
How do we vary parenting while controlling for temperament?
What does the research show about �the power of dads?
Across nearly 100 studies worldwide,
a father’s love and acceptance have been comparable with a mother’s love in
predicting their offspring’s health and
well-being.
(Rohner & Veneziano, 2001)
What impact does involved fathering have on children’s success in school?
In one large British longitudinal study following 7,259 children from birth to adulthood, those whose fathers were most involved in parenting (through outings, reading to them, and taking an interest in their education) tended to achieve more in school.
(Flouri & Buchanan, 2004)
What are the co-parenting positives?
How does childhood abuse or �neglect affect children’s attachment?
How does extreme early trauma �impact the brain?
Abused children’s brains respond to angry faces with heightened activity in threat-detecting areas.
(McCrory et al., 2011)
In conflict-plagued homes, even sleeping infants’ brains show heightened reactivity to hearing angry speech. (Graham et al., 2013)
What are the long-term impacts of abuse?
Can adversity produce well-adjusted adults?
Most children growing up under adversity (such
as the surviving children of the Holocaust and victims
of childhood sexual abuse) are resilient; they withstand the trauma and become well-adjusted adults.
(Clancy, 2010; Helmreich, 1992; Masten, 2001)
What are four types of �parenting styles?
authoritarian parents impose rules and demand obedience
permissive parents set few limits, make few demands and use little punishment
authoritative parents set rules but allow open discussion and exceptions
Permissive indifferent parents are careless, inattentive and do not seek a close relationship with their children
What outcomes are associated with authoritarian parenting styles?
Children with less social skill and self-esteem, and a
brain that overreacts when they make mistakes.
What outcomes are associated with permissive parenting styles?
Children who are more aggressive and immature
What outcomes are associated with �Permissive indifferent parenting styles?
Children with poor academic and social outcomes.
What outcomes are associated with authoritative parenting styles?
Children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence.
Beware the correlational fallacy…
You gotta know Erikson.
Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development
Stage 1: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
Trust vs. Mistrust = Hope
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 4: Industriousness vs. Inferiority
Stage 4: Industriousness vs. Inferiority
Erikson’s Stages of development
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
9.3 Cognitive Development in Childhood
Schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
Sensorimotor Stage
Object Permanence
Sense of Self
Pre-operational Stage
Egocentrism
Theory of Mind
Conservation
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
Abstract Reasoning
Once conscious, how does the mind grow?
Developmental psychologist Jean Piaget [pee-ah-ZHAY] spent his life searching for the answer.
He studied the development of children’s cognition—
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
What was Piaget’s belief about cognitive development?
Piaget’s studies led him to believe that a child’s mind develops through a series of stages,
in an upward march from the newborn’s simple reflexes to the adult’s abstract reasoning
power.
For example, an 8-year-old can comprehend things a toddler cannot, and an adult can understand nuances and abstract concepts that a child cannot.
How do we make sense of our experiences?
Piaget’s core idea was that our intellectual progression
reflects an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences.
To this end, the maturing
brain builds schemas, concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences.
What is a schema?
A schema (or an idea or model) for “doggy” might include: four legs, furry coat, long tail, wet tongue, cold nose, friendly, and fun.
How does a child add new items to existing schemas?
When first seeing a “cat”, a child may think of it in relation to their schema of “doggy”…four legs, furry, long tail, cold nose… and assimilate (or add) this new example into their existing schema.
What if a new example doesn’t fit our existing schema?
If the new example does not quite fit the schema, we receive correction and need to modify our understanding.
This is called accommodation.
How does accommodation increase cognition?
By accommodating (or changing) the existing schema and adding new characteristics to distinguish “doggy” from “cat”, we begin to increase cognitive understanding of our world.
discuss...
Be able to identify what it means to assimilate and accommodate schemas.
Students have confused these terms on the AP® exam
In the past.
What are Piaget’s four stages of �cognitive development?
Piaget believed that children construct their understanding of the world while interacting
with it.
In Piaget’s view, cognitive development consisted of four major stages—sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
What is the sensorimotor stage?
in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory
impressions (what they see, hear, etc.)and
motor activities (how they move)
What is object permanence?
Young infants lack object permanence—the awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived.
How did Piaget test object permanence?
Very young babies seem to live in the present:
out of sight is out of mind.
In one test, Piaget showed an infant an appealing
toy and then covered it with his hat.
Before the age of 6 months, the infant acted as if the toy ceased to exist. By 8 months, infants begin exhibiting memory for things no longer seen and search for the toy. They acquire object permanence.
Criticism of Piaget
Researchers believe Piaget and his followers underestimated young children’s competence and that infants are smarter than Piaget appreciated.
Young children think like little scientists.
They test ideas, make causal inferences,
and learn from statistical patterns.
(Gopnik et al., 2015)
Consider this research…
Renée Baillargeon devised impossible scenes for infant subjects to view, such as a car seeming to pass through a solid object, a ball stopping in midair, or an object violating object permanence by magically disappearing.
Baillargeon saw that infants look longer at and explore those impossible scenes. Why do infants show this visual bias? Because impossible events violate infants’ expectations.
(Baillargeon, 2008; Shuwairi & Johnson, 2013; Stahl & Feigenson, 2015)
Do infants have math sense?
Psychologist Karen Wynn showed 5-month-olds one or two objects then she hid the objects behind a screen, and visibly removed or added one.
What were the results?
When she lifted the screen, the infants sometimes did a double take,
staring longer when shown a wrong number of objects.
(Wynn,1992, 2000, 2008)
What is the preoperational stage?
in Piaget’s
theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which
a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the
mental operations of concrete logic.
What is pretend play?
the acting out of stories which involve multiple perspectives, the playful manipulation of ideas and emotions, and the use of symbols
Shortcoming: egocentrism
in Piaget’s theory,
the preoperational child’s difficulty
taking another’s point of view
A 4-year-old girl shows her grandpa “a match” on two memory game cards
with matching pictures— that faced her, not grandpa.
What are examples of egocentrism?
Asked to “show Mommy your picture,” 2-year-old Gabriella holds the picture up facing her own eyes.
Three-year-old Gray makes himself “invisible” by putting his hands over his eyes, assuming that if he can’t see his grandparents, they can’t see him.
4-year-old Norah “shows” her aunt her new toys over a telephone call, thinking her aunt can see them too.
Watch Out!
Careful! Egocentric is not the same as egotistical.
Egocentric means you can’t take someone else’s
point of view.
Egotistical means you’re pretty full of yourself.
They will gain a theory of mind
people’s ideas
about their own and others’ mental
states—about their feelings,
perceptions, and thoughts, and the
behaviors these might predict
How does theory of mind reveal itself?
With time, the ability to take another’s perspective develops. Children come to understand what made a playmate angry, when a sibling will share, and what might make a parent buy a toy. They begin to tease, empathize, and persuade.
And when making decisions, developing children use
their understanding of how their actions will make others feel.
(Repacholi et al., 2016)
How is theory of mind tested?
Children viewed a doll named Sally leaving her ball in a red cupboard.
Another doll, Anne, then
moved the ball to a blue cupboard.
When Sally returns, where will she �look for the ball?
When asked the question above, 85% of the children in the study answered the question correctly. This showed that although they subjects knew the ball had been moved, they demonstrated theory of mind in knowing that Sally would NOT have known.
(Baron-Cohen, 1985)
They will gain Mental Representations
Psychologist Judy DeLoache showed children a model of a room and hid a miniature stuffed dog behind its miniature couch.
The 2½-year-old subjects easily remembered where
to find the miniature toy, but they could not use the model to locate an actual stuffed dog behind a couch in a real room.
Three-year-olds—only 6 months older—usually went right to the actual stuffed animal in the real room, showing they could think of the model as a symbol
for the room.
They lack conservation?
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part
of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the
same despite changes in the forms
of objects
How did Piaget test for conservation?
This visually focused preoperational child does not yet understand the principle of conservation.
When the milk is poured into a tall, narrow glass, it suddenly seems like “more” than when it was in the shorter, wider glass. In another year or so, she will understand that the amount stays the same.
What is the concrete operational stage?
In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically
about events.
They will get
Mathematical Transformations
3x2 is the �same as 2x3
Complex Classification
More oranges or more fruit?
What is the formal operational stage?
In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Formal Operational
What characterizes the formal �operational stage?
By age 12, our reasoning expands from the purely concrete (involving actual experience)
to encompass abstract thinking (involving imagined realities and symbols).
As children approach adolescence, said Piaget, they can ponder hypothetical propositions and deduce
consequences: If this, then that.
Systematic reasoning, what Piaget called formal operational thinking, is now within their grasp.
Who was Lev Vygotsky?
Vygotsky, pictured here with his daughter, was a Russian developmental psychologist.
He studied how a child’s mind feeds on
the language of social interaction.
How did Piaget’s view of cognitive development differ from that of Vygotsky?
As Piaget was forming his theory of cognitive development, Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky
was also studying how children think and learn. Where Piaget emphasized how the child’s mind
grows through interaction with the physical environment, Vygotsky emphasized how the child’s
mind grows through interaction with the social environment.
If Piaget’s child was a young scientist, Vygotsky’s
was a young apprentice.
What is scaffolding?
a framework that offers children
temporary support as they develop
higher levels of thinking
By giving children new words
and mentoring them, parents, teachers, and other children
provide a temporary scaffold from which children can step to higher levels of thinking.
(Renninger & Granott, 2005)
What was Vygotsky’s view of child �cognitive development?
Effective mentoring occurs when children are
developmentally ready to learn a new skill.
For Vygotsky, a child’s zone of proximal development is the zone between what a child can and can’t do—it’s what a child can do with help.
Children learn best when their social environment
presents them with something in the sweet spot
between too easy and too difficult.
9.4 Adolescent Development
Adolescence
Puberty
Menarche
What is adolescence?
the transition
period from childhood to
adulthood, extending from puberty
to independence
What is puberty?
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Just as in the earlier life stages, the sequence of physical changes in puberty (for example, breast buds and visible pubic hair before menarche—the first menstrual
period in girls, or spermarche, the first ejaculation
in boys) is far more predictable than their timing.
Some girls start their growth spurt at 9, some boys as late as age 16.
Puberty
How does the brain change during puberty?
An adolescent’s brain is still a work in progress. Until puberty, brain cells increase their connections, like trees growing more roots and branches. Then, during adolescence, comes a selective pruning of unused neurons and connections.
(Blakemore, 2008)
How do the frontal lobes develop?
As teens mature, their frontal lobes also
continue to develop.
The continuing growth of myelin, the fatty tissue that forms around axons and speeds neurotransmission,
enables better communication with other
brain regions.
These developments bring improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.
developing impulse control
Surveys of more than 7000 American 12- to 24-year-olds
reveal that sensation seeking
peaks in the mid-teens, with impulse control developing more slowly as frontal lobes mature.
National Longitudinal Study of
Youth and Children and Young
Adults survey data presented by
Steinberg, 2013.
How do adolescents think?
During the early teen years, reasoning is
often self-focused.
Adolescents may think their private experiences are unique, something parents just could not understand: “But, Mom, you don’t really know how it feels to be in love.”
Capable of thinking about their own thinking, and about other people’s thinking, they also begin imagining what others are thinking about them.
Imaginary Audience
Personal Fable
Teen Anxiety and Mood Swings
Teen Anxiety and Mood Swings
Teen Anxiety and Mood Swings
What is identity?
our sense of self; according to Erik Erikson, the
adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Adolescents wonder, “Who am I as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What values should I live by? What do I believe in?” Erikson called this quest the adolescent’s search for identity.
How do adolescents explore identity?
To refine their sense of identity, adolescents in individualist cultures usually try out different
“selves” in different situations.
They may act out one self at home, another with friends, and still another at school or online.
Identity Crisis
What is social identity?
the “we” aspect
of our self-concept; the part of our
answer to “Who am I?” that comes
from our group memberships
For both adolescents and adults, group identities are often formed by how we differ from those around us.
Historically, when did adulthood begin?
In the 1890s, the average interval between a woman’s first menstrual period and marriage, which typically marked a transition to adulthood, was about 7 years.
Today, when does adulthood begin?
By 2006 in industrialized countries, the gap between
the first menstrual period and marriage had
widened to about 14 years.
(Finer & Philbin, 2014; Guttmacher Institute, 1994)
9.5 Adulthood and Aging
Menopause
Alzheimer’s
Five Stages of Grief
What research methods are useful for studying aging?
cross-sectional study
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time
What aspects of our life dominate �our adulthood?
Two basic aspects of our lives dominate adulthood.
Erik Erikson called them the social crisis of intimacy (forming close relationships) v. isolation and generativity (being productive and supporting future generations) v. stagnation.
Sigmund Freud put this more simply:
The healthy adult, he said, is one who
can love and work.
What is the social clock?
Life events trigger transitions to new life
stages at varying ages.
The social clock—the definition of “the right time” to leave home, get a job, marry, have children, and retire—varies from era to era and culture to culture.
The once-rigid sequence has loosened; the
social clock still ticks, but people feel freer about being out of sync with it.
What is the midlife transition?
So the midlife crisis is a myth?
Happiness Curve - Blanchflower and Oswald
Money and Life Satisfaction
Consider this quote…
“ Our love for children is so unlike any other human emotion. I fell in love with my babies so quickly and profoundly, almost completely independently of their particular qualities. And yet 20 years later I was (more or less) happy to see them go—I had to be happy to see them go. We are totally devoted to them when they are little and yet the most we can expect in return when they grow up is that they regard us with bemused and tolerant affection.”
Developmental psychologist Alison Gopnik,
“The Supreme Infant,” 2010
Is the empty nest syndrome a myth?
Although love bears children, children eventually leave home. This departure is a significant
and sometimes difficult event.
But for most people, an empty nest is a happy place.
(Adelmann et al., 1989; Gorchoff et al., 2008)
Many parents experience a “postlaunch honeymoon,”
especially if they maintain close relationships with their children.
(White & Edwards, 1990)
How do telomeres impact aging?
Tips of chromosomes, called telomeres, wear down, much as the tip of a shoelace frays. This wear is accelerated by smoking, obesity, or stress. Breast-fed children have longer telomeres, while those who suffer frequent abuse or bullying exhibit the biological scars of shortened telomeres.
(Shalev et al., 2013)
As telomeres shorten, aging cells may die without being replaced with perfect genetic replicas.
(Epel, 2009)
the aging brain
But compared with teens, older people take a bit more time
to react, to solve perceptual puzzles, even to remember names.
(Bashore et al., 1997;
Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997)
What does the research show about the effects of aging on the brain?
Brain regions important to memory begin to atrophy during aging.
(Fraser et al., 2015; Ritchie et al., 2015)
The blood-brain barrier also breaks down beginning in the
hippocampus, which furthers cognitive decline.
(Montagne et al., 2015)
In early adulthood, a small, gradual net loss of brain cells begins, contributing by age 80 to a brain-weight reduction of 5 percent or so.
What are neurocognitive disorders �(NCDs)?
acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive
deficits; often related to Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse.
In older adults, neurocognitive disorders were
formerly called dementia.
A series of small strokes, a brain tumor, or alcohol use disorder can progressively damage the brain.
Heavy midlife smoking more than doubles later risk of
the disorder. (Rusanen et al., 2011)
What is Alzheimer’s disease?
a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a
progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
As the disease runs its course, after 5 to 20 years, the person becomes emotionally flat, then disoriented and disinhibited, then incontinent, and finally mentally vacant—a sort of living death, a mere body stripped of its humanity.
predicting �Alzheimer’s disease
During a memory test, MRI scans of the brains of people at risk for Alzheimer’s disease (top) revealed more intense activity (yellow, followed by orange and red) when
compared with normal brains (bottom).
Parkinson’s Disease
Stages of Grief �Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book On Death and Dying.
6.6 Moral Development
Preconventional Morality
Conventional Morality
Postconventional Morality
What research has been conducted on �moral development?
Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas (for example, the Heinz dilemma which questioned whether a person should steal medicine to save a loved one’s life) and asked children, adolescents, and adults whether the action was right or wrong.
His analysis of their answers led him
to propose three basic levels of moral thinking:
preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
AP® Exam Tip
Kohlberg’s is an important stage theory.
It’s very important to understand that the stage you’re
in doesn’t depend on what you decide to do (for example, steal the medicine), it depends on why you decide to do it.
Heinz Dilemma:
In Europe, a lady was dying because she was very sick. There was one drug that the doctors said might save her. This medicine was discovered by a man living in the same town. It cost him $200 to make it, but he charged $2,000 for just a little of it. The lady’s husband, Heinz, tried to borrow enough money to buy the drug. He went to everyone he knew to borrow the money. But he could borrow only half of what he needed. He told the man who made the drug that his wife was dying, and asked him to sell the medicine cheaper or let him pay later. But the man said, "No, I made the drug and I’m going to make money from it." So Heinz broke into the store and stole the drug. Should Heinz have done this? Explain your answer.
How do you react?
It isn’t the answer, its how you got to it.
Morality Development: Kohlberg
Stage | Description |
| |
| |
1: Punishment - Obedience
2: Individualism and Exchange
Moral reasoning based on reciprocity. An act is moral if a similar act occurs in return (i.e. satisfies own needs)
Moral reasoning based on immediate consequences for the individual. An act is moral if a person isn’t punished for it. It is immoral if the person is punished.
Morality Development: Kohlberg
Level II: Conventional: Moral reasoning linked to perspectives of/concerns for others (i.e. loyalty, obeying the law, family obligation); typical of 10 to 20 yr olds
Stage | Description |
| |
| |
3: Good boy-nice girl
4: Law and Order
Moral reasoning based on rules, laws, and orderly society. An act is moral if it follows rules or promotes an orderly society.
Moral reasoning based on concern for others or the opinions of others. An act is moral if others demonstrate similar acts, or it helps others (i.e. behavior likely to please others)
Morality Development: Kohlberg
Level III: Post-conventional. Reasoning transcends society’s rules; understands that rules sometimes need to be changed/ignored.
Stage | Description |
| |
| |
5: Social Contract
6: Universal Ethical
Moral reasoning based on abstract principles. An act is moral if it is consistent with an abstract principle that transcends an individual’s society.
Moral reasoning based on principled agreements among people. An act is moral if it is consistent with a principled agreement. (ex: Bill of Rights)
Criticisms of Kohlberg
Kohlberg’s critics have noted that his postconventional stage is culturally limited, appearing mostly among people from western societies that prize individualism.
(Barrett et al., 2016; Eckensberger, 1994; Miller & Bersoff, 1995)
Carol Gilligan on Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory
Research by Carol Gilligan and
her colleagues suggests that this ladder of moral development describes Western individualist
males more than relationship-oriented females.
Gilligan challenged Kohlberg’s findings which were drawn from data collected by wealthy middle-class males and did not reflect female moral development or non-western thinking.
What is moral intuition?
Psychologist Jonathan Haidt believes that much of our morality is rooted in moral intuitions—“quick gut feelings, or affectively laden intuitions.”
According to this intuitionist view, the mind makes moral judgments in much the same way that it makes aesthetic judgments—quickly and automatically.
Feelings of disgust or of elation trigger moral reasoning, says Haidt.
6.7 Gender and Sexual Orientation
Gender/Gender Binary
Sex/Intersex (NOT just 2!)
Gender Identity/fluidity
Androgyny
transgender
Sexual Orientation
Asexual
Cisgender/Cisnormativity
Ally *this is not the A in LGBTQIA, that is asexual or ace in slang.
What determines the sex of a person?
How do chromosomes contribute to this?
But chromosomes are complex
defective mutation in Y will display
female phenotypes
It’s also about hormonal expression and reception
Intersex
heritability
measures how much of a trait's variation in a pop can be linked to genetic differences.
It's not about how much a trait is genetic, but how much genetic differences account for variations.
This concept is crucial in understanding intelligence, behavior, and other bio linked traits.
“
“Disorders of Sexual Development”
There is still intense social pressure to conform to the binary model of sex.
This pressure has meant that people born with clear DSDs often undergo surgery to 'normalize' their genitals. Such surgery is controversial because it is usually performed on babies, who are too young to consent, and risks assigning a sex at odds with the child's ultimate gender identity.
This issue was brought into focus by a lawsuit filed in South Carolina in May 2013 by the adoptive parents of a child known as MC, who was born with ovotesticular DSD, a condition that produces ambiguous genitalia and gonads with both ovarian and testicular tissue. When MC was 16 months old, doctors performed surgery to assign the child as female—but MC, who at 9yo, went on to develop a male gender identity. Because he was in state care at the time of his treatment, the lawsuit alleged not only that the surgery constituted medical malpractice, but also that the state denied him his constitutional right to bodily integrity and his right to reproduce. A court decision prevented the federal case from going to trial in 2023, but a state case is ongoing. to read more
What is Gender Identity?
Gender is a Spectrum
What is Gender Binary?
Is Gender a Social Construct?
So … what is gender?
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, a spectrum between masculinity and femininity.
-Gender is complex mix of societal and biological factors-
One is not simply one's sex—then again, one is not simply one's gender identity either - it’s a complex interaction
Boiling down a complex idea into a binary is excessively simplistic and very harmful.
What is Gender Essentialism?
Gender binary stems from gender essentialism; belief that gender roles and stereotypes are the natural result of biological or neurological differences between males and females.
Used to justify the binary.
Labels within the gender spectrum
Person determined to be F at birth and identifies as a F: cisgender woman
Person determined to be M at birth and identifies as M: cisgender man
Person determined to be M at birth and identifies as a F: trans woman
Person determined to be F at birth and identifies as M: trans man
Person determined to be either M or F,identifies as somewhere along the spectrum, but not within the confines of male or female: nonbinary
Beyond the Binary
Gender Assignment
Occurs at/before birth based on observable biological sex traits. (not necessarily based on chromosomes.)
A label put on a person before they have a voice.
A legal category in some states.
What is the difference between identity and expression?
What is gender attribution?
androgyny
a person whose gender identity is not exclusively male or female and who may or may not have an
intersex condition.
And now for a totally new topic.
Finished gender and sex.
Moved on to the totally new topic of sexual orientation.
What is Sexual Orientation?
Examples of a few sexual identities
Using old school metaphors, just in case you know someone who needs it spelled out really simply.
What are the origins of sexual orientation?
202
Genetic factors
203
Anatomical factors
204
Effects of the prenatal environment
205
Hormones in the prenatal environment
206
How can anatomy be “normal” �but orientation be variant?
207
Conclusions about the �origins of sexual orientation
208