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What do the most popular �language learning apps teach? �The tension between programming ease �and acquisitional needs

�Thor Sawin & Gabriel Guillén

Middlebury Institute of International Studies

tsawin@miis.edu & gaguillen@miis.edu

http://sites.miis.edu/mall

03/20�#AAAL2017

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What the average app downloader experiences:

Low-Hanging Fruit?

Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

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“For the most part, apps are not vehicles for new ideas; instead, they usually digitize old ones (...)�The app (...) throws some pop-psychology jargon at those who visit its website (“adaptive learning algorithm,” “confidence-based repetition”), but you don’t need to have read Wilhelm Wundt, or even Malcolm Gladwell, to understand what the app does. It’s a platform for digital flashcards” (New York Times, 2014)

Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

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Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

Nation	2001	Learning a word is more than learning isolated units of language
Cruz-Piñol	2002	Only 4 out of 207 Spanish sites allowed oral production interaction
Kukulska-Hulme & Shield	2008	Lack of social contact and collaborative learning in MALL (Mobile-Assisted Language Learning)
Chapelle (2001, 2009) Hubbard (2006) CALICO Review Guidelines… → Pegrum (2014) 4 Types of MALL

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↓MALLs

Content (input)

Positive evidence of deployment of structures by human authors

Creation (output)

Creating discourse for other human users to process

Communication (interaction)

Exchanging information with another language user

Tutorial (automated feedback)

Negative/positive evidence about language deployments by learners

Phonology-to-orthography

<defend> ←→ [di’fεnd]

Lexical semantics

L1 translation, TL synonyms, picture illustrating core sense

Lexical grammar (verb-argument construction)

DEFEND s.o. FROM s.t.
DEFEND one’s {thesis, honor, reputation}
{valiantly, forced to, bravely} DEFEND

Functional morphology

Defended, defending, defender, defense, defendant

Sentential syntax

[Subj [[Verb [NP]] NP] or [Det [Noun [CP [who] [Sent]]]

Sentential semantics

Trump says US must be paid more to defend allies.

Pragmatics & Linguaculture

Puedes ponerme un cafe vs. I’ll do a coffee

Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

Ling. Systems →

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Info on # Downloads unavailable

Hit algorithms includes: (un)installs + reviews + engagement + recency

�Which apps show up most in 6 “Top 50” searches?

iPhone Store “Language learning”
iPhone “Learn language”
iTunes “Language learning”
iTunes “Learn language”
Android “Language learning”
Android “Learn language”

Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

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Clear cut off at 48 apps, represent 37 software designs � (Busuu Spanish vs. Busuu) (Mondly: English vs. Mondly German)

37 app designs:

Rated by two raters for which of 4 “MALLs”

Primary (1) = Unavoidable affordance
Secondary (0.5) = Optional affordance
None (0) = No affordance

Rated by three expert raters for which of 7 linguistic subsystems

Explicit Primary (3) = Unavoidable explicit teaching
Explicit Secondary (2) = Optional explicit teaching
Implicit (1) = Opportunity for implicit learning
None (0) = No opportunity for even implicit learning

Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

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Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

Primary Focus

Secondary Focus

No affordance

2 rater weighted kappa = 0.59

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Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

Explicit Primary

Explicit Secondary

Incidental possible

Incidental impossible

3 rater weighted kappa (mean of means) = 0.47

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Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

App name	Acquisitional Function	Linguistic Focus
“Typical” Apps
Memrise, Lingvist, Nemo, StudyCat, Quizlet	Tutorial primary focus Content secondary focus	Phonology/orthography Lexical semantics
Atypical Apps
HelloTalk, Tandem	Communication primary Creation secondary	Incidental focus on all skills, Explicit on none
Busuu	Tutorial and content primary Creation and communication secondary	Explicit primary focus on both vocabulary and sentential syntax Explicit secondary on morphology and pragmatics

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Can we have an app with all 4 MALLS and 7 subsystems?
More “attractive” for beginners or casual users (exceptions)
Most popular apps are not necessarily the “best” ones

Learners at the mercy of marketing claims and SEO

Need of connecting academic rating (CALICO) with learners
Still in the “flashcard era” of MALL…

Digital flashcards with recordings… isolated recordings (still treating words as isolated units of language)

Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

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Form-Meaning-Use: Lexical grammar + pragmatics; Communication + creation

Less than incidental focus on use

Lexical semantics + phonology; Tutorial

Boring, useless, but cheap enough to turn a profit

Learners already believe language = words

Fail at apps → bad language learner, impossible feat

Well-balanced app - higher engagement

but more expensive,
requires critical mass of users

Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

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App Diet

One Stop App

Problem > Literature > Methods > Results > Discussion

http://sites.miis.edu/mall

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Top 37 Apps

Babbel

DuoLingo

Memrise

Busuu

RosettaStone

Google translate

Learn 50 languages

Mango languages

LingQ

Tourist language

Bravelol

Learnlanguages

ChineseSkill

Innovative Language 101

JW language

learn & play

Hello chinese

Learn German - (ye li)

Learn japanese easily

Awabe

lingo arcade

Lerni

Lingvist

Nemo: Spanish

SpeakTribe Spanish

uTalk

HelloTalk

Mondly

Quizlet

Tandem

6000 words - learn spanish

Beelinguapp

Daily Dose of Language

Drops (learn japanese)

FluentU

Studycat (fun Spanish)

Human Japanese lite

In 24 hours