Logos: Logic & Reason

Pathos: Emotion� & Values

Ethos: Authority & Credibility

RHETORICAL�TRIANGLE

Periodic

subordinate constructions precede the main clause, which closes the sentences. Delaying the principal thought increases its importance.

Emphatic

"Given a moist planet with methane, formaldehyde, ammonia, and some usuable minerals, all of which abound, exposed to lightning or ultraviolet radiation at the right temperature, life might start almost anywhere."

Convoluted

Main clause is split in two, opening and closing a sentence; the subordinate constructions intrude between the parts of the main clause.

Establish strong emphasis by throwing weight upon the words at the beginning and end of the sentence.

"Now demons, whatever else they may be, are full of interest."

Freight-Train

freight train style couples short independent clauses to make longer sequential statements.

Useful to link: a series of events, ideas, impressions, feelings, or perceptions as immediately possible, without judging their relative value or imposing logical structure

"And the rain descended and the floods came, and the winds blew, and they beat upon the house; and it fell: and great was the fall of it."

Parallelism

parallelism means that two or more words or constructions stand in an identical grammatical relationship within the sentence.

Pleasant to hear and economical

"We will come when we are ready and we will come when we choose."

same word is used at the beginning of each clause, sentence or line�creates parallelism, lends rhythm to the lines

Anaphora

Tricolon

a series of three parallel words, phrases or clauses, simple, potent and powerful structure �(parallelism in threes)

Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin D. Roosevelt used within their orations

"This great Nation 'will' endure as it has endured, 'will' revive and 'will' prosper. So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself - 'nameless, unreasoning, unjustified' terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance."�(Franklin D. Roosevelt, First Inaugural Address)

the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. Also known as epiphora. Contrast with anaphora.

"Don't you ever talk about my friends! You don't know any of my friends. You don't look at any of my friends. And you certainly wouldn't condescend to speak to any of my friends."�(Judd Nelson as John Bender in The Breakfast Club, 1985)

“Singing the song of procreation,�Singing the need of superb children and therein superb grown people,�Singing the muscular urge and the blending…”�- Walt Whitman.

Epistrophe

intensify emotions in verse or prose by repeating a certain poignant emotion stanza (or para) after stanza.

from the Greek "turning about"

opposition of or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.

Showing opposition for effect

Asyndeton

leaves out conjunctions in a list or between clauses.

Defines the second item as a clarification of the first. List is spontaneous, unfinished. Fast movement to writing rather than a list that drags out.

"He was tall, dark, handsome."�"It was a great prize, a reward for years of service."�"They sat under one roof, princes, dukes, barons, earls, kings."

puts a conjunction between every item in a list or between clauses.

Increasing urgency and power with an almost hypnotic power that forms quickly. Interestingly, widely used in the Bible or in religious text. The steady cadence is an immediate connection to religious text.

"We have an army, and soldiers, and tanks, and planes."�"We listen to hear screams, and cries, and howls of rage."

Antithesis

"Though studious, he was popular; though argumentative, he was modest; though inflexible, he was candid; and though metaphysical, yet orthodox."

Active Voice: subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts. "The dog bit the boy."

Passive Voice: the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. "The boy was bitten by the dog."

Punctuation: how does the author punctuate the sentence and to what extent does the punctuation affect the meaning?

Polysyndeton

E�X�T�R�A�S

words that signify things that cannot be perceived

honor, generosity, idea, democracy

Abstract

Concrete

words referring to perceptible things

a rose, a clap of thunder, the odor of violets

Ambiguity

multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional of word, phrase, sentence or passage.

"It was a 'funny' affair."�Laughable or Strange

Pretentious

using big words to no purpose--except to show off.

"Upon receiving an answer in the affirmative, he proceeded to the bulletin board."

non-literal, associative meaning of a word, the implied meaning.

ideas, emotions, or attitudes�connotation of a 'knife' might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc

Connotation

Denotation

the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word.

devoid of emotion, attitude or color:�denotation of a 'knife' would be a utensil used to cut

Colloquial

"We have a swell professor of mathematics."

Slang

Instead of “goodbye” one might say “peace out.”

Generated by youth culture - Words or phrases used as a variation of another word. Mainly informal.

give a work a conversational, familiar tone.�The use of local or regional dialects:�soda vs pop vs coke

"dead as a doornail," "light as a feather," "white as snow."

earthly remains rather than corpse

Examples of formal vs informal usage of verbs that mean roughly the same thing: �exacerbate, annoy, bug

Informal

levels of usage refers to the kind of situation in which a word is normally used.

are trite expressions, devalued by overuse

a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept�used for social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement

Words specific to a profession or field

In the ER, the doctor called for a “scalpal,” “STAT!”

Cliches

Euphemism

Jargon

Formal

vs.

similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience or both.

Tone

easier to determine in spoken language, but reading text aloud can help identify author's tone.

Similes

Metaphors

Personification

Allusion

Irony

3 types of Irony

Similes

"Cape Cod is the bared and bended arm of Massachusetts."

direct or indirect reference to something that is presumably commonly known: events, books, myth, place, work of art. Historical, literary, religious, topical, mythical.

"The accident was of 'Titanic' proportions."

a brief comparison, usually introduced by like or as.

using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things. Vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions

"My words swirled around his head like summer flies."

"As London increased, however, rank and fashion rolled off to the west, and trade, creeping on at their heels, took possession of their deserted abodes."

contrast between what is stated explicitiy and what is really meant. Appearance vs reality. Creates poignancy or humor.

Verbal: words literally state the opposite of the writer's or speaker's meaning.�Situational: events turn out opposite of what was expected. What ought to happen does not.�Dramatic: facts or events are unknown to character in piece, known to audience or other characters.

Similes

Understatement

2 types of Understatement

Puns

Hyperbole

a word employed in two senses, or used in a context that suggests a second term sounding like it. Comic effect.

"During the two previous centuries musical styles went in one era and out the other..."

deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Comic effect; serious effects also possible. Sometimes produces irony.

opposite of hyperbole. Understatement, ironically minimalizing fact. Humorous and emphatic.

Litotes: �affirmation is made indirectly by denying its opposite.�Meiosis: understatement or belittling; less important than it really deserves.

"I haven't seen you for ages!"

Litotes: "He was not averse to drinking" (he likes to drink)�Meiosis: When Mercutio calls his mortal wound 'a scratch'.

Imagery

sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions.�five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. �Images can represent more than one thing.�Imagery can simultaneously employ symbolism, simile, metaphor, etc.

I wandered lonely as a cloud�� That floats on high o'er vales and hills,�� When all at once I saw a crowd,�� A host, of golden daffodils;�� Beside the lake, beneath the trees,�� Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Similes

Oxymoron

Paradox

Metonymy

Allegory

Analogy

Juxtaposition

"jumbo shrimp", "cruel kindness", "quietly verbose"

"Changed label" or "substitute name", the name of one object is substituted for another closely associated.

A news release that claims "the White house declared" rather than "the President declared"

placing dissimilar items, descriptions, or ideas close together or side by side, especially for comparison or contrast. Effective, emphatic.

"Pointedly foolish", wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Two words or phrases side by side in exact opposition.

statement that is self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.

"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times."

using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction and the literal. Usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. Explain something unfamiliar by associating it with the familiar. Vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

Characters personify hope or freedom. Allegory of the Cave by Plato is about human existence in shadows versus enlightenment of the educated.

Plato's "Allegory of the Cave"

Similes

Conceit

Symbolism

Apostrophe

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?�Thou art more lovely and more temperate.�Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,�And summer's lease hath all too short a date.

directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. Addresses someone who cannot answer for effect of familiarity or emotional intensity.

fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly different objects. Clever, intellectual, unusual comparisons.

generally anything that represents itself and stands for something different. Usually symbols are concrete that represents the abstract.

William Wordsworth addresses John Milton, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour;�England hath need of thee."

Natural: objects and occurrences from nature� (dawn=hope, rose=love, tree=knowledge)�Conventional: invested with meaning with a group� (religious symbols, national symbols, group symbols)�Literary: found in a variety of works and are more recognized.� (jungle in 'Heart of Darkness')

3 types of Symbolism

"A symbol means more than itself, but first it means itself. Like a developing image in a photographer's tray, a symbol reveals itself slowly. It's been there all along, waiting to emerge from the story, the poem, the essay--and from the writer herself

Similes

Consonance

Alliteration

Whose woods these are I think I know.�His house is in the village though;�He will not see me stopping here�To watch his woods fill up with snow. Robert Frost

repetition of the initial consonant sound:�used for impact, harsh sounds impact the senses, soft, subtle sounds support the tone of the text

Consonance is the repetition, at close intervals, of the final consonants of accented syllables or important words , especially at the ends of words.

"A moist young moon hung above the mist of a neighboring meadow."�(Vladimir Nabokov, Conclusive Evidence, 1951)

Resemblance or similarity in sound between vowels followed by different consonants in two or more stressed syllables. Assonance differs from RHYME in that RHYME is a similarity of vowel and consonant. "Lake" and "fake" demonstrate RHYME; "lake" and "fate" assonance.

Assonance

Hear the mellow wedding bells,�Golden bells!�What a world of happiness their harmony foretells!�Through the balmy air of night�How they ring out their delight!

PERSUASIVE VOCAB��Obviously�Evidently�One might consider�It would seem�However�Of course�Naturally�Certainly�Moreover�More importantly�In particular�Especially�In deed�In fact�Above all�Yet despite this�Clearly�Therefore�Notably

Discussion/ Logic CONNECTIVES���Therefore�Alternatively�As a result�Consequently�Accordingly�Thus�Hence�Equally�Similarly�Likewise�Furthermore�Moreover�On the other hand

Report/ �Illustrating Point�CONNECTIVES�����For example�For instance�Such as�As revealed by�Thus�To show that�To take the case of�An example of this is

Time �CONNECTIVES���At that moment,�All of a sudden,�As fast as lightning,�After a while,�Eventually,�Meanwhile,�Until,�Soon after,�Finally,�Without warning,�Once,�Subsequently,�in the end,�Next,�At last,�Firstly,�Secondly,etc.�While,

-ing OPENERS���Running like the wind,�Screaming in pain,�Tiptoeing down the path,�Scanning the horizon,�Treading carefully,�Gazing out of the window,�Wondering how she would escape,�Questioning her reasons...�Advancing towards her ...�Clambering over the wall...�Stopping dead in her tracks...�Hearing the sound of laughter...

-ly OPENERS����Wearily, the old man...�Anxiously opening the door,�Arrogantly holding the sack of gold,�Temporarily blinded,�Quickly gathering his sword,�Calmly, she backed away...�Silently & swiftly, the figure...�Eagerly, she opened...�Greedily stuffing the gold into...�Bitterly regretting entering...

Preposition OPENERS����Inside a huge chest,�Under the silvery moonlight,�Beyond the towering mountains lay,�Ahead of Perseus, lay a gaping...�Without a moment’s hesitation,�On top of the fiery mountain,�Amidst a sea of nettles and brambles,�Between the looming clock tower and court house,�Above the unsuspecting crowds,

ed, ened, en OPENERS��Frightened by the noise...�Taken by surprise...�Alarmed by the sight...�Shocked and shaken, she...�Blinded by the light...�Rocked by the explosion...�Frozen to the spot...�Excited at the sight of...�Angered by the...�Awakened by the...�Deafened by the silence...�Hidden by the clouds...

Space �CONNECTIVES��At the left�At the right�In the center�On the side�Along the edge�Below�On top�Beneath�Under�Around�Straight ahead�Nearby�In the distance�Beyond�In the forefront�Within sight�Out of sight�Across�Adjacent�Surrounding�At the rear

Emphasis�CONNECTIVES���Above all�Indeed�Truly�Of course�Certainly�Surely�In fact�Really�In truth�Again�Besides�Also�Furthermore�In addition

Detail�CONNECTIVES���Specifically�Especially�In particular�To explain�To list�To enumerate�In detail�Namely�Including

Concession�CONNECTIVES����Although�At any rate�At least�Still�Though�Even though�Granted that�While it may be true�In spite of�Of course

Opposition �CONNECTIVES��But�However�Nevertheless�On the other hand�Instead�In contrast�On the contrary�Contrarily�Conversely�Looking at it another way�Although�The main reason against�Some people do not believe�For instance�The evidence for this suggests�Disagree�Whereas�Where this may be true�As long as�At the same time�Rather��but

Explaining/�Listing�CONNECTIVES����So�For example�In other words�For instance�First of all�Finally�In conclusion�After much thought�The main reason for this�In the end we decided�I believe that�����so

Causal CONNECTIVES�����Because�Therefore�Consequently�As a result�Thanks to this�Because of this�This causes�So�The reason that�This results in�When�In short ����������because

In Addition/�Reinforcing�CONNECTIVES �����And�Besides�Anyway�After all�Many people believe�This is an important issue because�One reason is�Furthermore�Also�Moreover�In addition�A further point�Claim that�����and