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Dr. Parisha Thapa, ^{BVSc, MS}

Assistant Professor

Department of Livestock and Production and Management

Agriculture and Forestry University,

Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal

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Egg Production: lighting & Feeding Management

Role of light in Poultry Farming

• Birds are extremely sensitive to photoperiod
• length and intensity of the light received by the bird daily associated with the
• Feed intake & Growth
• Normal physiology
• Egg production
• Types of lighting
• Artificial lighting
• Natural lighting
• Artificial lighting
• Incandescent
• Fluorescent
• Mercury vapours
• Comapct Fluorescent (CF) Lighting

Adjustment of light and Temperature in Brooding

• Brooding in poultry is the process of caring for chicks after they hatch until they can regulate their own body temperature
• Due to lack of thermoregulatory mechanism in chicks, needed required temperature, light and air quality, to thrive during their first weeks.
• Proper brooding practices enhance gut health, immune system development, and overall survivability of the flock
• Intital first 3 weeks are very sensitive
• Initial temp should maintain at 95F during brooding
• Gradually decreased to 5 degree per week until reach to 70 F at 6 weeks.
• Observation: comfortness
• Cold /hot
• Lightining; 40 -60 lux during 1st week
• This lighting(bright light) intensity allows chicks to adjust to their new environment and find their feed and water sources.
• After the 1 st week, reduce light intensity and begin slow step down lighting program

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Bird Distribution Under Brooders

Adjustment of lightening and Darkness

• For the first 24 hours after placement of chicks, continuous light should be provided.
• After 24 hours a minimum of one hour of darkness must be provided, then gradually increased to four hours of darkness for each 24-hour period by 5 days of age
• Period after brooding till sexual maturity is referred as growing period(18 weeks) and form onset of sexual maturity(when hen housed production is 5%) till the end of laying cycle is referred as laying Period ( 18-72 wks)
• After six weeks of age, chickens raised for egg-laying purposes should be provided a maximum of 8 to 10 hours of light per day until they are about 18 to 21weeks of age
• The day length is then increased to stimulate egg production
• It is very important that day length not be reduced once the hens are laying eggs, or production will drop
• This is crtical period as desirable body weight ensures maximum egg produciton during subsequent laying period
• Faulty management may lead to under or over weights, lack of uniform growth, delayed maturity, prolapse, cannibalism and high grower house mortality

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�Lighting and Sexual maturity�

• Light stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland through optic nerve for the release of
• FSH
• LH
• FSH increases
• Growth of the ovarian follicles
• Ovum is released by the action of LH
• Light energy also penetrates through
• Skull
• Skin
• Feathers
• Increasing day length in Growing pullets stimulated anterior pituitary leading to sexual maturity and egg laying
• Artificial lighting for chicken needed to prevent the drop of egg production in short day length

Lighting and Sexual maturity

Lighing during laying

• lighting program greatly influences the feed consumption during laying
• Objective of the lighting programs during production period :
• To encourage growth at start of lay
• To counteract the harmful effects of decreases in natural day length
• To improve egg shell quality

Role of feed to attain sexual maturity

The grower period is crucial as achieving

• Desired body weight ensures optimal production in the laying period
• while Poor management can result in underweight or overweight birds, uneven growth, delayed maturity, prolapse, cannibalism, and increased mortality in the grower house.
• Floor space :
• In case of deep litter -1260 cm²( 1.4 ft²),
• In case of cages - 54 sq. inches
• Feeder Space:
• 6 - 8 cm/bird
• One liner feeder of 120 cm length and 8 cm depth- for 50 grower birds
• Water space:
• 2 cm/bird
• Circular waterer 36 cm (ht.) and 8 cm (diameter) of 6 lts. capacity for 50 grower
• 100 birds: 15 to 20 litters water /day
• Grower mash /feed
• CP- 16%
• ME- 2500 kcals/Kg
• Ca-1%
• Approximately 60-80 gm of feed/bird/day

Restricted feeding

• It is adopted during growing period of layers of breeders
• Two types of restricted feeding
• Quantitative feed restriction
• Qualitative feed restriction
• Quantitative feed restriction
• Feed restriction involves reducing the amount of feed provided to birds below their normal requirement.
• Quantitative feed restriction is commonly practiced in commercial breeding operations
• Qualitative feed restriction
• Quality of feed reduced below the standard requirement of the bird
• Can be done by including unconventional feeds or lesser nutrient feed ingredients in place of high protein or high energy diet

Structure and Formation of Egg

• Reproductive tract
• Ovary and Oviduct
• In chicken, only left side remain functional
• Right ovary and oviduct regressed during embryonic growth, Mullerian inhibiting substance (MIS) is responsible for regression
• Right one is functional in Hawk while both sides functional in Brown Kiwi
• Hen requires 2-2.5 gram ca for normal egg shell formation
• Chicken egg contains 8000-10000 pores in shell
• Egg formation requires 23 to 26 hours
• Mature hen have 3600 -4200 ova
• Ovary
• Yolk formation
• Oviduct
• Albumin, shell membrane and shell
• Yolk matured in 10 days

Ovary & Hormones

• Ovary smooth before laying and later looks granular, looks like cluster of grapes before laying
• Ovary Size is 40 -50 gm in laying hen and 3-5 gm in broody hen
• Reproductive hormone
• FSH
• Activates ovary and oviduct
• LH-release ova from ovary
• Progesterone- release LH from Pituitary
• Arginine Vastocin
• Uterine Contrcation(Oviposition)
• Testosterone
• Comb growth, Albumin formation
• Estrogen
• Plumage growth
• Mating and nesting behaviour
• Oviduct development
• Nutrient supply to ovary and oviduct

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Role of light and intiation of egg formation

• Photoreceptots are present eye send signal to hypothalamus, release GnRH
• GnRH act on pituitary to release FSH and it activates ovary and oviduct
• Active ovary produces estrogens, progesterone and testosterone
• Hormonal and Nervous system is responsible for ovulation
• Release ova into the oviduct
• When ova get matured, progesterone hormone released by ovary
• Progesterone stimualtes hypothalamus so release LH from anterior pituitary
• LH rupture of follicle from stigma( suture line)and ovulation takes place

Formation of egg

• Infundibulum
• Approximately 9 cm funnel like structure
• Capture ova from ovary
• Sperms from males are temporarily stored here for fertilization
• Fertilization take splace if sperms are present only becomes active just after ovulation

• Magnum
• Largest part of oviduct( 33 cm long)
• Major portion of albumin secreted here
• Chalazae also secetred here
• all 4 layers of albumin produced and completed except outer thin white
• Developing ova remains here for 2-3 hrs
• Isthmus
• Small length of 10 cm
• Ova remains here for 75 minutes
• Inner and outer shell membane secreted here

Formation of egg

• Uterus( shell gland)
• 10 -12 cm long in laying birds
• Egg remains here for 18 – 20 hrs
• 4th layer of albumin( outer thin layer) is completed here by addition of water and salts
• Egg shell its pigment and cuticle added here

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• Vagina
• Last part of the oviduct and 12 cm long
• Egg remains for few miutes here
• No egg formation occus here
• Only expel the eggs outside
• Sperm store glands are present at junction of shell gland and vagina
• It can store sperms for 10 -14 days

Structure of egg

• Shell
• Outer covering , accounts for about 9 to 12 % of its total weight depending on egg size
• 1st line of defense against bacterial contamination
• Air cell
• Is the empty space between the white and shell at the large end of the egg which is barely existent in newly laid egg
• The contents contract and the inner shell membrane separate from the outer shell membrane to form the air cell
• Albumen/Egg white
• Accounts for most of egg’s liquid weight about 67%
• Chalaza
• Is the ropey strands of egg white at both sides of the egg

Structure of egg

• Germinal disc
• Barely noticeable as a slight depression on the surface of the yolk
• When the egg is fertilized, sperm enetr by the way of the germinals disc, travel to the center and a chick embryo starts to form
• Membrane
• There are two kinds of membranes, one just under the shell and the other covering the yolk
• These are the shell membrane and the vitelline membrane
• Shell membrane
• Outer membrane sticks ot the shell white the inner membrane sticks to the albumen
• Vitelline membrane
• Is the covering that protects the yolk from breaking
• Weakest at the germinal disc and tends to become more fragile as the egg ages
• Yolk
• The yolk or the yellow to yellow orange portion makes up about 33% of the liquid weight of the egg
• It contains all the fat in the egg and a littles less than half of the protein
• Main protein in the egg yolk is vitelline and lipoprotein
• Aso contains phosvitin which is high in phosphorus and has antioxidant properties and livetin which is high in sulphur

Egg collection, Storage and Transportation

• Introduction
• proper management of egg collection, storage, and transportation is essential for maintaining egg quality, maximizing hatchability, and ensuring food safety
• Egg Collection
• Frequency of Collection:

Eggs should be collected at least 2-3 times per day to minimize the risk of contamination from feces, dust, or other environmental factors

• Timing:

It is best to collect eggs early in the morning, as this is when the majority of eggs are laid

• Gentle Handling:
• Eggs should be handled gently to prevent cracks or damage
• Cleanliness:
• Ensure that hands, collecting trays, and baskets are clean
• Use clean, sanitized egg trays or crates to avoid contamination
• Sorting:
• Eggs should be sorted as they are collected to remove any broken, dirty, or deformed eggs that might affect the quality or appearance of the batch
• Temperature Control:
• Collect eggs in a cool, dry environment to prevent the growth of microorganisms.

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Egg collection, Storage and Transportation

Egg Storage

• Egg storage is crucial for maintaining egg freshness, quality, and hatchability
• Eggs need to be stored in conditions that minimize microbial growth and prevent spoilage

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• Optimal Storage Conditions:
• Temperature:
• Eggs should be stored at a temperature of 10-15°C (50-59°F)
• Storing at too high a temperature can lead to reduced shelf life, while freezing temperatures can damage eggs
• Humidity:
• A relative humidity level of 75-80% is ideal for preventing moisture loss and maintaining egg quality
• Storage Time:
• Eggs should be stored for a maximum of 7-10 days for optimal quality
• Eggs can be stored for longer periods, but their quality will decline, especially in terms of shell strength and yolk integrity
• Positioning:
• Eggs should be stored with the large end up to maintain the integrity of the air cell and minimize changes to the internal contents
• Ventilation:
• Ensure proper ventilation in storage areas to prevent the build-up of gases that may degrade egg quality.

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Egg collection, Storage and Transportation

Egg transportation

• involves moving eggs from the production facility to processing plants, markets, or hatcheries while preserving their quality and minimizing breakage or contamination.
• Packaging:
• Eggs should be packaged in egg cartons or trays made of lightweight and soft material that provide cushioning to prevent breakage
• Temperature Control:
• Transport vehicles should maintain a temperature of 10-15°C (50-59°F), with good air circulation to ensure eggs are not exposed to high temperatures that may lead to spoilage or reduced shelf life.
• Transportation Time:
• The duration of transportation should be kept as short as possible to maintain freshness
• Handling During Transport:
• Avoid rough handling:
• Eggs should be handled gently to prevent cracking or contamination.
• Keep eggs upright:
• Ensure eggs are transported in a manner that keeps them positioned with the large end up to preserve the internal structure.
• Sanitation:
• All vehicles used for transporting eggs should be cleaned and sanitized regularly to avoid cross-contamination and the spread of diseases

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Egg Handling, Grading, and Quality Parameters

• Egg handling
• Involves the physical movement and sorting of eggs after collection
• Primary goal is to reduce physical damage, prevent contamination, and preserve egg quality
• Gentle Handling:
• Handle eggs with care to avoid breakage
• Always handle eggs from the small end and avoid applying pressure to the shell
• Cleaning:
• Eggs should be cleaned only when necessary
• Eggs that are visibly soiled should be gently wiped with a clean, damp cloth not to wash eggs excessively as water can push contaminants into the egg through its porous shell
• Temperature Control:
• During handling, eggs should be kept in cool temperatures (around 10-15°C or 50-59°F) to slow down bacterial growth and preserve freshness.
• Storage Prior to Grading:
• If eggs are not immediately graded, they should be stored in cool, dry, and clean conditions.

Grading of egg

• Egg grading
• Process of classifying eggs based on their quality and size
• Proper grading ensures that eggs are sold at appropriate prices and with consistent quality
• Grading Categories:
• Grade A:
• These eggs have a clean, unbroken shell and are of high quality
• The egg white is firm, and the yolk is well-rounded and firm
• The air cell is small, indicating the egg is fresh
• Grade AA:
• Slightly better than Grade A eggs, with a firm albumen (egg white), a round yolk, and a clean shell
• Grade AA eggs are ideal for hatchability
• Grade B:
• These eggs have a slightly more watery albumen and may have minor shell defects or blemishes
• They are often used in processed food products or food service.

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Grading of egg

• Grading Factors:
• Size Classification:
• Egg size is often categorized by weight
• Common classifications include:
• Jumbo: Over 2.5 oz (70.9g)
• Extra Large: 2.25 oz (63.8g)
• Large: 2 oz (56.7g)
• Medium: 1.75 oz (49.6g)
• Small: 1.5 oz (42.5g)
• Shell Quality:
• Grading also includes inspecting the cleanliness, texture, and strength of the shell
• Shell defects such as cracks or deformities can downgrade an egg’s quality
• Interior Quality:
• Candling is a technique used to examine the interior quality of an egg
• Air cell size: A larger air cell typically indicates an older egg
• Yolk position and condition: The yolk should be round and centred in fresh eggs
• Albumen (egg white) quality: The white should be clear and firm in fresh eggs

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Quality of egg

• Egg quality
• is determined by a combination of internal and external factors, affect quality of eggs
• External Quality:
• Shell Quality:
• The shell should be clean, smooth, and uncracked
• Shell Color:
• The color should be consistent across eggs of the same flock.
• Internal Quality:
• Albumen (Egg White):
• The albumen should be thick and firm with minimal spread
• Yolk Condition:
• The yolk should be firm and centrally positioned within the egg
• Air Cell Size:
• A small air cell is a sign of a fresh egg, while a larger air cell indicates that the egg is older and has experienced more moisture loss

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Cleaning and Fumigation of Hatching Eggs

• In poultry farming,
• Cleaning and Fumigation of hatching eggs are essential practices to ensure the production of healthy chicks and reduce the risk of egg-borne diseases
• Contaminated eggs can lead to poor hatchability, reduced chick quality, and increased transmission of pathogens
• Cleaning Methods:
• Dry Cleaning:
• This method is preferred, as it is less likely to damage the eggs
• Brushes or sandpaper can be used to remove dirt or feathers gently
• Air compressors or vacuum cleaners can also be used to remove loose debris without wetting the eggs
• Wet Cleaning:
• Wet cleaning should be done only if necessary
• This involves using warm water (around 40°C or 104°F) with a mild detergent to remove stubborn dirt
• After washing, the eggs should be dried thoroughly before further handling or storage

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Cleaning and Fumigation of Hatching Eggs

• Cleaning Tools and Equipment:
• The tools used for egg cleaning should be sanitized regularly to prevent cross-contamination
• The equipment includes:
• Soft brushes or sponges for gentle cleaning
• Compressed air or vacuum for dry cleaning
• Dishcloths or paper towels for drying
• Precautions During Cleaning:
• Avoid Cracking or Breaking:
• Eggs should be handled gently to avoid damaging the shell.
• Temperature Control:
• Ensure that water is not too hot or cold,
• Temperature extremes can lead to internal condensation, making eggs more vulnerable to contamination.

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Cleaning and Fumigation of Hatching Eggs

Fumigation

• is a disinfection process used to kill bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens that may be present on or inside the eggshell
• Fumigation Agents:
• The most commonly used fumigation agents are formaldehyde gas and potassium permanganate
• Formaldehyde Gas:
• Formaldehyde is often used for fumigation because it is a strong disinfectant
• It is used in combination with potassium permanganate (KMnO₄), which produces formaldehyde gas when it reacts with the chemical.
• The fumigation chamber is sealed tightly, and the fumigant is released into the chamber for a specific duration, usually between 20–30 minutes.
• Potassium Permanganate:
• Potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) is commonly used in a dry method for fumigation
• The agent releases formaldehyde gas when it reacts with formalin (37% formaldehyde solution)
• This method is very effective in disinfecting eggs without causing damage

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Cleaning and Fumigation of Hatching Eggs

• Fumigation Process:
• Preparation of Fumigation Chamber:
• The chamber should be clean, well-ventilated, and large enough to accommodate the egg trays.
• Ensure that eggs are placed in the chamber separate from other items that may be sensitive to the fumigant.
• Placement of Fumigant:
• If using formaldehyde, a mixture of formalin (liquid formaldehyde) and potassium permanganate is placed in a fumigation tray or container inside the chamber.
• The chamber is then sealed tightly to prevent the gas from escaping.
• Exposure Time:
• The eggs are exposed to the fumigant for about 20-30 minutes
• The exact duration depends on the size of the chamber and the concentration of fumigant used.
• Ventilation:
• After fumigation, the chamber must be ventilated for at least 1-2 hours to allow any remaining fumigant to dissipate before eggs are moved to the incubator.

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Cleaning and Fumigation of Hatching Eggs

• Alternative Methods of Egg Disinfection
• While fumigation is widely used, there are alternative methods for egg disinfection that might be employed depending on the operation size and available resources:
• UV Light Disinfection:
• Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used to kill surface pathogens without the use of chemicals
• UV light can be used in egg conveyors or egg storage units for continuous disinfection
• Ozone Treatment:
• Ozone (O₃) is another disinfectant that can be used for egg surface sterilization
• Ozone gas can be generated in a controlled environment and has the ability to kill pathogens without leaving residues
• Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide (VHP):
• VHP is an alternative disinfectant that can be used for fumigation
• It is often used in commercial hatcheries due to its efficacy and safety compared to formaldehyde

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