1 of 25

2 of 25

A Comparison of Self-Reported Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Among University Music Majors and Non-Music Majors: �A Current Perspective

Dr. Danni Gilbert, University of Minnesota

Dr. Mary Beth Hilbers, University of Nebraska

Dr. Emily Chapman, Fort Hays State University

Catherine Grimm, University of Minnesota

Ellie Johnson, University of Nebraska

2

3 of 25

Statement & Significance of the Problem

3

2 minutes (11:10-11:12)

EMILY: Navigating the demands of obtaining a college degree has perhaps never been more challenging and stressful for students. Tuition costs in the United States have nearly tripled over the past few decades, contributing to enrollment decline. Colleges spend billions of dollars in efforts to combat attrition due to factors such as financial difficulties, lack of commitment, low grades, decreased satisfaction, and personal concerns. Mental health concerns among college-aged students have also been on the rise for decades, but the COVID-19 crisis has since negatively and persistently impacted wellness behaviors, mood, and attention problems of university students. Music students in particular have especially challenging demands on their time when balancing their coursework, employment, practice, and rehearsal schedules. Music majors report high levels of stress and burnout due to performance related injuries, performance anxiety, and social evaluation, making them even more susceptible to mental health issues post-COVID.

ELLIE: Prior research examined the mental health of music majors, music education majors in particular, and the comparison of perceptions of mental health between music majors and university students studying other disciplines. In a previous study, in which data were collected in 2018 prior to the pandemic, results indicated that self-reported levels of depression and anxiety were significantly higher for music majors than for non-music majors. However, not much is yet known about how the pandemic may have impacted university music students’ mental health compared to non-music students. Anecdotally, higher education stakeholders are likely to agree that the mental health of university students seems to have worsened since the start of the pandemic. Collecting and comparing data directly from students to identify current perceptions of mental health can determine whether an empirical change exists since the pandemic and to what extent. University stakeholders can use that information to determine what actionable support, funding, guidance, change, and resources may be needed to best meet the needs of students. It is important to understand and improve university students’ wellbeing because it is a strong predictor of academic success.

�

4 of 25

The purpose of this exploratory, descriptive replication extension was to examine the perceived levels of depression, anxiety, and stress of university music majors and non-music majors and determine whether a statistical difference exists between the two groups.

4

5 of 25

Research Questions:

To what extent do music majors and non-music majors report depression, anxiety, and stress?
Do music majors and non-music majors report significantly different levels of depression, anxiety, and stress?
Is there a statistically significant difference in depression, anxiety, and stress based upon degree type (i.e. undergraduate or graduate) or year in college?
Is there a statistically significant difference in the depression, anxiety, and stress of music majors and non-music majors based on gender identification?
Is there a statistically significant difference in the depression and anxiety of music majors and non-music majors pre-COVID versus post-COVID?

5

6 of 25

Methodology: Participants

Undergraduate and graduate students from 2 large, urban, tier-1 research universities in the American Midwest

Music Majors, n = 191

Non-Music Majors, n = 155

Total participants, n = 346

6

1 minute, 10 seconds (11:14-11:15)

EMILY: Participants in this study included undergraduate and graduate students attending the main campuses of two large, urban, tier-1 research universities in the American Midwest. We categorized students as non-music majors, or as music majors who had declared one of the degree options in music at the participating institutions.

Of the 746 total number of music majors at both universities, 191 students completed the questionnaire.

The population of non-music majors for this study included all undergraduate and graduate students with full-time status attending both universities’ main campuses. These students had also not declared one of the possible degree options in music at either institution. Non-music major participants were recruited based on accessibility, willingness of university personnel to assist with participant recruitment and survey distribution, and included a number of students that could be more easily compared to the total number of music majors. Of the total number of non-music majors that received the request to participate from both universities, 155 students completed the questionnaire. Excluding missing data sets, the total sample size for our study was n = 346. �

7 of 25

Methodology: Equipment & Materials

Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21)

21 items
Public domain, free access to instrument and scoring information

Demographic information collected on questionnaire:

Major (i.e. music or non-music)
Gender identification
Year and degree type (i.e. undergraduate or graduate)
Institutional affiliation (i.e. University A or University B)

7

53 seconds (11:15-11:16)

ELLIE: This study aimed to compare current results with Gilbert’s (2021) previous findings in which the Burns Anxiety Inventory and Burns Depression Checklist were used to measure perceptions of anxiety and depression. However, IRB conditions for approval to conduct the current study stipulated the removal of survey items addressing thoughts of suicide and plans for self-harm. Therefore, rather than potentially jeopardizing validity and reliability by removing items to modify the previous scales, we made the decision to use the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) since it does not overtly address suicide or self-harm. Demographic information gathered about the participants included current major (whether music or non-music), gender identification, year and degree type, and institutional affiliation. The demographic section is the only portion of the questionnaire that was researcher-designed; it was not included in the original DASS-21. Items were stated in their original terms with no rewording.

8 of 25

Methodology: Assessment of Survey Instrument

DASS-21 previously established as valid and reliable (Antony et al., 1998; Clara et al., 2001; Henry & Crawford, 2005)

Cronbach’s alpha of 0.88 = depression; 0.82 anxiety; 0.90 stress

Content and face validity for this study

Related literature
Existing questionnaires
Items with original wording
Panel of experts

Reliability for this study

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient 0.92 = depression; 0.85 = anxiety; 0.86 stress

8

9 of 25

Methodology: Procedure

IRB approval granted to both universities

Online questionnaire distributed via Qualtrics during February of Spring 2024 semester

Participant identities kept confidential and anonymous

9

10 of 25

DASS-21 Demographic Response Frequency Distribution

Characteristic		Frequency (%)
Major
	Music	191 (55.2)
	Other	155 (44.8)
Gender Identification
	Woman	201 (58.1)
	Man	119 (34.4)
	Gender Minority	26 (7.5)
Year
	Underclass	145 (41.9)
	Upperclass	135 (39.0)
	Graduate	66 (19.1)
Institution
	University A	177 (51.2)
	University B	169 (48.8)

�

Note. n = 346

1 minute, 23 seconds (11:16-11:17)

ELLIE: The Research and Statistics Center at University B provided consultation and assistance in data analysis for this project. After obtaining participant survey responses online through Qualtrics, we uploaded data to SPSS for analysis. The demographic information we examined in this study included major, gender identification, degree type and year in college, and institutional affiliation.

Though we were interested in examining the variety of differences among expressions of gender identity as evident in the questionnaire’s seven response options (woman, man, non-binary or third gender, transgender woman, transgender man, gender not listed, and prefer not to say), the small number of participants we obtained within categories other than woman or man would likely not yield any statistically significant results. Rather than exclude the experiences of these participants, we chose to condense our examination of gender identification to the three categories of woman, man, and gender minority for the purposes of this study. Nonetheless, this created some imbalance in our group sizes [CLICK], leading to a violation of the assumption of homogeneity of variance according to Box’s M when conducting our MANOVA. To accommodate, we used Pillai’s Trace as the MANOVA test statistic because it is more robust to unbalanced sample sizes. However, results generated from both the Pillai’s Trace and Wilks’ lambda test statistics were nearly identical. This bolstered the credibility of results and affirmed that we could interpret results with confidence.

11 of 25

RQ1: Distribution of Reported Levels of Depression and Anxiety (DASS-21)

�

Note. n = 346

		Frequency (%)
		Music Majors 191 (52.2)	Non-Music Majors 155 (44.8)	Total 346 (100)
Total Depression Score	Degree of Depression	M = 16.9 SD = 11.3	M = 13.5 SD = 11.4	M = 15.38 SD = 11.4
0-9	Normal	53 (27.7)	71 (45.8)	124 (35.8)
10-13	Mild	32 (16.8)	16 (10.3)	48 (13.9)
14-20	Moderate	45 (23.6)	29 (18.7)	74 (21.4)
21-27	Severe	22 (11.5)	18 (11.6)	40 (11.6)
28 +	Extremely Severe	39 (20.4)	21 (13.5)	60 (17.3)
Total Anxiety Score	Degree of Anxiety	M = 15.7 SD = 10.2	M = 10.2 SD = 8.9	M = 13.2 SD = 10.0
0-7	Normal	54 (28.3)	69 (44.5)	123 (35.5)
8-9	Mild	12 (6.3)	12 (7.7)	24 (6.9)
10-14	Moderate	29 (15.2)	35 (22.6)	64 (18.5)
15-19	Severe	22 (11.5)	12 (7.7)	34 (9.8)
20 +	Extremely Severe	74 (38.7)	27 (17.4)	101 (29.2)

�

45 seconds (11:18)

DANNI: To answer the first research question, we scored responses from the questionnaire based on instructions found with the original DASS-21, calculated descriptive statistics, and reported results in frequency distributions. Participants responded to 21 items on the DASS-21. Using a Likert-type, four-point numerical rating scale, items were scored with a range from 0 = “did not apply to me at all” to 3 = “applied to me very much, or most of the time.” The DASS-21 provides measures of subscale scores for anxiety, depression, and stress.

[CLICK] Music majors, on average [CLICK], reported moderate depression [CLICK], and severe anxiety [CLICK], while non music majors [CLICK], on average [CLICK], reported mild depression [CLICK], and moderate anxiety [CLICK]. [PAUSE FOR A SECOND]

12 of 25

RQ1: Distribution of Reported Levels of Stress (DASS-21)

�

Note. n = 349

�

		Frequency (%)
		Music Majors 193 (55.3)	Non-Music Majors 156 (44.7)	Total 349 (100)
Total Stress Score	Degree of Stress	M = 21.2 SD = 9.3	M = 16.3 SD = 10.1	M = 19.0 SD = 10.0
0-14	Normal	58 (30.1)	77 (49.4)	135 (38.7)
15-18	Mild	18 (9.3)	23 (14.7)	41 (11.7)
19-25	Moderate	51 (26.4)	20 (12.8)	71 (20.3)
26-33	Severe	42 (21.8)	26 (16.7)	68 (19.5)
34 +	Extremely Severe	24 (12.4)	10 (6.4)	34 (9.7)

13 of 25

RQs 2–4: MANOVA

Incomplete, 4-way factorial MANOVA
Dependent variables = DASS-21 scores for depression, anxiety, and stress
4, one-way IVs: major, gender identity, year, institution
3, two-way IVs: major x year; major x gender; major x institution
1, three-way IV: major x gender x year
Assumptions checked

13

1 minute (11:18-11:19)

EMILY: To answer the second through fourth research questions, we conducted an incomplete 4-way factorial multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to compare the mean depression, anxiety, and stress scores reported by participants. The dependent variables, or fixed factors, were DASS-21 scores for the subsets of depression, anxiety, and stress. The four, one-way independent variables were: major, gender identity, year in college, and institution. We also examined the two-way interactions of major and year, major and gender, and major and institution. Finally, we examined the three-way interaction of major, gender and year. A full (complete) factorial MANOVA would include all possible interactions of independent variables. However, we chose to focus our analysis on the variables that we could reasonably advocate to stakeholders as music professors; therefore, we chose not to analyze a four-way interaction. Excluding missing data, our total sample size was n = 346. Prior to conducting the MANOVA, we checked to ensure assumptions were met and concluded that the results can be interpreted with statistical confidence.

14 of 25

RQs 2–4: MANOVA Significant Results

Major: [Pillai’s Trace = 0.043, F (3, 324) = 4.86, p = 0.003, partial η2 = 0.043]
Gender Identification: [Pillai’s Trace = 0.042, F (6, 650) = 2.317, p = 0.032, partial η2 = 0.021]
Music majors (M = 16.9, SD = 11.3) reported statistically significantly higher levels of depression than non-music majors (M = 13.5, SD = 11.4, p = 0.006)
Music majors (M = 15.7, SD = 10.2) reported statistically significantly higher levels of anxiety than non-music majors (M =10.2, SD = 8.9, p < 0.01)
Music majors (M = 21.2, SD = 9.3) reported statistically significantly higher levels of stress than non-music majors (M = 16.3, SD = 10.1, p = 0.002)

14

40 seconds (11:19)

ELLIE: Using the 0.05 level of significance, results of the MANOVA revealed statistically significant differences based on participant responses to the DASS-21 questionnaire for the one-way variables of [CLICK]

major and [CLICK]

gender identification.

We interpreted the effect size for major using partial eta squared as medium and the effect size for gender identification as small.

Because the MANOVA revealed significant differences based on major, we conducted tests of between-subjects effects as a post hoc investigation to determine where the differences among our variables occurred. [CLICK]

Music majors reported statistically significantly higher levels of depression than non-music majors [CLICK]

….as well as anxiety [CLICK]

…..And also with stress. [PAUSE FOR A SECOND]

15 of 25

Differences in Depression Scores by Major and Gender Identification

16 of 25

Differences in Anxiety Scores by Major and Gender Identification

17 of 25

Differences in Stress Scores by Major and Gender Identification

18 of 25

RQs 2–4: MANOVA Non-Significant Results

No significant differences:

Year: [F (6, 650) = 1.198, p = 0.305]
Institution: [F (3, 324) = 1.448, p = 0.229]
Major x Year: [F (6, 650) = 0.939, p = 0.466]
Major x Gender [F (6, 650) = 1.944, p = 0.072]
Major x Institution [F (3, 324) = 1.878, p = 0.133]
Major x Gender x Year [F (24, 978) = 1.120, p = 0.313]

18

19 of 25

RQ 5: Distribution of Degrees of Depression & Anxiety Pre-COVID vs. Post-COVID

19

	Frequency (%)
	Music Majors Pre- COVID (n = 25)	Music Majors Post- COVID (n = 191)	Non-Music Majors Pre- COVID (n = 22)	Non-Music Majors Post- COVID (n = 155)	�	�
Degree of Depression					�	�
Normal	2 (8.0)*	53 (27.7)*	10 (45.5)	71 (45.8)	�	�
Mild	8 (32.0)	32 (16.8)	8 (36.4)*	16 (10.3)*	�	�
Moderate	8 (32.0)	45 (23.6)	4 (18.2)	29 (18.7)	�	�
Severe	6 (24.0)	22 (11.5)	0 (0.0)	18 (11.6)	�	�
Extremely Severe	1 (4.0)*	39 (20.4)*	0 (0.0)	21 (13.5)	�	�
Degree of Anxiety					�	�
Normal	2 (8.0)*	54 (28.3)*	10 (45.5)	69 (44.5)	�	�
Mild	5 (20.0)*	12 (6.3)*	6 (27.3)*	12 (7.7)*	�	�
Moderate	4 (16.0)	29 (15.2)	3 (13.6)	35 (22.6)	�	�
Severe	7 (28.0)*	22 (11.5)*	3 (13.6)	12 (7.7)	�	�
Extremely Severe	7 (28.0)	74 (38.7)	0 (0.0)*	27 (17.4)*	�	�

1 minute, 10 seconds (11:20-11:21)

DANNI: In order to answer the final research question to determine if there was a statistically significant difference in the depression and anxiety of music majors and non-music majors pre-COVID versus post-COVID, we compared results between Gilbert’s (2021) previous study and results from the current study. In the previous study in which data were collected in 2018, the self-reported levels of both depression and anxiety among music majors were significantly higher compared to non-music majors. Non-music majors reported mild anxiety and mild depression, while music majors reported severe anxiety and moderate depression.

We compared results between 2018 (pre-COVID) and 2024 (post-COVID) by examining categorical data of the scored degrees of depression and anxiety. We compared the sets of results using the five degrees of depression and anxiety used in the DASS-21: normal, mild, moderate, severe, and extremely severe.

We conducted a Pearson’s chi-square test of homogeneity to determine whether differences in proportions between 2018 and 2024 were statistically significant. While we found some significant differences between pre-COVID and post-COVID results [CLICK], the assumption of expected cell count was violated; therefore, these results cannot be interpreted with statistical confidence.

20 of 25

RQ 5: Binary Distribution of Presence of Depression & Anxiety Pre-COVID vs. Post-COVID

20

	Frequency (%)
	Music Majors Pre- COVID (n = 25)	Music Majors Post- COVID (n = 191)	Non-Music Majors Pre- COVID (n = 22)	Non-Music Majors Post- COVID (n = 155)	�	�
Degree of Depression					�	�
None	2 (8.0)*	53 (27.7)*	10 (45.5)	71 (45.8)	�	�
Present	23 (92.0)*	138 (72.3)*	12 (54.5)	84 (54.2)	�	�
Degree of Anxiety					�	�
None	2 (8.0)*	54 (28.3)*	10 (45.5)	69 (44.5)	�	�
Present	23 (92.0)*	137 (71.7)*	12 (54.5)	86 (55.5)	�	�

21 of 25

RQ 5: No Reports of Depression and Anxiety (Normal) of Music Majors and Non-Music Majors Pre-COVID vs. Post-COVID

21

22 of 25

RQ 5: Reports of Mild to Extreme Depression & Anxiety of Music Majors and Non-Music Majors Pre-COVID vs. Post-COVID

22

47 seconds (11:23)

ELLIE: Then, we found a significant decrease in the presence of mild to extreme symptoms of depression and anxiety among music majors from 2018 to 2024. The proportion of music majors who reported some level of depression and anxiety decreased post-COVID. Therefore, while findings indicate that the levels of depression and anxiety are still significantly higher for music majors than for non-music majors, the prevalence of music majors’ experiences of depression and anxiety seems to have lessened since the pandemic. No significant differences were found in the self-reported presence of depression or anxiety for non-music majors when comparing pre-COVID versus post-COVID results. These findings seem to contradict the overwhelming assumptions and previous data suggesting that students’ mental health has worsened since the onset of the pandemic.

23 of 25

Discussion

Ubiquitous mental health concerns for music majors
Need to improve experiences of women and gender minorities
Positive benefits of music during trauma?
There is still work to be done

23

5 minutes (11:23-11:28)

DANNI: Data were collected across two large, urban, research universities. Participants were fairly evenly distributed between students belonging to University A and University B as well as music majors and non-music majors. Because we found no significant differences when comparing participants across institutions, similar results are likely to occur at other comparable universities, regardless of location. Further, the original study we sought to replicate analyzed data from a small, private liberal arts college, and also found that music majors were statistically significantly more depressed and anxious than non-music majors. Therefore, the mental health issues of music majors are likely to extend beyond the scope of individual collegiate programs of any size or location–such concerns may need to be addressed on a much larger scale. Whether causes of depression, anxiety, and stress are based on intrinsic characteristics of musicians themselves or on external factors that could be manipulated, the higher prevalence of these problems among music students is reason enough for university stakeholders to take action to improve student wellbeing. Participants in this study ranged from first-year undergraduate students to doctoral students. We found no significant difference in mental health concerns based upon year in the program, confirming prior research. Music majors appear to be more depressed, anxious, and stressed, regardless of their academic level. Therefore, we recommend that stakeholders in university music settings provide increased support to students throughout every level or stage in both undergraduate and graduate programs. Campus support options can even be provided to students prior to the start of the program so they are aware of available resources prior to needing them.

� [CLICK]

EMILY: Our study revealed significant differences in mental health based upon gender identification. Women’s perceptions of anxiety and stress appear significantly worse than men’s, while the perceptions of depression, anxiety, and stress of those identifying as gender minorities appear significantly worse than men’s. No differences were found when examining the interaction of gender and major, nor the interaction of gender with major and year. Results indicate that these mental health concerns occur among students university-wide, regardless of major or academic level. We recommend that collegiate stakeholders provide additional support to those identifying as women and gender minorities, while recognizing that continuing budget cuts to diversity, equity, and inclusion departments in American higher education are concerning for students belonging to these populations. For example, University B is currently planning $800,000 in cuts for next year, including cuts to DEI initiatives. [CLICK]

ELLIE: The decrease in the prevalence and severity of depression, anxiety, and stress between 2018 (pre-COVID) and 2024 (post-COVID) for music majors could promote the idea that music has a beneficial impact on our mental health during times of trauma. Perhaps personal connections to music, even when they could not be shared socially, provided healing or a sense of improved mental health for music students. Musical engagement can be used as an indicator of wellbeing, particularly with regards to recognizing and preventing depression. Additionally, a primary outcome of participating in musical activities is to help regulate mood. Further research that investigates the mental health among music majors both pre and post traumatic experiences would benefit understanding of the impact of music during prolonged periods of distress. [CLICK]

DANNI: Although we expected to see an increase of mental health concerns for everyone when comparing pre-COVID and post-COVID data, we found a decrease in the prevalence and severity of self-reported mental health perceptions among music majors between 2018 and 2024. Despite accounts of increased instances of depression and anxiety of university students following the pandemic, perhaps there are reasons why music majors perceive themselves to be less symptomatic in the post-pandemic era. Results may indicate that college settings have been more conscious about mental health needs and have made improvements to programs or campus climates. This decrease could also be due to a lessening social stigma associated with mental health and consequently an increase in effective treatments or support that reduce problematic symptoms. Additionally, curricular designs in music programs that follow the conservatory model, the role of the hidden curriculum, and the prevailing demand for perfectionism in music that often leads to performance anxiety could be external factors that affect music students’ mental health. When the pandemic caused many music courses, rehearsals, and performances to shift to remote offerings or to be canceled altogether, students may have experienced relief in the demands of their pre-pandemic schedule. As in-person experiences have resumed, students may have become more willing to advocate for their needs, causing faculty to implement less rigorous changes to course practices. While music students’ perceptions of their mental health appear to be improving, they nonetheless continue to be significantly different than the perceptions of students in other majors. Therefore, there is still much work to be done.

�

��

�

24 of 25

Future Studies

24

45 seconds (11:29)

EMILY: Further research is warranted to establish specific causes of depression, anxiety, and stress, particularly among music majors, women, and those identifying in gender minority groups. Since our study was exploratory in nature, a follow-up qualitative or mixed methods approach could help explain why students report feelings of adverse mental health. Follow-up projects may also include different or additional demographic information. Because we did not find differences in student mental health perceptions based on institution, further research may examine different types of institutions across larger geographical spaces, including university music majors from other countries. Additionally, more information is needed to determine methods university stakeholders can implement to improve students’ mental health, as well as necessary training and related professional development.

�

25 of 25

Thank you!

25