Literacy for English Learners: What’s “Reading Science” Got to Do with It?�

Claude Goldenberg

cgoldenberg@stanford.edu or claudegoldenberg@gmail.com

Reading Science

Think about teaching reading, �“just” in general

Is it rocket science?

OR

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Not that complicated?

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Now think about this:

Many students learn to read (and write) in a language they are simultaneously learning to speak and understand. They are part of “all learners,” all around the world. (“English learners” in the U.S.)

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Is teaching reading to these students rocket science or not that complicated? Or closer to one or the other?

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Answer in the chat:�Is teaching reading to students simultaneously learning the language “rocket science” or “not that complicated”?

You can answer one word or jot down some thoughts.

(Idk, not sure, etc. are acceptable.)

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Or closer to one or the other?

And now this: If you’re learning to read in a language you are simultaneously learning to speak and understand

• Is it basically
• similar to or
• different from

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… learning to read in a language you already know?

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Answer in the chat: Which is true?

• Learning to read in a language you are simultaneously learning is basically the same as learning to read in a language you already know.
• Learning to read in a language you are simultaneously learning is basically different from learning to read in a language you already know.
• No clue. You tell me.

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So, whether rocket science or not….

Learning to read in a language you are learning to speak and understand is complicated.

And therefore, so is the teaching.

BUT (good news coming)

It’s basically similar to learning to read in a language you already know.

BUT (qualifier ahead)

“Similar” is not the same as “identical.”

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Learning to read in a language you are simultaneously learning ….

is basically similar to learning to read in a language you already know.

BUT then

“Similar” is not “identical.”

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What do we know from SOR about how children learn to read when they know the reading language ?

How is it similar or different from how children learn to read as they’re learning the language?

So, how does the teaching need to be similar or different?

A word (or 2) about bilingual education

• The single most controversial issue
• Bilingual education is desirable for many reasons
• The vast majority of ELs don’t have the benefit
• Reality on the ground: Most ELs must become literate in a language they are simultaneously learning to speak and understand

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What do we know from SOR about how children learn to read when they know the reading language ?

How is it similar or different from how children learn to read as they’re learning the language?

So, how does the teaching need to be similar or different?

Learners who know the language “rely on a large network of brain regions, as they try to bind orthography [the spelling system] to an already-present knowledge of phonology [sounds of the language] and semantics [meaning carried by language].”

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* Journal of Neurolinguistics 2019

Beginning and early literacy in alphabetic writing systems

Requires learning…

• the alphabetic principle
• letters represent speech sounds
• spoken words comprise individual sounds
• the sound-symbol system (aka phonics)
• most reliable way to read words*
• word recognition by decoding (context and word meanings secondary)

🡪 Working toward fluency

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* even in opaque orthographies

These are the foundations for learning to read.

• understanding the alphabetic principle
• spoken words comprise individual sounds
• the sound-symbol system (aka phonics)
• word recognition by decoding (context and word meanings secondary)

🡪 Working toward automaticity and fluency

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If all you have is a foundation, you haven’t got much.

But the foundation is still essential.

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What do we know from SOR about how children learn to read when they know the reading language ?

How is it similar or different from how children learn to read as they’re learning the language?

So, how does the teaching need to be similar or different?

Learning to read in a language you are learning is basically the same as learning to read in a language you know.

They involve similar “networks of brain activation”*

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* Journal of Neurolinguistics 2019

Similar “networks of brain activation”…… to do what?

• link print and speech
• support
• phonological awareness
• letter-sound “mapping”
• other foundational reading processes*

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* Journal of Neurolinguistics 2019

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The foundations are identical, regardless of learning to read in a language you know or a language you are learning.

• Letters represent speech sounds
• Letters and sounds combine to represent comprehensible words and familiar sounds of the language to how those words and sounds are represented in writing.

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The foundations are identical, regardless of learning to read in a language you know or a language you are learning.

• Letters represent speech sounds
• Letters and sounds combine to represent comprehensible words and familiar sounds of the language to how those words and sounds are represented in writing.

But what is “comprehensible and familiar” is precisely where the differences exist.

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REMEMBER: Learners who know the language “rely on a large network of brain regions, as they try to bind orthography [the spelling system] to an already-present knowledge of phonology [sounds of the language] and semantics [meaning carried by language].”

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* Journal of Neurolinguistics 2019

As a result….

• Learning to read in a language you know and one you are learning are not exactly the same.
• Differences increase as readers progress and language proficiency becomes more critical for comprehension.
• And therefore…..

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Language learners “require additional supporting brain regions during learning” because they have no, or limited, “already-present knowledge of phonology and semantics.”

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* Journal of Neurolinguistics 2019

It’s not just brain science.

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Classroom and intervention studies support these conclusions:

• The foundation for learning to read is the same whether you’re learning to read in a language you are learning or one you already know.
• But they’re not identical; language learners require additional supports.

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What do we know from SOR about how children learn to read when they know the reading language ?

How is it similar or different from how children learn to read as they’re learning the language?

So, how does the teaching need to be similar or different?

Best clues we have come from 2 seminal studies with ELs

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• Each began with a successful intervention for English speakers, then modified to provide language support for ELs
• Intervention provided ample oral English instruction to support the English literacy instruction
• Both obtained moderate to strong effects on early English literacy development for beginning/early English readers
• Full citations are in the reference list at the end (Vaughn et al and Ehri et al.)

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Both began with effective interventions for English monolingual struggling readers

• Goal: Fluent meaningful reading
• Direct instruction approach
• Phonemic awareness, letter knowledge, word recognition, text fluency, comprehension strategies
• Activities included: writing letters, sounding out and reading words, dictation spelling, reading and re-reading decodable text, using comprehension strategies.

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Then added ….

Language supports, e.g.:

• Clarify words and content with visuals, gestures, expressions
• Key vocabulary highlighted and illustrated
• Instruction in English language use; student responses
• Guided book and story retelling and discussion

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“One purpose was to develop oral language by encouraging students to talk about the books and by explaining the meanings of new vocabulary words. These words were written in students’ personal books, and the meanings were reviewed each time the book was read. …Students were encouraged to decode unknown words by relying on their letter–sound knowledge and then cross-checking with meaning and pictures to confirm the identities of the words.” (Ehri et al., 2007, p. 424)

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“One purpose was to develop oral language by encouraging students to talk about the books and by explaining the meanings of new vocabulary words. These words were written in students’ personal books, and the meanings were reviewed each time the book was read. …Students were encouraged to decode unknown words by relying on their letter–sound knowledge and then cross-checking with meaning and pictures to confirm the identities of the words.” (Ehri et al., 2007, p. 424)

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“One purpose was to develop oral language by encouraging students to talk about the books and by explaining the meanings of new vocabulary words. These words were written in students’ personal books, and the meanings were reviewed each time the book was read. …Students were encouraged to decode unknown words by relying on their letter–sound knowledge and then cross-checking with meaning and pictures to confirm the identities of the words.” (Ehri et al., 2007, p. 424)

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The bottom line in beginning and early reading for ELs:

• Teach “The Big 5” explicitly: phonemic awareness, letter-sounds, decoding, fluency, comprehension
• Make the content and the instructions comprehensible (strategic use of L1 is OK!)
• Provide English language development instruction and opportunities that directly supports the reading instruction (in addition to general ELD not limited to words and text ELs are learning to read)

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• Questions if students not “getting it”:
• What is necessary support?
• What is sufficient?

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Tier 2: More*

Tier 3: More intensive*

* Systematic, explicit, cumulative

What does NOT work for ELs/EBs?

• Heavy diet of phonics and decoding, insufficient attention to the meanings of words and text
• As much foundational skills instruction as needed to master the code + ample attention to word and text meanings.

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• “Three-cueing”-- using a combination of letters, syntax, pictures, and context clues to recognize words (called “balanced literacy,” but actually unbalanced & random 😵‍💫)
• Students learn to read words using decoding skills first, then confirm accuracy using meaning and context.

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What does work for ELs/EBs?

Instead of this….

Instead of this….

• As much foundational skills instruction as needed to master the code + ample attention to word and text meanings.
• Learn to read words using decoding skills, then confirm accuracy using meaning and context.

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What does work for EBs?

• Also:
• Continued ELD + support to comprehend texts.
• Content and background knowledge.
• Build on student assets.
• Relevant and motivating learning experiences.
• …….

These are the tools and strategies we can use within an RTI/MTSS framework to help ELs achieve the highest possible levels of literacy development.

What about after beginning and early reading?

• Same basic ideas, but ELs face additional challenges.

🡪 English language development & building background knowledge must begin at school entry; they become increasingly crucial.

• Language demands of school become exponentially more difficult.
• Literacy becomes increasingly dependent on higher levels of English proficiency.
• Knowledge of the world becomes increasingly important.
• But foundations remain important.

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Why do foundations still matter?

Natural resources can determine a country’s economic output and productivity.

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Read this sentence:

Natural resources can determine a country’s economic output and productivity.

What if you had to read it like this?

resources can determine a country’s economic output and productivity.

Natural

can determine a country’s economic output and productivity.

Natural

resources

determine a country’s economic output and productivity.

Natural

resources

can

a country’s economic output and productivity.

Natural

resources

can

determine

economic output and productivity.

Natural

resources

can

determine

a country’s

output and

productivity.

Natural

resources

can

determine

a country’s

economic

and productivity.

Natural

resources

can

determine

a country’s

economic

output

productivity.

Natural

resources

can

determine

a country’s

economic

output

and

Natural

resources

can

determine

a country’s

economic

output

and

productivity.

BOTTLENECK!

Even if you have adequate oral proficiency, vocabulary, content and world knowledge, etc.

�What’s missing?

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The foundational reading skills of

• fast, accurate word recognition

+

• reading fluency

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Missing these foundational skills creates….

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BOTTLENECK!

How to eliminate these bottlenecks: �Word Recognition

• Assure all decoding rules are known and can be applied automatically
• Practice recognizing irregular words and reading them fluently
• Carefully sound out new words, then practice reading them fluently
• Cumulative word lists and flash cards, increasing automaticity
• Games and friendly competitions
• Use known words to challenge students’ automatic recognition
• LOTS OF READING!

How to eliminate these bottlenecks: �Reading Fluency

Recognize that fluency is more than reading words quickly; it also includes

• Chunking word units into meaningful phrases
• Noting morphology and punctuation
• Processing connections within and between sentences
• Integrating intonational patterns to mark syntactic phrasing

READ THIS ALOUD:

Natural resources can determine a country’s economic output and productivity.

In sum: �The relevance of reading science for language learners

• What we know from reading science applies to language learners.
• Foundational reading skills are essential for learning to read.
• Language, vocabulary, knowledge, comprehension skills are needed for continued development for all learners.

In addition….

• Language learners need support to understand words and text they are learning to read as they use foundational skills to read them.
• They will need continued additional support as reading challenges get more complex, and foundations remain foundational.

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References

• Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2020). Literacy foundations for English Learners. Baltimore: Brookes.
• Ehri, L.C., Dreyer, L.G., Flugman, B., & Gross, A. (2007). Reading Rescue: An effective tutoring intervention model for language-minority students who are struggling readers in first grade. American Educational Research Journal, 44(2), 414–448. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207302175 
• Goldenberg, C. (2020). Reading wars, reading science, and English Learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S131–S144. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.340
• Vaughn, S., Mathes, P., Linan-Thompson, S., Cirino, P., Carlson, C., Pollard-Durodola, S., Cardenas Hagan,E., Francis, D. (2006). Effectiveness of an English intervention for first-grade English language learners at risk for reading problems. The Elementary School Journal, 107(2), 153–180.  https://doi.org/10.1086/510653
• Verhoeven, L., Perfetti, C., & Pugh, K. (2019). Cross-linguistic perspectives on second language reading. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 50, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2019.02.001

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Claude Goldenberg

claudegoldenberg@gmail.com

cgoldenberg@stanford.edu