Crime and the Law in the UK

Higher Modern Studies

Causes and theories of crime

Higher Modern Studies

• Criminology is the study of why people commit crime and it is one of the fastest growing degrees in UK universities. Those who practise in this field are known as criminologists.
• Ultimately, the reason why we have crime is because of the actions of individuals who break the rules of society. While excuses can sometimes be made for criminal acts, justice dictates that the individual is responsible for their own actions.
• However, there are trends and patterns that suggest that the conditions in our society have a huge influence over the motivations behind crime and therefore society has a responsibility to provide conditions to minimise crime. These theories are known as sociological explanations for crime and relate largely to the impact of experiences in life and how people are affected by the environment around them, sometimes referred to as nurture.
• Contrastingly, there are occasions when there are no sociological explanations for some crimes. In some cases crime is because of psychological or physiological reasons. These theories offer biological explanations for crime and consider the nature of individuals and their innate desire to commit an offence.
• Let’s start by looking at some of the sociological explanations for crime.

Poverty

• Poverty creates conditions that make it more likely for someone to commit certain crimes.
• The wider impact of poverty on someone’s life experiences can be vast.
• When we describe a group of people from poorer backgrounds we often use the term ‘disadvantaged’ and this relates to education, housing, social exclusion and even self-esteem.
• Although there is no direct link between poverty and crime, there are trends which would suggest some sort of relationship

• The 2019/20 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey found that 16.5% of adults in the 15% most deprived communities experienced crime, compared to 11.2% across Scotland.
• The Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation 2020 shows the councils with the most deprived areas were: Inverclyde, Glasgow City, North Ayrshire, West Dunbartonshire, and Dundee City

Notice anything about the chart on the left, and its connection(s) with the information in the bullet points above?

Tayside’s top police officer revealed shoplifting offences have risen by 23% in the past year.

Chief Superintendent Paul Anderson blamed the increase in shoplifting offences in Angus on increasing poverty.

Police are now working with partner agencies to prevent further incidents and offer support to struggling families.

Chief Superintendent Paul Anderson said: “The overall number of crimes of dishonesty last year rose from 1,369 to 1,419; a rise of 3.7%.

“The overall rise in this crime type is as a result of an increase in theft by shoplifting.

“An increase of 23.3% from 360 to 444 recorded crimes.

“Food and alcohol are the most commonly stolen items and there is an indication that increase correlates with increasing levels of poverty.”

• In 2018, Police Scotland’s suggested that a 30.5% increase in robberies over the past five years might be linked to welfare reforms.
• The welfare reforms were during the era of austerity, when spending on public services was cut back, and welfare was scaled back.
• There was, for example, a Benefit Cap which limited how much individuals could claim on welfare. A two-child limit was placed on Child Tax Credit; eligibility assessments for Personal Independence Payment (PIP) were criticised as too un-realistic; the introduction of Employment and Support Allowance (ESA) led to thousands being underpaid.
• Universal Credit was introduced, with a 5-week wait until people starting receiving money – a policy still in effect to this day.
• In 2019, a report from the Greater London Authority found that 75% of London’s more violent areas were also among the capital’s 10 most deprived communities.

However…

There could be more significant factors that cause crime…

What do you notice about the charts shown? Are there any other factors more significant than poverty?

Alcohol and drugs

• 45% of respondents to the 2019 Scottish Prison Survey said they were under the influence of drugs at the time of their offence. 16% said they committed their offence to get money for drugs. 40% of respondents said they were under the influence of alcohol at the time of their offence.
• The Scottish Crime and Justice Survey suggests that in 2019/20, offenders were under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs in 55% of violent incidents.
• Scottish Government statistics suggest that 62% of those accused in 2020-21 homicide cases were under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs at the time of the murder.

However…

Look at the images shown. What do you think your counter-point(s) could be, when it comes to alcohol? Are there more significant factors?

Scotland's Valium Crisis

You’ll now watch a 27-minute-long documentary from BBC Three where they look into Scotland’s addiction to Valium and the impacts of the drugs in Scotland. As you watch, complete the work-sheet that has been given to you. This will give you a prime example of the dependency some have on drugs, such as Class C drugs like Valium.

Watch the BBC Scotland documentary on YouTube using this link

Find the work-sheet for candidates to use on SharePoint using this link

Ross Kemp’s Britain

You’ll now watch a 44-minute-long documentary from the 2016 Sky series, Ross Kemp’s Britain. In this episode, Ross Kemp looks at how alcohol abuse is leading to crime, and what’s being done to tackle this. As you watch, you might wish to take some notes of the statistics and peoples’ experiences.

Watch the Sky1 documentary on YouTube using this link

Lack of education

• Pupils from the most deprived areas are more likely to have additional support needs, to leave school as a NEET (not in education, employment or training), and to have lower levels of attainment than those from better-off areas.
• Exclusion rates are higher in local authorities with multiple levels of deprivation.
• Scottish Government figures show there were 8,323 school exclusions in 2020/21
• Of those excluded, 36% were from the most deprived areas of Scotland and 70% had Additional Support Needs (ASN).
• The Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime found that pupils excluded from school at 12 are four times as likely as other children to be jailed as adults.

• In 2020, the Prisoner Learning Alliance reported that nearly two-thirds of prisoners in England and Wales truanted from school, 42% were expelled or excluded.
• According to the Prisoner Learning Alliance, 47% of those entering prison in England and Wales have no prior qualifications.

However…

This one should be easy.

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What is the more significant factor that lies behind lack of education as a cause of crime?

• Those from areas of deprivation will generally perform less well in school.
• Scottish Government data shows that while 79.3% of students from least deprived areas achieved at least 1 or more Level 6 SCQF award, in 2018/19, 43.5% of students from the most deprived areas did.
• In 2020, the Prisoner Learning Alliance reported that nearly two-thirds of prisoners in England and Wales truanted from school, 42% were expelled or excluded. According to the Prisoner Learning Alliance, 47% of those entering prison in England and Wales have no prior qualifications.
• In 2019-20, one-third (33.4%) of prison arrivals were from Scotland's 10% most deprived communities.

Darren McGarvey’s Scotland

You’ll now watch a 29-minute-long documentary from BBC Scotland where Darren McGarvey discusses social and economic inequalities affecting Scotland, and its relation to crime. As you watch, complete the work-sheet that has been given to you. This will give you visual consolidation of what you’ve learned in the ‘causes and theories’ section so far.

Watch the BBC Scotland documentary on SharePoint using this link

Find the work-sheet for candidates to use on SharePoint using this link

Physiological explanations

• Physiological theories of crime argue that crime is committed by an individual because of their biological nature. This viewpoint goes back centuries.
• Demonology believed crime was caused by demonic activity.
• Phrenology believed bumps on the skull could predict mental traits. It believed that certain areas of the brain have localised, specific functions.
• Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) argued that the criminal is a sub-species, with criminals more primitive. He believed in the "born criminal".
• While the above schools of thought have been widely discredited by modern criminology, new DNA and brain scanning technology allows us to understand some of the physiological factors behind crime.

Gender

• There are key patterns of criminal behaviour between men and women. Men commit far more crime than women.
• Scottish Government statistics show that 83% of people convicted of a crime between 2019-20 were male.
• In 2019-20, 92.7% of arrivals at Scottish prisons were male.
• In 2020-21, 65 people were accused of homicide in Scotland, with 92% of those accused being male.

Brain injuries

• Brain damage and/or injuries are often associated with increased risks of violence
• This is often because the control impulses of the brain (fight or flight) impair decision making
• A 2021 study, published in The Lancet, recruited 109 women housed in Scottish prisons
• The study found that, “significant head injury (SHI) was found in 85 (78%) of 109 women” involved with the study

Listen to a BBC Radio 4 discussion about brain injuries in prisons via BBC Sounds.

Genetic predisposition

• Genetic predisposition is catch-all term meaning our DNA makes us more likely to carry out certain actions.
• In this case, some argue that people are genetically predisposed to seek out dangerous thrills or become addicted to illicit substances.
• A 2020 study by University College London (UCL) found that young people who are genetically predisposed to risk-taking, low extraversion and schizophrenia are more likely to use alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, or other illicit drugs.

Watch an Open University explanatory video on the ‘addiction gene’ via YouTube

However…

NATURE V NURTURE

• Nature v nurture is essentially physiological v sociological
• The question posed by criminology is: What makes someone more likely to commit crime? Their biology or their environment?
• A 2018 study of Welsh prisoners found that 46% had 4 or more ACEs.
• The study found that those prisoners with 4 or more ACEs were 4 times more likely to have been in a Young Offender Institution (YOI) than those with no ACEs

Watch a Public Health Scotland YouTube video which explains what ACEs are, and the impacts they have

However…

What does all this relate back to?

What do you notice about the chart shown? Is there a factor more significant that lies behind ACEs?