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Background

About a quarter of university faculty contend they have faced gender discrimination (Robst et al., 2003).

Women are largely underrepresented in senior university positions (Bakker & Jacobs, 2016).

Women often feel as though they are overlooked for opportunities that are awarded to their male counterparts who possess the same work-related skills (Moosa & Coetzee, 2020).

Bezuidenhout and Cilliers (2011) refer to the concerning trend of female academics who abandon their careers in higher education prior to promotion or tenure as a “leaking-pipeline” (p. 76).

Employment opportunities and working conditions for marginalized populations--including women, people of color, and individuals with disabilities--have made considerable improvements in the United States over the last several decades. Many researchers have examined gender differences in the workplace in terms of wages, occupations, training, and attrition; however, there continue to be discrepancies regarding whether women are treated fairly at work and in which professions they may be treated the most fairly. Unfortunately, about a quarter of university faculty contend they have faced gender discrimination (Robst et al., 2003) and women are largely underrepresented in senior university positions (Bakker & Jacobs, 2016), so there is still much work to be done.

Despite women working to meet the qualifications necessary to progress in their careers, they still encounter pay-gap inequalities and other barriers related to career advancement. Known as the “glass ceiling” effect, women often feel as though they are overlooked for opportunities that are awarded to their male counterparts who possess the same work-related skills (Moosa & Coetzee, 2020). Some argue that such gender biases prevent qualified women from advancing to deserving positions. In fact, National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) accredited schools reported a ranked faculty ratio of 68% males to 32% females in 2015 (Overland, 2016). Researchers refer to the concerning trend of female academics who abandon their careers in higher education prior to promotion or tenure as a “leaking-pipeline” (p. 76).

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Significance

Establishing an awareness of music faculty members' perceived experiences may help higher education stakeholders best determine faculty needs, support structures, professional development opportunities, and evaluation techniques intended for workplace advancement.

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It is beneficial for those involved in higher education music settings to understand the needs, perceptions, and experiences of women faculty members. Female faculty members not only guide and serve as role models for female students (Lie & Malik, 2012), but they also serve as role models and mentors to other female workers, which may improve job satisfaction and productivity among women (Robst et. al, 2003). Junior women faculty are more likely to be mentored by senior women faculty, resulting in modeling performance, teaching style, and work habits, as well as guiding research and possibly co-authoring publications (Robst et. al, 2003). Some argue that a lack of such mentors may lead to women having difficulty finding co-authors or having their work published. Others found that, because research projects are more often co-authored by individuals of the same sex, women are less likely to serve as a co-author, particularly at research institutions where there are fewer female faculty members.

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Literature Review

Wage Parity: Kuhn (1987); Midkiff (2015); Robst et. al (2003); Barbezat & Hughes (1990)

Sexual Harassment and Discrimination: Blalock (1957); Robst et. al (2003); Allport (1954); Dey et. al (1996); Tolbert et. al (1995); Carson (2001)

Academic Rank, Title, Institutional Type: Robst et. al (2003); Nettles et. al (2000); Kahn (1997); Denton & Zeytinoglu (1993); Gibbons et. al (1988); Ethington et. al (1989)

First identify topic area, then explore what has already been written on the topic. Talk about importance of literature review and process.

When considering the experiences of women in the workplace and in university music settings specifically, some of the most prevalent topics found in the related literature include: wage parity; sexual harassment and discrimination; and academic rank, title, and institutional type. Previous related literature documents the different experiences and opportunities faced by women in the workplace as well as women in academia in particular. However, there appears to be a lack of information related to how women--or other individuals belonging to marginalized, minority, or underrepresented populations--in higher education music settings specifically perceive the fairness and equality of their experiences.

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Purpose

The purpose of this convergent mixed methods research study was to examine the experiences of collegiate music faculty and determine whether factors such as barriers, capabilities, acceptance, work-life balance, advancement, and success beliefs influence perceptions of advancement opportunities in higher education music settings.

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Research Questions

What are the perceptions of collegiate music faculty related to their positions and experiences working in higher education?
In what ways do faculty believe they are supported in their collegiate music positions and in what ways do they feel support could be improved?
Is there a statistically significant difference between women’s perceptions of their experiences in collegiate music positions and those of men?
Is there a statistically significant relationship between the perceptions of collegiate music faculty members’ experiences and their advancement opportunities (i.e. title/rank/role) and if so, what is the nature and strength of the relationship?

After you identify a topic and construct a literature review, then construct research questions to help guide the project. Goal is to find “answers” to research questions through data collection and analysis.

Four research questions were developed for this study: (CLICK)

What are the perceptions of collegiate music faculty related to their positions and experiences working in higher education? (CLICK)
In what ways do faculty believe they are supported in their collegiate music positions and in what ways do they feel support could be improved? (CLICK)
Is there a statistically significant difference between women’s perceptions of their experiences in collegiate music positions and those of men? (CLICK)
Is there a statistically significant relationship between the perceptions of collegiate music faculty members’ experiences and their advancement opportunities (i.e. title/rank/role) and if so, what is the nature and strength of the relationship?

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Methodology: Participants

Music faculty employed at higher education institutions in the United States.

College Music Society = 2,917
NAfME = 1,690

Received total of 126 responses; 2.73% response rate

Respondents = female (63.6%); male (36.4%)

Participants in this study included music faculty employed at higher education institutions in the United States. Music faculty included those involved in applied lessons, ensemble conducting, or other academic (i.e. music history or theory, music education) instruction, or administrative roles within the music department. In addition, participants included music faculty who were part-time, adjunct, or full-time, as well as those who held a variety of academic ranks and titles including tenured, tenure-leading, and non-tenure track positions. We distributed the survey instrument to 2,917 members of the College Music Society (CMS) and 1,690 members of the National Association for Music Education (NAfME) who identified as teaching music in a collegiate setting. Of the approximately 4,607 total people who received the survey request via email, we received a total of 126 responses for a response rate of 2.73%. Respondents described their gender identity as male (35.0%), female (62.5%), or non-binary/third gender (2.5%) and their biological sex as male (36.4%) or female (63.6%). Though we would like to capture the experiences of participants who identify as non-binary, the small number of participants in this group did not yield any statistically significant results in the quantitative analysis, so we chose to focus our examination on biological sex rather than gender identity for this study.

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Methodology: Equipment and Materials

Faculty Opportunities for Advancement in Music (FOAM) Questionnaire

Based on a review of the literature, an examination of various related questionnaires, and feedback generated from a panel of experts in applied, ensemble, academic, and administrative collegiate music settings, we chose to create a modified version of the Advancement Opportunities Questionnaire (AOQ: Moosa, 2016) that we named the Faculty Opportunities for Advancement in Music (FOAM) Questionnaire. Using a Likert-type rating scale, 28 items were scored with a range from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree as well as an option for “unable to answer”. The questionnaire intended to measure the extent that advancement, barriers, support, acceptance, capabilities, success beliefs, and work-life balance contribute to music faculty members’ perceptions of their advancement opportunities in higher education institutions. In addition, participants were asked to provide open-ended written responses to the following questions:

Please describe your own personal experiences with advancement opportunities, rank, title, and promotion related to the position(s) you have held in higher education music settings.
In what ways do you believe you have been supported in your collegiate music position(s)?
In what ways do you believe support could be improved in your collegiate music position(s)?
Please describe any positive or negative experiences you have had in your higher education music position(s) based on your individual characteristics (i.e. age, race, ethnicity, gender identity, biological sex, sexual orientation, relationship status, number of dependents, religious affiliation, etc.). (MOVE ON)

Demographic information gathered about the participants included: age, biological sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, type of current institutional affiliation (public or private, community college, liberal arts focus, vocational-technical career college, university, online education, or other), current position held (adjunct/part-time, assistant professor, associate professor, full professor, lecturer, instructor, emeritus, professor of practice/clinical professor, or other), tenure status (currently in a tenure-leading position, tenured, or non-tenure leading position), geographical location of institution, number of years at current position, number of total years of employment in higher education, race and ethnicity, highest level of education, relationship status, number of dependents, disability status, military status, religious affiliation, and higher education music area that best describes the participant’s current position (applied instrumental/vocal, instrumental/vocal ensemble, music education, administration, music theory/history/composition, or other).

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Methodology: Assessment of Survey Instrument

Content and Face Validity = measure the accuracy of the instrument (measure what it’s supposed to measure)

Review of related literature
Examined existing questionnaires
Review by panel of experts

Pilot Test

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient = 0.651

Reliability = confirm the questionnaire performs as intended (consistency; likelihood scale will give same results on separate occasions)

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient = 0.842, relatively high internal consistency

To measure the accuracy of the survey instrument by testing its content validity, we reviewed the related literature, examined existing questionnaires that gathered data similar to the information needed for the current study, and modeled survey items after previously existing questions. In addition, a panel of experts in higher education music positions reviewed the FOAM questionnaire to determine content and face validity of the instrument. Based on suggestions made by the panel of experts, a final version of the questionnaire was constructed.

Upon receiving IRB approval, we conducted a pilot test prior to the actual distribution of the questionnaire for a small group of higher education music faculty serving in applied, ensemble, and academic areas.

Based on results from the pilot test, we decided to place demographic information at the beginning of the questionnaire and rearrange the order of some of the survey items.

In the final distribution of the survey, prior to performing additional statistical analyses, we checked reliability using the participants’ data to confirm the questionnaire performed as intended. Using SPSS, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient we calculated was 0.842, suggesting a relatively high internal consistency. We did notice that reliability improved from the pilot test to the actual study, perhaps because we reordered sections and items based on recommendations from pilot participants.

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Methodology: Procedure

IRB Approval

FOAM Questionnaire distributed through Qualtrics link via email by CMS and NAfME during February-–March, 2022

Data uploaded to SPSS for analysis

Analysis assistance provided by the Nebraska Evaluation and Research (NEAR) Center

Approval to conduct the study was obtained from the Marshall University Institutional Review Board. Participants received an email distributed through the College Music Society (CMS) and the National Association for Music Education (NAfME) that contained a link to the FOAM Questionnaire in Qualtrics. The Qualtrics survey included the cover letter with informed consent information and questionnaire. CMS and NAfME distributed the survey during February and March of 2022 to all members of the organizations that identified as currently employed in a higher education institution and serving as a faculty member in any music area, including applied music, ensemble conducting, academic instruction (i.e. music education, music theory, music history, composition), and music administration.

Upon obtaining participant survey responses online through Qualtrics, data were then uploaded to SPSS for analysis. Assistance in analyzing the data was provided by the Nebraska Evaluation and Research (NEAR) Center.

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ1

Quantitative: Calculated descriptive statistics for responses on FOAM Questionnaire and reported in frequency distributions

To answer the first research question to determine the perceptions of collegiate music faculty related to their positions and experiences working in higher education, participants were asked to respond to 28 items on the FOAM Questionnaire. We categorized seven items as Barriers, Support, and Acceptance (BSA) (items 7, 8, 10, 14, 23, 24, 25), six items as Capabilities and Success Beliefs (CAS) (items 1, 4, 5, 21, 22, 26), six items as Work-life Balance (WLB) (items 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20), seven items as Advancement (ADV) (items 2, 3, 6, 9, 13, 27, 28), and two Unique items that did not fit our constructs above, but that we felt would yield relevant data for the study (items 18, 19). For each item, respondents selected an option from a Likert-type numerical rating scale ranging from 1 (“Strongly Disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly Agree”), or “Unable to Answer”. We examined participant responses from the FOAM Questionnaire, calculated descriptive statistics for each of the 28 items, and reported the data. We also calculated descriptive statistics for demographic information and reported the data in frequency distributions. PULL UP TABLES TO SHARE on document start on page 61

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ1

Qualitative: Used participant open-ended responses to first and fourth questions to create codes, then grouped to create themes

Themes emerged from RQ1 analysis:

Supports
Advancement Obstructions
Inequity
Human Rights Violations
Personal Emotional Response (Disheartening)
Positive Experience

The qualitative component of this convergent mixed methods research study included four open-ended response questions at the conclusion of the questionnaire. Responses to each question were moved to four independent word documents. Margins to the left and right were altered to allow space in the left-hand margin to list codes and space in the right-hand margin to identify quotes, which were highlighted in the text. Each researcher was provided with the same documents and independently coded the data. In vivo codes, which are words of the participants, were used as often as possible. Final codes were uploaded independently by each researcher to a shared spreadsheet. Codes were reduced across all three researchers and then collapsed–a process completed synchronously by all researchers. Codes were then grouped to create themes.

In addition to selecting from Likert-type options on the 28-item quantitative portion of the FOAM Questionnaire, participants also responded to the first and fourth open-ended questions to help answer the first research question by providing information about the perceptions of collegiate music faculty related to their positions and experiences working in higher education. The first question asked participants to “Please describe your own personal experiences with advancement opportunities, rank, title, and promotion related to the position(s) you have held in higher education music settings.” The fourth question asked participants to “Please describe any positive or negative experiences you have had in your higher education music position(s) based on your individual characteristics (i.e. age, race, ethnicity, gender identity, biological sex, sexual orientation, relationship status, number of dependents, religious affiliation, etc.).”

The themes that emerged from the responses to these questions included Supports ,Advancement Obstructions, Inequity, Human Rights Violations, Personal Emotional Response (Disheartening), and Positive Experience.

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ1

SUPPORTS

“I feel that it is easy for me to take advantage of opportunities…to advance my career and gain promotion”

“I felt guided along the way and had confidence I would be promoted.”

Several respondents reported feeling well-supported by their institutions and encouraged in their efforts toward advancement. One participant stated, “I feel that it is easy for me to take advantage of opportunities…to advance my career and gain promotion” while another said, “I have felt well-supported by my area in this endeavor.” One found their “progress was smooth” while another felt “lucky in a couple of instances” because they “happened to be in the right place at the right time.” Another found the “advancement processes were rigorous but smooth.”

Aspects that seemed to aid in advancement included clear guidelines for promotion and tenure along with mentoring support. One respondent stated, “Tenure and promotion policies and procedures are clear and fairly straightforward in my department. Formal mentoring is available as are opportunities for research release before and after tenure.” Financial support has also proven helpful to some faculty working toward advancement with “greater support afforded to pre-tenure faculty than tenured faculty.” Encouragement from senior faculty can offer additional levels of support to new faculty as stated by one participant: “I had a lot of support from Senior [sic] colleagues outside music education, across the country and within my institution.” Another stated, “I felt guided along the way and had confidence I would be promoted.”

While support was easily identified by some participants, others found numerous obstructions toward promotion and tenure.

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ1

ADVANCEMENT OBSTRUCTIONS

“I will likely delay or possibly forgo having more children at this time.”

“I have had senior male faculty members ask me to take on work outside of the scope of my position (usually part of theirs) and use the line ‘but this will help you earn good grace towards tenure.’”

While expectations for promotion and tenure are clearly defined at some institutions–and tenure-track faculty are provided with mentors, financial support, and release time–other faculty have encountered ceilings to advancement, unclear guidelines for promotion and tenure, and inequities in salary and workload. Even when provided with leadership opportunities, one respondent stated their “experience with service work, particularly administrative responsibilities, has not been positive” while another stated, “You have to conform, you can’t be an individual. If you don’t fit the mold, it is hard to succeed.”

Many institutions hold faculty “to brutally high expectations relative to the support” which resulted in one female respondent stating, “I will likely delay or possibly forgo having more children at this time.” She was not the only woman to point out challenges faced by women in the workplace. Others stated, “women are much more likely to be given service and ‘secretarial’ work than men” while another pointed out, “I can definitely see women working harder than men to attain promotion. The biggest challenge is in the service category, where we are overburdened.” Another mentioned, “I have had senior male faculty members ask me to take on work outside of the scope of my position (usually part of theirs) and use the line ‘but this will help you earn good grace towards tenure.’”

Some respondents did mention that their institutions are working to better support women toward advancement. One participant stated that her “university is very respectful of women,” while another pointed out they have “been lucky…to be supported by the men in” their division and college. It is, however, worth noting that this respondent pointed out that she is “lucky” to be supported by men, which would indicate that the status quo is a lack of support from male colleagues.

The many demands placed on faculty can also hinder advancement, which was highlighted by one participant who stated that “the main challenge currently is a constant stream of administrative work and teaching overloads that highly limit my research time. This, plus being continually asked and sometimes coerced to participate on multiple committees, has absolutely hindered my advancement toward full professor.” Additionally, many adjunct faculty have no hope for advancement. One noted, “The current culture seems to now rely more and more upon adjunct professors to do the important artistic and technical educating, yet placing a ceiling in advancement due to limited number of full-time ‘slots.’”

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ1

INEQUITY

“When my department chair asked me to help out at a conference, he told me to go home and ask my husband about it first.”

“The (male) band director said to me ‘why on earth did they hire a woman for this job?’ He then told me that he would no longer accept student teachers from our (very large and flagship) program.”

Women are “disproportionately voted into service positions” while men are “disproportionately given leadership positions.”

Several respondents commented on inequities faced in their respective positions. While some variety did emerge, gender inequity was consistently mentioned by respondents. One woman commented, “When my department chair asked me to help out at a conference, he told me to go home and ask my husband about it first.” Another participant recounted an experience observing a student teacher stating, “The (male) band director said to me ‘why on earth did they hire a woman for this job?’ He then told me that he would no longer accept student teachers from our (very large and flagship) program.” One respondent who served on her institution’s promotion and tenure committee stated, “It was startling to …see the stark differences in load (particularly service) between my male and female colleagues.” This was echoed by other participants, one of whom pointed out that women are “disproportionately voted into service positions” while men are “disproportionately given leadership positions.” Another participant noted that female faculty are often “expected to carry the emotional load for all that students bring to the table” and are “punished in very tangible ways (time) for being empathetic, good listeners, and empowering” students.

Another woman stated, “Sexism has been a negative experience my whole life. As a woman, you have to do twice as much to get half as far as a man. Men fail upward while women can succeed only to fail because of age and gender.” Another participant noted “my male colleagues sometimes give less credit to the contributions of my female colleagues in meetings.” Others mentioned bullying from male faculty noting that their male peers frequently interrupted and dismissed comments from female faculty during meetings and were guilty of microaggressions against students, in addition to name calling and putting down female faculty.

The issue of inequity went beyond gender as one participant mentioned that she learned a colleague assumed that she “would be weak, pliable, easily controlled.” She is the only black faculty or staff member in her department. An Asian female also stated, “There has been a baked-in expectation of both excellence and deference on my part, (i.e. that I won’t demand anything, or complain).”Another participant felt that their sexuality kept them from advancement, stating, “I felt that colleagues unknowingly and possibly knowingly used my sexuality as a hindrance to fulfilling my goals.”

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ1

HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS

“I once had a colleague tell me that a male student in my class…was being rude because I wasn’t being assertive enough. ‘Sometimes you just need to take them from behind’ he said.”

“When I was on maternity leave, my department still contacted me to ask me to do work.”

“When pre-tenured I got divorced and a senior faculty member told me I should not remarry until AFTER I got tenure.”

A group of participants mentioned experiences that would be considered violations of their human rights within a workplace. Inappropriate comments from male faculty toward female colleagues were the most commonly mentioned offenses, though other violations were included as well.

One woman stated, “My direct supervisor is a bully and treats women as though we were back in the 50s. It is disheartening. I am the only female faculty member in my area. I have to keep tight records and have reported two incidents to HR. Nothing has been done in terms of apologies or consequences.” Another participant was told she would not be considered for department chair because she was female, while another woman recounted one of “many” experiences, stating, “I once had a colleague tell me that a male student in my class…was being rude because I wasn’t being assertive enough. ‘Sometimes you just need to take them from behind’ he said.”

In addition to sexual harassment experienced by women in higher education, one participant pointed out, “When I was on maternity leave, my department still contacted me to ask me to do work.” Another said, “Colleagues with power over my review have used the wrong pronouns and basically asked me to apologize to them for their mistakes. It took nearly 4 [sic] years to have access to a gender neutral bathroom in my building. During a debrief after a peer observation, I was taught how to give an aggressive, masculine handshake to ‘more effectively dominate’ interactions with local teachers.”

Marital status has also been discussed with one man stating, “When pre-tenured I got divorced and a senior faculty member told me I should not remarry until AFTER [sic] I got tenure.” A faculty member pointed out that she was “bullied by male full professors” when serving as department head.

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ1

PERSONAL EMOTIONAL RESPONSE (DISHEARTENING)

“My career advancement was definitely delayed during the time I had young children. There was no support for young fathers…I had to figure it out as I went along.”

“I am invisible to some of my colleagues.”

“There is now more emphasis placed on age, race, and ethnicity than values, experience, and mutual respect.”

Beyond inequities and human right violations experienced by faculty in the workplace are the sometimes disheartening byproducts of a career in higher education. These can range from delaying having children, putting off advancement in order to have children, to challenges faced when seeking a healthy work life balance. Both men and women appear to face these issues. For example, one man stated, “My career advancement was definitely delayed during the time I had young children. There was no support for young fathers…I had to figure it out as I went along.”

Additional difficulties faced by female faculty working with some male colleagues also emerged, as one respondent pointed out, “The double bind applies: making a contribution or voicing an opinion (particularly a strong one) means I’ll be regarded as intelligent and competent but unlikable. Or I can conform to gender expectations and be soft and kind–and then be presumed to not be very intelligent or competent. Additionally I’m aware that I am never, ever allowed to raise my voice or demonstrate emotion…I’m supposed to smile all the time, which I’m not good at. It’s exhausting.” Another mentioned, their “complaint is with a male colleague who continues to exert his male supremacy over the women who work much harder and more effectively than he.”

General disrespect and unfair stereotypes toward faculty have also proven to undermine the confidence of faculty. One respondent stated, “I am non-binary, gender non-conforming and have to constantly ‘prove’ my expertise, whereas exptertise is expected from my male colleagues.” A “small, white woman” pointed out that many people don’t believe she deserves “the same level of respect as others.”

Some faculty simply feel invisible or that they need to hide components of their personal lives. One participant went so far as to state, “I have lied and referred to my partner that passed as my brother” while another person stated they have “been mocked and belittled” by colleagues because of their Christian faith. Another mentioned they’ve been “looked down on” due to their religious affiliation while an older white female faculty member stated, “I am invisible to some of my colleagues.”

Though feelings of invisibility or irrelevance can become challenging internal dialogues to overcome, one male participant pointed out that there exists “an overwhelming feeling of negatively towards white males in today’s professional world. Academia has become so saturated with leftist ideals they have almost ‘overcompensated’ for injustices done to others. There is now more emphasis placed on age, race, and ethnicity than values, experience, and mutual respect.” Another participant pointed out unfairness in teaching assignments due to demographic factors such as being “expected to teach 8:00 am classes” because they “do not have any children” and are also “expected to serve on committees over the summer” because they live locally.

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ1

POSITIVE EXPERIENCE

“Haven’t seen anyone negatively affected.”

“Advocacy work has been fully supported.”

“Since I present as a cis-het white male, I rarely encounter anyone doubting my qualifications.”

“As a white, straight, cisgender male, I have been fortunate to not face any negative experience in earning or carrying out my position.”

While negative experiences of faculty members comprised the majority of responses, several faculty had positive things to say about their advancement and their overall experiences in higher education music settings. One faculty member had several “raises based on equity initiates” while another stated their institution and administration are “adamant about inclusion” so they “haven’t seen anyone negatively affected” at their specific institution. An openly gay professor has not received “any negative experiences” with their LGBTQ research interests and their “advocacy work has been fully supported” within the department.

One person of color mentioned that “parents of students are often surprised to see a black person in my position” which they see as a positive as they can be “a role model to minority students.” Another respondent pointed out that they “have always had positive experiences” and they “have been so lucky” to work with “truly wonderful people.”

The remaining positive experiences come from white men who acknowledged their privilege and how that has allowed them to advance in their careers. One stated, “Since I present as a cis-het white male, I rarely encounter anyone doubting my qualifications.” And while another pointed out that they “benefit from subtle priveleges for white (passing) and male heteronormative individuals” at an institution where “equity actions are present and effective…there is still work to do.” One participant said very plainly, “As a white, straight, cisgender male, I have been fortunate to not face any negative experience in earning or carrying out my position” and fully recognizes and understands “the privileges that come with it.” One final participant pointed out that although they have “reasonably good interpersonal skills” and is a “pretty good match for any job or team” he “definitely” gets “that privilege bump]”.

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ2

Qualitative analysis of 2^nd and 3^rd open-ended questions on FOAM Questionnaire

Themes that emerged:

Encouragement to Grow
Good Collegial Environment
Institutional Failings
Workload

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ2

ENCOURAGEMENT TO GROW

“Clear policies for how faculty are evaluated for promotion and tenure.”

Financial support

Faculty mentorship

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Data Analysis & Results RQ2

GOOD COLLEGIAL ENVIRONMENT

“Respected as a professor”

“Autonomy to work”

“Encouragement to improve”

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ2

INSTITUTIONAL FAILINGS

“limited due partially to the lack of funds available”

“My research, though nationally and internationally recognized, is not seen as important in my area. I am given ‘secretarial’ tasks…while other tenured male faculty assign themselves tasks that bring in the most recognition, esteem, or reward. I really just want to be compensated fairly for the work I do and treated like an equal among my colleagues.”

While some faculty were able to highlight various ways in which they have been supported, those experiences are inconsistent across institutions of higher education. For faculty who have experienced support in terms of professional development, mentorship, clear guidelines for promotion and tenure, and financial assistance, there is an equal number of faculty who have had the opposite experience in those same areas. While not surprising, some faculty feel they are “limited due partially to the lack of funds available.” Beyond financial concerns, some faculty would like “release time to engage in research opportunities” in order to advance their careers.

Participants also pointed to a lack of leadership and diversity in their departments, which can negatively impact the professional environment. One respondent, who is the only untenured female in her area mentioned, “My research, though nationally and internationally recognized, is not seen as important in my area. I am given ‘secretarial’ tasks…while other tenured male faculty assign themselves tasks that bring in the most recognition, esteem, or reward. I really just want to be compensated fairly for the work I do and treated like an equal among my colleagues.” Failings in leadership also make for a hostile work environment for some, as multiple women in one institution have filed complaints against a male “colleague who has continually harassed and taken inappropriate action against women” only to have seen him “protected by his…male Dean” and “never brought up in a formal manner.” Unfortunately, “He is now tenured, still behaving in this manner.” Faculty would like to see “more oversight and involvement on the part of…administrative leadership.”

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ2

WORKLOAD

“continue to maintain multiple memberships in national organizations, continue to participate in professional development, and invest in” their own artistic performance without adequate compensation

“administrative duties are constantly falling on faculty”

“tenured faculty must not hold tenure-leading faculty to higher standards with regard to research and creative activities, service, and collegiality.”

Another challenge faced by faculty is the workload associated with positions in higher education. As mentioned previously, service is not sometimes counted as a component of the overall load but is a component of the overall evaluation for promotion and tenure. Much of that work falls to people of color and female faculty members, which limits their available time for research interests and can, in some cases, delay their advancement. Some feel more can be done in terms of “lessening service for POC and female faculty.”

Adjunct faculty are particularly concerned about their respective workloads and the uncertainty of their positions. One participant pointed out, “It is difficult to feel a sense of community and ownership completely over my work if I am told every year that I may not be returning.” Another mentioned that their job requires that they “continue to maintain multiple memberships in national organizations, continue to participate in professional development, and invest in” their own artistic performance without adequate compensation. While financial compensation and support are concerns for many faculty, it is seen by adjunct faculty as a significant barrier to career advancement.

Some faculty feel that “administrative duties are constantly falling on faculty” and that there are often “not enough faculty” for the needs of the school. Additionally, some participants feel “tenured faculty must not hold tenure-leading faculty to higher standards with regard to research and creative activities, service, and collegiality.” Higher education often sees that “senior faculty do not take on much service work, so it falls on the tenure-track members struggling to get research done and cover more course preps.”

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ3

MANOVA: multivariate analysis of variance

To determine whether a statistically significant difference exists in the perceptions of women compared to men in higher education music settings, we conducted a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to compare the mean scores of the constructs within the FOAM Questionnaire reported by women (n = 63) and men (n = 37). We chose a MANOVA analysis because it is able to handle variables that are somewhat correlated. The dependent variables or fixed factors were the construct groupings (BSA, CAS, WLB, ADV, and Unique) and the independent variable was biological sex. Excluding missing data, our total sample size was n = 100. (MOVE ON)

Prior to conducting the MANOVA, we checked to ensure assumptions were met. Box’s Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices (Box’s M test) indicated that we did not violate the assumption of homogeneity of variances and covariances. We then examined Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance for the overall mean of the FOAM Questionnaire as well as each of the five construct groupings separately. Although we did not violate assumptions for BSA, WLB, ADV, or the Unique groupings, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was violated for CAS and therefore for the overall FOAM mean score as well. To accommodate, we used the corrected model when examining the tests of between-subjects effects.

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ3

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ3

Because the MANOVA revealed a significant difference, we conducted tests of between-subjects effects as a post hoc investigation to determine where the differences among our dependent variables occurred. (We examined the corrected model due to the violation of Levene’s test.) Using the p < 0.05 level of significance, we found significant results within the constructs of Capabilities and Success Beliefs [F (1, 98) = 16.894, p < 0.001, 𝜂² = 0.147], Work-Life Balance [F (1, 98) = 4.626, p = 0.034, 𝜂² = 0.045], and Advancement [F (1, 98) = 12.270, p < 0.001, 𝜂² = 0.111]. However, there were no significant differences between the responses of men and women within the Barriers, Support, and Acceptance [F (1, 98) = 1.261, p = 0.264] or Unique constructs [F (1, 98) = 1.933, p = 0.168]. Figure XX illustrates the mean differences of each of the FOAM constructs by biological sex.

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Data Analysis & Results: RQ4

To determine the nature and strength of the relationship between the perceptions of collegiate music faculty members’ experiences and their advancement opportunities (i.e. title/rank/role), we calculated a Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Using participant responses from the FOAM Questionnaire, we compared the variables of tenure status obtained from the demographic portion of the survey (currently in a tenure-leading position, tenured, or currently in a non-tenure leading position) and responses to items within the Advancement construct. Using SPSS, we first examined the scatter plot to ensure the relationship was not curvilinear or influenced by outliers that would skew the results. The correlation was -0.375 (p < 0.01, two-tailed), indicating a moderate, statistically significant negative linear relationship between tenure status and advancement perceptions. This figure illustrates the negative correlation between tenure status and faculty perceptions of advancement. �

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Discussion & Implications

Demographic Implications

Data collected in 2022 with largest group of respondents between 30-39 years old (31%) and many worked in higher education 5 years or less (23%), so these appear to be current issues.
How many people–particularly women–are leaving academia and not coming back, and why?

In this convergent mixed methods study, we examined the perceptions of collegiate music faculty towards their opportunities for advancement. We determined a statistically significant difference between the perceptions of men and women based upon their responses. Women’s perceptions of their opportunities for advancement were statistically more negative, with significant results within the constructs of Capabilities and Success Beliefs, Work-Life Balance, and Advancement. However, no statistically significant differences were found between men and women within the constructs of Barriers, Support, and Acceptance and Unique. We also found a statistically significant negative linear relationship between tenure status (currently in a tenure-leading position, tenured, or currently in a non-tenure leading position) and self-reported perceptions of advancement opportunities. Based upon analysis of participant open-ended responses, results indicated that collegiate music faculty members’ descriptions of their personal experiences with advancement include overall themes of Support, Advancement obstructions, Inequity, Human rights violations, Disheartening, and Positive experience. When asked how participants have been supported and how support could be improved, the themes that emerged were Encouragement to grow, Good collegial environment, Institutional failings, and Workload.

Demographic Implications

Data were collected in 2022 with the largest group of participants between 30-39 years old (31%) and included many participants who have worked in higher education for five years or less (23%), with the greatest number of respondents working in their current position for less than five years (41.3%); therefore, the concerns addressed by the collegiate music faculty who participated in this study appear to be current and relevant. Though demographic data encompassed faculty members throughout all stages of their academic career, many participants can be considered junior faculty. In other words, concerns with gender-related opportunities for advancement in academia are not issues contained to past generations–they continue to be the issues of today.

It is interesting to note that most participants were female (59.5%) and that the number of respondents decreased incrementally with each advancing age group [see demographic table as supplemental file]. This demographic statistic contradicts a report by the National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) that claimed a faculty ratio of 68% males to 32% females among accredited schools (Overland, 2016). It is possible that, of all people who received the invitation to participate in the study, women felt most compelled to do so based upon the topic. The results beg the question, why were there not more women who participated with more years of experience, who represented older age groups, and with more advanced titles or positions? For future studies, it may be worth exploring how many people–particularly women–are leaving academia and not coming back, and why? Perhaps there are experiences we were unable to capture in the snapshot of this study because those voices already departed higher education.

It is also worth pointing out that the majority of respondents were in non-tenure earning or non-tenured positions (60.3%) compared to those in tenured positions (34.9%). Therefore, of the total participants in this study, most were younger women in the early stages of their careers in higher education who have been hired into non-tenure track positions or who have not yet advanced to tenured positions. Our conclusions echo previous findings that women are more likely to be hired into non-tenure leading roles (AAUP, 2022; Monroe et al., 2014; Johnson 2017), less likely to advance if hired into a tenure-leading role (Bessett et al., 2021; Bakker & Jacobs, 2016), and denied opportunities for advancement due to their gender, despite having similar experiences and performance abilities as men (Marken, 2022). Despite the fact that many participants belonged to these demographics, there were nonetheless statistically significant findings with a large effect size, so the results of this study are generalizable to the wider population of higher education music faculty.

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Discussion & Implications

Need to Promote a Positive

Data collected in 2022 with largest group of respondents between 30-39 years old (31%) and many worked in higher education 5 years or less (23%), so these appear to be current issues.
Improvements made to close gender wage gap, but are working conditions improving?
Female academics who abandon their careers in higher education prior to promotion or tenure is a “leaking-pipeline” (Bezuidenhout & Cilliers, 2011).
Financial impacts of higher education
Your thoughts?

Need to Promote a Positive Work-life Balance

Concerns with work-life balance yielded a statistically significant mean difference between the responses of men and women in this study. Several participants wrote that challenges within their higher education music positions made it difficult to balance work and family responsibilities, care for dependents, or to even become a parent. Existing literature supports the concern that collegiate environments fail to provide adequate support for maternity leave (Maxwell et al., 2019) and family responsibilities (Boyd et al., 2010), resulting in negative performance ability (Bennett, 2008) and decisions by some to change their career goals entirely to be caretakers (Bennett et al., 2018; Crittenden, 2002) or to not have children at all (Macarthur et al., 2017).

Based on the results of this study, it also appears that women are unfairly and disproportionately assigned heavier service responsibilities, overloads in teaching, and experience a lack of scholarly or research support compared to men. These findings are congruent with prior research that suggests women are overburdened with service responsibilities (Bessett et al., 2021; Boyd et al., 2010; Johnson, 2017; Terosky et al., 2014) and lack financial support for research (Gardner, 2013). It appears as though women’s workloads are more likely to be weightier in terms of teaching and service, while men are more likely to be given additional time and financial support towards research. Since, in most university settings, a successful record of research and scholarly activity is recognized as a leading contributor towards advancement, men may hold more of an advantage toward promotion and tenure over women who do not have the time and support to conduct research (or other scholarly or creative activity) due to their busier teaching schedules and service work. In addition, it appears as though more women are hired into non-tenure leading positions–with more teaching responsibilities, less research load, and less pathways toward promotion–while men are more likely to be hired into tenure-leading positions. Therefore, universities can improve the advancement opportunities of women by ensuring that men and women are hired at an equal ratio to both non-tenure leading and tenure-leading positions, as well as ensuring an equitable distribution of service assignments, teaching load, and research support.

Financial impacts within higher education, including the elimination of tenure-track lines (Bergonzi et al., 2015; Finkelstein, et al., 2017) can make it difficult to find the work-life balance necessary to achieve advancement. Faculty can feel like they are expected to do increasingly excellent work with decreasing amounts of compensation and support. Budget cuts, loss of staff and faculty lines, and lack of teaching support for faculty who go on leave of absences places additional burdens on the faculty who remain. As financial trends within higher education demonstrate increasingly less promise for improvement in the future, it is likely that workload will continue to increase for everyone.

Demand Zero Tolerance for Workplace Sexual Harassment and Discrimination

Though some participants reported positive experiences related to their advancement opportunities, the majority of responses were overwhelmingly negative. Of the participants who indicated they felt supported in their pursuit or achievement of advancement, many described their career progression as happenstance and “have been so lucky”, “lucky compared to others,” “lucky to be supported by men,” or that they just “happened to be in the right place at the right time.” This description of success as a matter of luck might suggest that the status quo is unlucky for women and that it is more common to not feel supported by men in the workplace.

Other reports of positive experiences appeared to come from white, heterosexual men who “benefit from subtle privileges,” “rarely encounter anyone doubting [their] qualifications,” and “definitely” get “that privilege bump.” This seems to imply an awareness among men that their success in academic advancement may be boosted by their gender, race, and sexuality, but also suggests an implicit acknowledgement that advancement in higher education is more difficult to attain for others who are not like them. Laursen and Austin (2020) agreed that the “old boys’ network” is a “barrier woven into the fabric of academic workplaces” (p. 6) and can limit career advancement for women (Grant, 2000; Macarthur et al., 2017). When such men advance in rank and title to senior positions, is it possible they help perpetuate the advancement of other men who share their characteristics?

Results from this study indicated that women’s perceptions of their experiences in higher education music settings were often damaging, including instances of bullying, name calling, sexual harassment, discrimination, and human rights violations. Inappropriate comments from male faculty toward female colleagues appeared to be the most common offenses, a finding supported by previous literature (Loots & Walker, 2015). Prior research suggests that a higher ratio of men in the workplace leads to greater instances of sexual harassment and discrimination (Dey et al., 1996; Robst et al., 2003; Schmalenberger & Maddox, 2019). Therefore, it may be important for universities to apply hiring practices that ensure a balanced, equitable ratio between men and women.

A Call to Action

Higher education institutions may discriminate against women more than in other professions (Robst et al., 2003) due to the slow process of faculty turnover as higher-ranking positions are dominated by men (Laursen & Austin, 2020). Although women’s experiences in academic music settings with professional exclusion, bullying, discrimination, sexual harassment, and assault are not often brought to public awareness (Hisama, 2021), collegiate music departments may be of a disproportionally high rate for sexual assault (Jacobs, 2013). Attempts to bring such negative incidents to light in efforts to make change are not frequently met with success. Women seldom report sexual harassment for fear of retaliation or losing job opportunities (Kirkner et al., 2022), fear that stakeholders will side with the male offender (Manne, 2018), and feel that when they do speak up, they are often not taken seriously (Hennekam et al., 2020). Indeed, one woman in our study said that when she reported instances of bullying, “nothing has been done in terms of apologies or consequences.” Experiencing sexual harassment or assault can negatively impact performance ability and lead women towards abandoning the profession (Hisama, 2021; Schmalenberger & Maddox, 2019).

Though some efforts have been made in recent years to help with concerns such as wage disparity, improvements in correcting the pay gap have been largely negligible (Midkiff, 2015). While equal pay is one area where there is room for improvement, so much more also needs to be done. Women should be compensated fairly, and also treated without discrimination, bias, and harassment in the workplace. As Kuhn (1987) pointed out, discrimination is often non-wage in nature, including differences in benefits and workplace treatment. Therefore, solely examining wage disparities is unlikely to encompass most of the discrimination women believe they encounter on the job.

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Data collected in 2022 with largest group of respondents were between 30-39 years old (31%) and many worked in higher education 5 years or less (23%), so these appear to be current issues.
Improvements have been made to close the gender wage gap, but wages still not equal, but are working conditions improving?
statistics/data on “brain drain”? How many people are leaving academia all together and not coming back? Why?
Financial impacts of higher education:

removing tenure-track lines makes it difficult to achieve advancement,
lack of positions/eliminated, teaching falling on backs of who is left teaching,
need to do excellent work with little compensation and support…
doesn’t look like it will improve soon, workload will continue to increase for everyone

Your thoughts?

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