World War I

The War to End All Wars

MAIN Causes

• Militarism
• Nations were increasing the size of their militaries in a competitive way
• Ex: Britain had a strong navy, so Germany wanted a strong navy

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• Alliances
• Nations agree to back each other up in times of conflict

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• Imperialism
• Many nations carve up Africa and take nations as territories during the late 1800s

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• Nationalism
• Pride in ones nation

Alliances

• Triple Alliance (Central Powers)
• Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

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• Triple Entente (Allied Powers)
• England, France, Russia

Immediate Cause

• June 28, 1914
• Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Austria Hungary) is assassinated by a member of the Black Hand organization of Serbia
• July 28^th Austria Declares War on Serbia
• Russia Declares War on Austria
• August 1^st Germany Declares War on Russia
• August 2^nd Germany Invades Belgium
• August 3^rd Germany Invades France
• August 4^th France Declares War on Germany & Britain Declares War on Germany

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The Austrian government was not much concerned to punish the crime of Sarajevo.   They wanted to punish a different crime - the crime that Serbia committed by existing as a free national state.

AJP Taylor, Europe - Grandeur and Decline (1967)

AMERICA GETS INVOLVED

From Neutrality to War

US Isolationism

• Wilson proclaimed American neutrality on August 4, 1914
• Germans announce a blockade and begin to attack unarmed British passenger ships
• Wilson insists American have a right as neutrals to travel safely

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Economics of Neutrality

• US loses approximately $150 million by not being able to trade with the Central Powers
• Trade with the Allies rose from $825 million to $3.2 Billion
• British & French borrow $3.25 billion from American sources
• US becomes major supplier of Allied munitions, food and raw materials

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Sinking of the Lusitania

May 7, 1915 British passenger ship Lusitania sunk off coast of Ireland – 128 Americans died (1,198 people total)

The War Debate

• After the Lusitania Crisis, a small but vocal minority of influential Republicans from the east argued for US entry into the war against Germany
• Majority of Americans were thankful for the booming economy and peace
• American military hopelessly unprepared for a major war

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Progressive Responses

William Jennings Bryan, Robert LaFollette

• American Union Against Militarism – virtual who’s who of progressive leaders – shared conviction that war was inevitably disastrous to the reforms that were taking place in society
• Some progressives began to see the preparations for war as an opportunity to institute large scale reforms that might otherwise take years to develop – land reclamation, curtailment of child labor, an improved tax system

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Wilson Responds

• At first Wilson opposed the call for preparedness but in late 1915 changed his policy - urged Congress to approve an ambitious expansion of the armed forces – provoked a storm of controversy
• Wilson went on a nationwide speaking tour on behalf of preparedness – said no imminent threat but we must be prepared to survive in a world being transformed on the battlefields – set his proposals in broad historical context
• Congress passed National Defense Act – June 1916 – increased army from 90,000 to 220,000 and enlarged the National Guard
• Election of 1916: Kept out of War

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Opposition

• Anti war activists include Populists, Progressives & Socialists

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America Declares War

• On April 2, 1917, senators, representatives, ambassadors, members of the Supreme Court, and other guests crowded into the Capitol building to hear Wilson deliver his declaration of war.
• Wilson said, “The world must be made safe for democracy.”
• Congress passed the resolution a few days later.

Why US Enters the War

• 1. Unrestricted submarine warfare
• sinking of the Lusitania (1915)
• Germany renews unrestricted U Boat attacks (1917)
• 2. American Propaganda
• Stressed German barbarism.
• Posters depicting the Kaiser as some sort of madman.
• Urged American to support allies throughout neutrality.
• 3. German Dictatorship
• "Make the World safe for Democracy." - Cultural ties
• 4. U.S. Business Interests
• US trade w/ the allies increased from 825 million in 1914 to 3.2 billion in 1916.
• 5. Zimmerman Note
• Germany asked Mexico to enter the war against the US. We intercepted the note.

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

• Sudden change in German strategy – resume unrestricted submarine warfare beginning in early January 1917 – realized risk of US entry but saw that by cutting off supplies to the allies, Germany could win war before Americans could react
• January 31^st – Germans told Americans of resumption
• A few days later Wilson breaks diplomatic relations with Germany
• 1^st weeks of March, 5 unarmed merchant ships of US sank

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Propaganda Posters

Zimmerman Note

• March 1, 1917 – US newspapers carry shocking news of a secret offer made by Germany to Mexico
• Proposed to ally Mexico with Germany in return for Germany’s pledge to recover lost territories of TX, NM and AZ

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Arguments For Entry

• Those who spoke on behalf of American entry figured the war as a contest between democracy and autocracy – a profound ideological struggle in which America was aligning herself selflessly and with the forces of right

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Arguments Against

• Opponents made three kinds of arguments
• Saw the danger of entangling alliances with European powers in the service of aims irrelevant – it was okay to go to war in defense of American rights but not a European war of aggression
• American entry into war was seen as a conspiracy by Easterners to fasten suffering on the common people for the benefit of big capital
• Conviction that no cause could sanctify the wanton bloodletting of modern warfare

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War on the Home Front

The Draft

• Selective Service Act
• Required all men 21-30 to register
• 2.8 million were eventually called by lottery
• Draftees provided over half of the total 4.7 million Americans who were issued uniforms
• Of these 2 million transported overseas

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Anti-German Sentiment

• “The Hun within our gates is the worst of the foes of our own household, whether he is the paid or the unpaid agent of Germany. Whether he is pro-German or poses as a pacifist, or a peace-at-any-price-man, matters little....The German-language papers carry on a consistent campaign in favor of Germany against England. They should be put out of existence for the period of this war....Every disloyal native-born American should be disfranchised and interned. It is time to strike our enemies at home heavily and quickly.”
• Theodore Roosevelt, 1917

Education

• School districts banned the teaching of German language - an Iowa politician said that 90% of all men and women who teach the German language are traitors
• Schools demand loyalty oaths from school personnel
• All texts that fail to condemn the Germans or made too much of the past British-American frictions were banned

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Education

• Distributed “war study courses” to the nation’s schools
• Patriotism, heroism and sacrifice were made the themes of study for elementary schools - students in more advanced elementary grades were taught the difference between autocratic German form of government and the democratic American form

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Education

• “War Issues Course” – list of 100 questions to be addresses – survey of 19^th and 20^th century European history designed to expose the origins of the war and fix the blame on Germany – used crude simplifications, cultural stereotypes, hate propaganda and reactionary political views – fundamental purpose – to present war as a life-and-death struggle between democracy and autocracy

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Court Cases

• Schenck v. United States (1919) – affirmed Schenck’s guilt for having mailed pamphlets urging potential army inductees to resist conscription (draft) - stated that Congress could limit free speech when the words represented a “clear and present danger” (SC upheld Espionage Act)
• Abrams vs. United States - Russian immigrant Jacob Abrams and 4 associates printed pamphlets denouncing the American military intervention in Russia – some justices felt that the clear and present danger test showed he did not sufficiently threaten the American war with Germany – however Court upheld his conviction – court said publication only had to INTEND to disrupt the military effort

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Legislation

• Trading with the Enemy Act – required foreign language newspapers to submit an English translation in advance of publication to the Post Office Department – any editorials referring to government, allied nations or the conduct of war

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Espionage Act

• $10,000 fines and imprisonment up to 20 years for persons obstructing military operations in wartime and $5,000 fines and up to 5 years imprisonment for the use of the mail in violation of the statute – if advocated treason, insurrection or forcible resistance to any law
• Amendments to Espionage Act propose to prohibit “any disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive language” about the form of government of the US or the Constitution or the flag or the uniform of the Army or Navy – known as the Sedition Act

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War Industries Board

• The War Industries Board (WIB) encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques. Under the WIB industrial production and wages increased 20% and union membership increased from 2.5 million to 4 million.
• To deal with disputes between management and labor, President Wilson set up the National War Labor Board in 1918.

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Preparing for War

• Food Administration – headed by future President Herbert Hoover – encouraged people to conserve food so it could be shipped overseas
• Fuel Administration – headed by Harry Garfield – directed efforts to save coal – nonessential factories were closed and daylight savings time went into effect
• National War Labor Board – headed by former president William Howard Taft – help arbitrate disputes between workers and employers

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Victory Gardens

• To conserve food, Wilson set up the Food Administration (FA) which declared one day a week “meatless,” another “sweetless,” and two days “wheatless.” Homeowners planted “victory gardens” in their yards and school children worked after school growing tomatoes and cucumbers in public parks.
• Farmers increased production by almost 30% by adding 40 million acres of farmland

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Selling The War

• The U.S. had two major tasks: raising money and convincing the public to support the war.
• The U.S. spent $35.5 billion on the war effort.
• The government raised about 1/3 of that through an income tax and “sin” taxes.
• The rest was raised through war bonds sold to the public (Liberty Loans & Victory Loans)

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Propaganda

• To popularize the war, the government set up the nation's first propaganda agency called the Committee on Public Information (CPI)
• George Creel led the agency and persuaded many of the nation’s artists to create thousands of paintings, posters, cartoons and sculptures to promote the war

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Attack on Civil Liberties

• As the war progressed, Civil Liberties were compromised.
• Anti-Immigrant feelings were openly expressed especially anti-German and Austrian- Hungarian.
• Espionage and Sedition Acts were passed by Congress. These acts were designed to prevent anti-war protests but went against the spirit of the First Amendment (free speech)
• Socialists and labor leaders were targeted for disloyalty.

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Any anti-American sentiments were targeted during wartime

The Big Four

David Lloyd George – Great Britain *** Woodrow Wilson – United States

Georges Clemenceau – France***Vittorio Orlando – Italy

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Wilson’s 14 Points

• Self Determination
• nationalities should be able to have their own countries.
• Disarmament
• we should take away many of the worlds weapons.
• Freedom of the Seas
• to be able to sail and trade anywhere.
• No blame or punishment
• just start over. Blame would create bad feelings.
• League of Nations
• He wanted an international organization to make sure there wasn't another war.

Wilson's 14 Points

• 1.An end to all secret diplomacy
• 2.Freedom of the seas in peace and war
• 3.The reduction of trade barriers among nations
• 4.The general reduction of armaments
• 5.The adjustment of colonial claims in the interest of the inhabitants as well as of the colonial powers
• 6.The evacuation of Russian territory and a welcome for its government to the society of nations
• 7.The restoration of Belgium
• 8.The evacuation of all French territory, including Alsace-Lorraine

Wilson’s 14 Points

• 9.The readjustment of Italian boundaries along clearly recognizable lines of nationality
• 10.Independence for various national groups in Austria-Hungary 
• 11.The restoration of the Balkan nations and free access to the sea for Serbia 
• 12.Protection for minorities in Turkey and the free passage of the ships of all nations through the Dardanelles 
• 13.Independence for Poland, including access to the sea 
• 14.A league of nations to protect "mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small nations alike." 

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Wilson brought many of his closest advisors with him to Versailles, but he did not bring along any Republicans.

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Republican Senators like

Henry Cabot Lodge vowed

to thwart all of Wilson’s plans

The Weakness of the Treaty

• The harsh treatment of Germany prevented the Treaty from creating a lasting peace in Europe
• The Treaty humiliated the Germans by forcing them to admit sole responsibility for the war (War-Guilt Clause)
• Furthermore, Germany would never be able to pay $33 billion in reparations.

Germans felt the Versailles Treaty was unfair

Treaty of Versailles

Paris Peace Conference

• Russia and Germany were NOT invited!!!

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• France & Britain wanted to PUNISH Germany

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• US Wanted to Ensure NO FUTURE War

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Effects of the Treaty

League of Nations

Debate Over Ratification

• Many Americans were concerned with the constitutionality of the League
• Washington’s Farewell Address
• Monroe Doctrine

• The Treaty/League caused a stir in the US Senate.
• Internationalists (Democrats and Wilson)
• Irreconcilables (Progressive Republicans)
• William Borah (Idaho)
• Hiram Johnson (California)
• Robert Lafollette (Wisconsin)
• Reservationists (Republicans)
• Henry Cabot Lodge

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• In the United States, the Treaty was hotly debated especially the League of Nations. Conservative senators, headed by Henry Cabot Lodge, were suspicious of the League's’ joint economic and military commitments. Many wanted the U.S. Congress to maintain the right to declare war itself. Ultimately, Congress rejected U.S. involvement in the very League the U.S. President had created

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Debate Over Treaty at Home

The U.S. never did join the league

In the U.S. Senate, “strong reservationists” & “irreconcilables” rejected joining the League because of fears that it would pull the USA into future wars

The Legacy of the War

• At home, the war strengthened both the military and the power of the government.
• The propaganda campaign provoked powerful fears in society.
• For many countries the war created political instability and violence that lasted for years
• Russia established the first Communist state during the war
• Americans called World War I, “The War to end all Wars” --- however unresolved issues would eventually drag the U.S. into an even deadlier conflict.

22 million dead, more than half civilians. An additional 20 million wounded.

Military Casualties in World War I 1914-1918

• Belgium 45,550
• British Empire 942,135
• France 1,368,000
• Greece 23,098
• Italy 680,000
• Japan 1,344
• Montenegro 3,000
• Portugal 8,145
• Romania 300,000

• Russia 1,700,000
• Serbia 45,000
• United States 116,516
• Austria-Hungary 1,200,000
• Bulgaria 87,495
• Germany 1,935,000
• Ottoman Empire 725,000

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Consequences

• Nearly 10 million soldiers died and about 21 million were wounded. U.S. deaths totaled 116,516.
• Four empires collapsed: the Russian Empire in 1917, the German and the Austro-Hungarian in 1918, and the Ottoman in 1922.
• Independent republics were formed in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, and Turkey.
• Most Arab lands that had been part of the Ottoman Empire came under the control of Britain and France.
• The Bolsheviks took power in Russia.
• Under the peace settlement, Germany was required to pay reparations eventually set at $33 billion; accept responsibility for the war; cede territory to Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, and Poland; give up its overseas colonies; and accept an allied military force on the west bank of the Rhine River for 15 years.

• World War I killed more people--9 million combatants and 5 million civilians--and cost more money--$186 billion in direct costs and another $151 billion in indirect costs--than any previous war in history. Politically, it resulted in the downfall of four empires and contributed to the Bolshevik rise to power in Russia in 1917 and the triumph of fascism in Italy in 1922. The war allowed the United States to become the world's leading creditor and industrial power. Its consequences included the mass murder of Armenians in Turkey and an influenza epidemic that killed over 25 million people worldwide.