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KS2 Grammar knowledge

Rowena Kasprowicz

Date updated: 13/05/20

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

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Aims of the session

Explore KS2 grammar teaching in terms of:

a) the foreign language curriculum

b) the English curriculum

Consider the role of metalanguage and terminology we can build on from KS2

Discuss the benefits of developing learners’ knowledge about language

Explore the role of language analysis and cross-linguistic analysis in L2 learning

Introduce some examples of activities to promote cross-linguistic comparisons

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

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MFL Pedagogy Review

When new starters arrive in Year 7, what information do you have in terms of:

What the children have learnt so far about grammar in English?

What the children have learnt so far about other languages?

Rowena Kasprowicz

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Rachel Hawkes

On the slide here, you can see the references within the MFL Pedagogy Review to the knowledge students are bringing from primary school.

I’ll give you a moment to read these.

So the review emphasises the important of secondary schools being familiar with the content of both the national curriculum for English and the modern foreign languages taught at their feeder primary schools, so that they are able to build on this in Year 7.

There are two questions on the board – please take a moment to reflect on these for your own context. So when new starters arrive in Year 7, what information do you have in terms of:

What the children have learnt so far about grammar in English?
What the children have learnt so far about other languages?

Take a moment to think about these questions for your own context.

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Grammar teaching in KS2

“understand basic grammar relevant to the language being studied, including (where relevant): feminine, masculine and neuter forms and the conjugation of high-frequency verbs; key features and patterns of the language; how to apply these, for instance to build sentences; and how these differ from or are similar to English”

(DfE, 2013a)

In the foreign language curriculum…

Also the (archived) KS2 framework for languages…

Focus on developing learners’ knowledge about language

“When learning a new language, children reinforce and reinterpret knowledge and

understanding gained in learning their first language(s). […] They compare the new language with English or another language […] They become aware of rules or patterns in language and begin to apply their knowledge when creating new language.”

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

Developing learners’ awareness about language is a key part of the KS2 languages curriculum, which is emphasised both in the current Programme of Study as well as the (now archived) framework for languages, which is still widely used at KS2. On the screen you can see snippets from these two documents, which not only emphasise the importance of developing learners’ understanding of the grammatical structures within the language but also the need to develop learners’ knowledge about language, for example their awareness of their similarities and differences between languages, and how they can build and apply their existing knowledge of English when learning a new language.

The KS2 Framework for languages contains three core strands – oracy, literacy, and intercultural understanding, alongside two cross-cutting strands, language learning strategies and knowledge about language. And it is these cross-cutting strands which emphasise the development of learners’ knowledge about language.

I’m not going to focus too much on the specifics of primary foreign language curriculum today, since provision can vary so drastically between different schools and contexts. However, it is important to acknowledge the intention set out in the curriculum for primary foreign languages. As we’ve discussed before, often children’s motivation is tied to their sense of progression, so it is important to keep in mind what children (may) have covered prior to arriving in Year 7.

In addition, even if children begin learning a new foreign language in Year 7 (which is different to the language learnt in primary school), we can still draw on that prior learning and the knowledge about language, the language awareness, that they have gained through language learning at primary school, to support their future language learning – this point will be discussed further later in the session.

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Grammar teaching in KS2

In the English curriculum…

Driven by the Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling component of the SATs tests

Developing pupils’ explicit knowledge about English to enable “more conscious control and choice” in their language use (DfE, 2013a)

In tandem with developing literacy skills: exploring how new grammatical concepts are used by others (e.g. in their reading) and how to apply these concepts (e.g. in their writing)

Focus on:

Small units of syntactic analysis
Definitions of grammatical terms
Functions of word classes
Based on ‘Standard English’

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

In terms of the language and in particular grammar teaching within the primary English curriculum, the focus on language analysis and grammar teaching is very much driven by the Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling component of the SATs tests, which was previously referred to as SPaG. There has been a strong washback effect of the test on teaching, in terms of determining what is covered when and how, as you might expect.

The primary English national curriculum explicitly focusses on developing learners’ explicit knowledge about English. This explicit focus on the grammar of the English language happens alongside the development of students’ literacy skills. Often the language students are able to use in speech is far more complex than the language they are able to use when writing. And so the Grammar, Punctuation and Spelling component of primary English teaching aims to help pupils become more sophisticated writers. And there will be a lot of focus on encouraging students to explore how new grammatical concepts are used by others (for example in their reading) and learning how to apply these concepts in their writing.

Often the grammar teaching focuses on small units of syntactic analysis (so breaking sentences and words down to explore how suffixes or prefixes are used for example), introducing definitions of grammatical terms, and discussing the functions of individual word classes.

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Grammar teaching in KS2

What does (English) grammar teaching look like in KS2?

Explicit, decontextualized practice (e.g. prefix bingo)

Frequent repetition and revisiting (e.g. “grammar starter” to every literacy lesson)

Highlighting and discussing structures when they arise in guided reading, shared and guided writing, and in other subject work (e.g. history)

Repeated exposure to and reinforcement of metalanguage (in line with curriculum)

Proof-reading own work, identifying errors, making improvements

(Safford, 2016, pg. 10)

Rowena Kasprowicz

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Rachel Hawkes

So, what does grammar teaching look like in Key Stage 2?

Much of the grammar teaching at this level will be very explicit, focused and systematic Often, this takes the form of decontextualized explicit practice of particular grammatical structures (such as the worksheet excerpts you can see at the top of the screen).

There is lots of repetition and revisiting – grammar practice is likely to be part of primary school students’ daily ‘diet’.

In a study by Safford in 2016, which gathered teachers’ views on grammar punctuation and spelling teaching – many teachers reported that grammar teaching is very much embedded throughout the school curriculum. Any opportunity to draw attention to grammatical rules / particular structures or metalanguage is utilised. So for example, highlighting and discussing structures when they arise in guided reading, shared and guided writing, and in other subject work (e.g. history)

So there is a tendency to also make use of more contextualised practice too, emphasising how grammar is used to convey meaning. (Although this more contextualised practice is in contrast with how grammar is tested in the SATs tests – this point will be followed up on the next slide).

In addition, it is not just about providing input to pupils about what key grammatical terms and structures mean, but also encouraging students to notice, discuss, and correct grammar in their own writing.

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Grammar teaching in KS2

(Examples taken from 2019 test paper)

What does (English) grammar assessment look like in KS2?

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

The examples on the screen here are excerpts from the Grammar punctuation and spelling SATs tests – these are all taken from the 2019 test paper.

As you can see, this test is very much providing a discrete decontextualized measure of grammatical knowledge. The focus is on testing, for example, whether students can label parts of speech correctly, whether they can identify different types of sentences (E.g. questions versus commands in number 3) or whether they can transform words from one tense to another.

In many ways the focus is on pupils’ understanding of the terminology itself – for example those words that are in bold within the question text (although it is also interesting to note that some questions could well be completed just by intuition rather than really understanding and applying the target terminology.

And there is a question about whether this test really requires students to demonstrate awareness at the level of understanding for the grammatical structures tested. For example in question 3, students may well be able to correctly indicate which sentences are questions and which are commands, and could well do this based on intuition, or what ‘sounds right’, but there is a question there about whether, in order to complete this successfully, they really need to understand why this is the case? And what it is about the structure of each sentence which indicates whether a sentence is a question or a statement?

As we can see then, there are issues with the Grammar Punctuation and Spelling test (for example this emphasis on identification of grammar features rather than testing understanding of their meaning). But we’re not going to focus any further on the issues. I wanted to just include these examples as a demonstration of the way in which children are interacting with and talking about language in KS2 and what they are expected to be able to do.

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Grammar teaching in KS2

Pupils’ perceptions of grammar teaching at KS2:

Often contrary to teachers’ view of grammar teaching…

Viewed positively and enjoyed by pupils

Appreciate having a clearly defined set of rules (at least within context of SPaG)

Boosts confidence of weaker readers and writers

Embedding grammar practice in wider literacy work helps to deepen pupils’ understanding of the concepts (although this isn’t reflected in the content of the test)

Notably, SPaG is one area in which EAL learners perform at a similar level (or indeed outperform) L1 English learners (DfE, 2019)

(Safford, 2016)

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

The points on this slide are drawn from the Safford study I mentioned earlier, and these reflect the teachers’ observations of how pupils respond to their grammar teaching at Key Stage 2.

What is particularly notable is that , in this study at least, students’ perceptions of grammar teaching often seemed to be contrary to the views expressed by teachers.

The teachers in this study expressed fairly negative views of the amount of grammar teaching that is happening and required at KS2. But interestingly they also observed that students actually seem to express quite positive views about their grammar learning.

One particular aspect which pupils seemed to respond quite positively to, is the fact that, at least within the context of the SPaG (or grammar) part of the SATs tests, there is a clearly defined set of rules and terminology which pupils have to learn. So it tends to be a bit less subjective than some areas of the learning, such as creative writing for example. In the context of their grammar learning, students found it easier to reflect on their own learning and understand what they do and don’t know, for example either they know what preposition is or not etc.

Grammar teachers felt that the grammar teaching was equipping learners with the tools to analyse their own learning and own language use. Students find this empowering & this builds confidence, in particular for weaker readers and writers. It is also interesting to note that SPaG is one area in which EAL learners in particular perform at a similar or indeed higher level that pupils with English as their first language.

Similarly, there is potential for pupils’ grammar learning in English to support their learning of a new language. In particular is can be useful to draw connections with the language and structures that pupils already know and have encountered in English.

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Using metalanguage

MFL Pedagogy Review recommends making use of standard grammatical terminology

The KS1 and KS2 (English) curriculums also require children to recognise and use grammatical terminology.

This knowledge is tested in the SPaG (Spelling Punctuation and Grammar) test at the end of KS2.

Why is this useful?

Equips children with language they can use to talk about their knowledge and learning
Provides clarity through shared understanding of a clearly defined set of terms and definitions
Boosts children’s confidence, including lower ability learners
To some extent, facilitates application of these concepts to different contexts and languages (Safford, 2016; TSC, 2016)

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

The MFL Pedagogy Review also emphasises the importance of making use of standard grammatical terminology when talking abut language with students. And as we have seen, a key focus of the KS1 and KS2 English curriculums is on developing children’s ability to recognise and use grammatical terminology.

In a large part, it is this recognition of terminology that is tested in the Grammar Punctuation and Spelling test at the end of KS2. As noted on an earlier slide, whether or not the SPaG test does a good job of testing pupils’ grammatical knowledge is open for debate, but in theory this is the purpose of the test.

Why is it useful to focus on using standard grammatical terminology?

Firstly, it equips pupils with a clearly defined set of language which they can use to talk about their own knowledge and learning.

Secondly, it provides clarity through a shared understanding, amongst both teachers and pupils, through a clearly defined set of terms and definitions.

Thirdly, as we saw on the previous slide, it can boost children’s confidence, including for lower ability learners.

Finally, to some extent, the use of a standard set of terminology in principle facilitates the application of these concepts to different contexts and languages. If a pupil has a clear understanding of what we mean by ‘subject’ or ‘object’ or ‘pronoun’ in English, then they can draw on this understanding when they encounter those terms in relation to a new language.

It’s important to acknowledge, of course, as we’ve said before, that although at KS2, students are developing knowledge of terminology and different grammatical concepts, the SPaG test in itself really just seems to focus on labelling grammar features / matching terminology to grammatical features. Therefore, it is not exactly clear how transferable this knowledge is, and the test in and of itself doesn’t necessarily tell us whether pupils are really understanding how and why particular grammatical structures are used. Nevertheless, at KS2, pupils have at least begun to establish knowledge of this core terminology, which we can build upon at KS3 and beyond.

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Using metalanguage

Handouts 1 to 3: List of recommended terminology

Based on terminology taught in KS1 & KS2 English curriculum and core grammatical concepts introduced in SoW

How closely do the terms match with those you currently use in your teaching?

Are there any terms that are surprising or potentially problematic?

Is there anything missing?

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

In line with the recommendation from the pedagogy review, NCELP have been developing a list of recommended grammatical terminology. Handouts 1 to 3, which accompany this presentation, contain the list of terminology for French, German, and Spanish respectively. The lists have been developed based on a) what structures students will be encountering in the KS3 SoW, and b) based on the terminology and concepts that children have covered in primary school, taking into consideration primarily the English but also the foreign language curriculums.

There is a bespoke version of the terminology list for each language, with definitions and examples tailored to that specific language.

You will see from the handouts, that we have included the equivalent target language terminology within the list. The target language terms which are given in square brackets are non-cognate terms, which are not expected to be explicitly taught, but are just provided for reference. Terms that have an * next to them, are terms which are not included in the KS2 English programme of study, however, students may have met some of the terms through their KS2 foreign language learning – for example terms such as “gender”. Finally, rows highlighted in grey are grammatical concepts that will not be introduced in the KS3 SoW in that language (but they might come up in one of the other languages). Those guidelines are included in the Key which you can find on page 1 of the handout.

I would suggest that you pause this presentation for 5 to 10 minutes and have a look at the handouts. Whilst looking through the handouts, you might like to consider the questions on the screen.

When you are ready, continue with this presentation.

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Using metalanguage – English first

Introduce new grammatical concepts using terminology in English first.

Why?

Building on learning from KS2
Ensuring understanding is firmly established in English
Avoiding cognitive overload

Once understanding is firmly established, introduce equivalent TL terms in subsequent practice

In NCELP SOW, TL terms in year 7 if they are COGNATES (e.g., adjectif)

Other terms (non-cognates) might be introduced in year 8 or 9 (or beyond)

Ensure that meaning of term is clear in English

Ensure that examples are clear in both English and TL

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

Before we move on, I wanted to just say a few words about NCELP’s approach to introducing the terminology in the target language.

In general, NCELP recommends introducing new grammatical concepts using terminology in English first. This is because, it is important to ensure understanding is established using the L1 (English) terms first, before introducing new terminology in the L2. This will build on pupils’ learning from KS2, reinforce their understanding of these concepts and how they can then apply them to the L2.

It is also important to avoid overloading pupils – so that they are not having to deal with multiple levels of new learning / knowledge all at the same time (for example, understanding the meaning of the new L2 terminology, whilst also getting to grips with the new TL structure and it’s meaning and use). Using grammatical terminology in English, which pupils are already familiar with, removes one layer of complexity when introducing these new concepts.

Once understanding of a new grammatical concept in the target language is firmly established, equivalent target language terminology could then be introduced in subsequent practice.

In the context of the NCELP SoW, Target language terms introduced in Year 7 are all cognates. Other terms (which are non-cognates) may then be introduced in later years.

The guiding principles that are followed within the NCELP resources, when using grammatical terminology to introduce a new grammatical concept, is to ensure that the meaning of the term is clearly established in English, and to ensure that clear examples are included in both English and the target language. This is to avoid any misunderstandings or ambiguity.

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Developing learners’ knowledge about language

A substantial body of research explores the benefits of developing learners’ awareness of and knowledge about language (in their first language and in other languages) and the impact this can have on language learning.

metalinguistic ability / awareness

ability to look at language as an object
ability to describe linguistic phenomena and (where known) using technical language

(Han & Ellis, 1998; White & Ranta, 2002)

metalinguistic knowledge

🡪 knowledge of the rules governing a language

knowledge of the technical language used to describe

patterns and linguistic phenomena

language analytical ability

ability to spot patterns in language
ability to make generalizations and extrapolate rules

(Roehr-Brackin & Tellier, 2019)

Such knowledge, skills, and abilities are developing during middle childhood (around 7 to 11 years old).

This coincides with biological maturation, the onset of literacy, and (where present) exposure to other languages.

Rowena Kasprowicz

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Rachel Hawkes

This next section of the presentation focusses on the development of learners’ knowledge about language, and we will look at some research studies which have investigated the role of knowledge about language in the learning process.

There are a number of different terms that are used within the literature to refer to learners’ knowledge about language or language awareness.

Firstly, the term metalinguistic is applied to / used to define tasks that require learners to look at language as an object

So, we can talk about a learners’ metalinguistic ability / awareness, and this is generally used to refer to learners’ ability to look at language as an object and their ability to describe linguistic phenomena and (where known) their ability to use technical language to do this.

The term metalinguistic knowledge refers to learners’ knowledge of the rules governing a language and knowledge of the technical language used to describe patterns and linguistic phenomena

We can also talk about a learners’ language analytic ability – this is learners’ ability to analyse language, spot patterns, and to make generalisations / extrapolate rules based on those patterns.

These analytical skills / abilities are developing rapidly during middle childhood, which is generally defined as around 7 to 11 years old. This coincides with / is triggered by the biological changes happening in children at this age, as well as the development of their literacy skills once they start school, and any exposure they might have to other languages. By the time pupils reach KS3 / secondary school, have a much greater propensity to be able to look at language in an abstract way.

As I mentioned just now, different terms tend to be used across different research studies; however, they are all essentially talking about learners’ ability to look at language as an object, pick out patterns, apply rules, and talk about the language. In the following slides, when talking about specific studies, I will use the terminology that was used within that particular study.

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Developing learners’ knowledge about language

Developing learners’ knowledge about language and their ability to analyse language can be beneficial for language learning.

Language analytic ability (LAA) has been found to predict foreign language proficiency in young learners

Handout 4: Summary of Roehr-Brackin & Tellier (2019)

N = 111 8-9 year olds from 5 primary schools
Observed a strong relationship between LAA and the learners’ L2 French proficiency after 16 weeks of French learning

LAA seems to be particularly important in instructed settings where learners are more likely to be relying on explicit learning (e.g. through focus-on-form activities to practise grammar)

Similarly, Kasprowicz, Marsden & Sephton (2019) found LAA was related to performance on Gaming Grammar (N = 113 learners aged 8-11)

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

The relationship between language learning and analytic ability already fairly accepted for older learners / adults. Studies have demonstrated that for older learners there is a strong relationship between analytical skills and success in language learning. However, this relationship is less clear for younger learners, because analytical skills are still developing. Earlier research suggested that younger learners rely primarily on memory abilities in learning. However, more recent research conducted in an instructed context, where learners are more likely to be encountering more explicit learning approaches and focussing on form, indicates that language analytic ability is also important for younger learners.

Studies have shown that developing learners’ knowledge about language and their ability to analyse language can be beneficial for language learning.

Further, although LAA is still developing throughout childhood, a number of studies have shown that language analytic ability seems to be predictive of learners’ foreign language proficiency for younger learners, as well as for older learners.

Handout 4 is an OASIS summary of a study by Karen Roehr-Brackin & Angela Tellier (2019) study. Their study was conducted with 111 8-9 year olds from 5 primary schools who were learning French. They found that LAA (rather than memory abilities) was the strongest predictor of proficiency (i.e. those learners with higher LAA were more likely to be doing well in their French learning).

Similarly, in our recent research with GG, we found a similar pattern, where learners’ LAA predicted how well they would do on the game, and how quickly they would pick up the grammatical patterns being introduced. The Kasprowicz et al summary is also available

These findings suggest that language analytic ability is particularly important in instructed settings where learners are more likely to be relying on explicit learning. In other words, the more form-focused the instruction learners experience, the more relevant language-analytic ability becomes, and the greater its role in children’s language learning success.

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Developing learners’ knowledge about language

Studies have also observed a relationship between learners’ metalinguistic knowledge and their ability to use the foreign language

Summary of White & Ranta (2002)

Two classes of French children (N = 59) in intensive English programme (Quebec)
Both classes engaged in communicative language lessons.
One class also received metalinguistic instruction about use of his/her in English vs. French

Both classes improved their use of possessive adjectives

BUT

Higher proportion of learners who received metalinguistic instruction demonstrated mastery of agreement rule for his/her than in other group.
Without metalinguistic instruction, learners had to rely more on own ability: those learners with higher LAA were more likely to improve use of his/her, compared to learners with lower LAA.

his? her?

Picture description task

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

Another benefit to providing some instruction that develops learners’ metalinguistic knowledge, is that there is evidence of the relationship between learners’ metalinguistic knowledge and their ability to use the foreign language

A study by White and Ranta in 2002 compared two groups of children who were learning English through an intensive programme.

Both classes engaged in communicative language lessons, however, one class also received metalinguistic instruction about use of his/her in English vs. French. T his instruction included explanations about the different uses of his/her in English versus French and activities to practice comparing and contrasting their use in the two languages.

The researchers found that although, overall, both classes improved in their use of the possessive adjectives, a higher proportion of learners in the metalinguistic instruction group had mastered the use of the agreement rule for his/her than in the other group.

For the comparison group, it seems that without the metalinguistic instruction, learners had to rely more on their own ability. i.e. those learners with higher language analytic ability were more likely to improve their use of his/her because they were able to independently work out how these structures are used in English compared with French However, learners with lower LAA were not able to work out the rules unaided.

Whereas in the class who did receive the metalinguistic instruction, it seems that the instruction helped to ‘level out’ these differences, meaning a higher proportion of learners demonstrated mastery of this feature.

The important take-away here is that: if we don't teach it and provide some metalinguistic instruction, then it is, arguably, less equitable - learners who are naturally good at analysing language could perhaps do it anyway, but those who can't are less likely to 'get it‘ and pick up the rules unaided. So when we provide some metalinguistic support, learning success becomes less reliant on individual variation between learners.

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Developing learners’ knowledge about language

Training pupils in language analysis seems to lead to more consistent outcomes amongst pupils

White & Ranta (2002) observed less variation in outcomes for their metalinguistic instruction group

Handout 5: Summary of Roehr-Brackin & Tellier (2018)

Three studies investigated whether metalinguistic ability can be improved by learning Esperanto

Form-focused activities improved metalinguistic ability, regardless of language (real language or Esperanto)
Learning Esperanto did not confer special benefits for metalinguistic ability or language proficiency

BUT

Across all three studies there was less variation in L2 performance among children who learnt Esperanto

Fewer learners did poorly

Artificial language governed by transparent, systematic, unambiguous rules

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

It, therefore, seems that training pupils in language analysis seems to lead to more consistent outcomes.

This was demonstrated in the previous study (White & Ranta) where there was less variation in performance within the group who had received metalinguistic instruction – overall a higher proportion of learners had mastered the target grammar feature, compared to the comparison group.

Similarly, Handout 5 gives an overview of a second study by R-B & T that observed a similar finding.

This summary gives an overview of series of studies looking at the benefits of teaching Esperanto (an artificial language, which has transparent, systematic, unambiguous grammatical rules) 🡪 the researchers were interested to see whether providing some teaching in Esperanto could improve learners’ metalinguistic ability? Essentially, the idea is that Esperanto is a good ‘test bed’ for developing learners’ metalinguistic and language analytic ability, because it is very systematic and unambiguous, with no exceptions to the rules.

Across the three studies, the researchers compared pupils who spent half a year learning either Esperanto / German / Italian. All pupils then went onto learn French for the second half of the year..

They were interested to look at whether the different languages led to an improvement in a) learners’ metalinguistic ability & b) the subsequent benefits for learning French.

The researchers found that: 1) Engaging learners with grammar teaching (form-focused activities) seemed to have a beneficial impact on learners’ metalinguistic ability (regardless of whether they were learning Esperanto or French). 2) Esperanto itself didn’t seem to have any greater benefits than other languages, in terms of learners’ overall metalinguistic ability and language proficiency.

Importantly, however, there was less variation in L2 performance among the children who had learnt Esperanto. So having that period of form-focussed instruction which focussed on developing learners’ metalinguistic ability did seem to be beneficial.

The important take-home from this study is that: these findings suggest that metalinguistic ability is trainable. This can help to ‘level the playing field’ by helping learners who are less naturally analytical in languages. Success in language learning is therefore less reliant on individual differences and learners’ natural propensity for analysis etc.

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Engaging in language analysis

… can facilitate a deeper understanding of language by encouraging learners to

“spot patterns in language and to identify variables”

… can include any and all languages,

i.e. first language, home language(s), foreign language(s)

… can develop learners’ understanding of both language and culture

(how languages are used in similar and different ways to convey meaning)

… is in line with the move towards more explicit and direct teaching of language

… can lead to greater interest and enjoyment in language study

… can prepare learners for further language learning later in life

(Eric Hawkins’ “language apprenticeship”)

(CLiE Manifesto https://clie.org.uk/laser/#manifesto)

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

Bringing together the findings from those studies, we can conclude that engaging in language analysis can be beneficial for language learning for the following reasons:

It can facilitate a deeper understanding of language by encouraging learners to “spot patterns in language”

It can include any and all languages and it is useful to note that this can also be useful as a way to incorporate learners’ home languages in the classroom discourse.

Engaging in language analysis can help to develop learners’ understanding of language and culture, by encouraging learners’ to draw comparisons between their first language (i.e. whether that’s English or another language) and the foreign language. It gives pupils a chance to explore how language is used to covey meaning in different ways between different languages.

It is also in line with the move towards more explicit and direct teaching of language.

Point 5 on the screen, highlights another important benefit of LA in FL teaching, which is to present the target language as a source of interest, in order to encourage students’ enjoyment of and engagement in language learning.

Further, as L1 English speakers, there is not one obvious language that we will need later in life. Therefore, developing learners’ ability to analyse and talk about language will help to equip learners to tackle any language they may choose / need to learn in the future. This of course is reflected in the 2014 National Curriculum for languages which notes that ‘language teaching should provide the foundation for learning further languages, equipping pupils to study and work in other countries.’

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Yodaspeak

Rachel Hawkes / UKLO

Activity

Exploring word order

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Practising language analysis

Adapted from UKLO activity

(see Slide 24)

Example:

Yodaspeak activity

Practise identifying subject / verb / object in English sentences to consolidate understanding of these terms
Practise identifying and describing word order patterns
Practise manipulating word order in English sentences

Precursor to introduction of word order changes in German

Rachel Hawkes / UKLO

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Practising language analysis: Example

Yodaspeak

In the Star Wars movies, the character Yoda was heard to speak English with a distinctive word order, apparently a deliberate device to make him seem different and special.

We are going to look at some examples of Yoda’s English, all genuine examples from the Star Wars movies.

In the examples:

Circle the verbs, box the subjects, and underline the objects.

Rachel Hawkes / UKLO

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Look at the examples. Circle the verbs, box the subjects, and underline the objects.

1. Take you to him I will.

2. A domain of evil it is.

3. Help them you could.

4. Chewbacca and Tarfful, miss you I will.

5. Truly wonderful the mind of a child is.

6. Much to learn you still have.

7. When nine hundred years old you reach, look as good you will not.

8. Lost a planet Master Obi-Wan has.

9. Begun the Clone Wars have.

10. Your father he is.

Rachel Hawkes / UKLO

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Practising in language analysis

Look at the examples. Circle the verbs, box the subjects, and underline the objects.

1. Take you to him I will.

2. A domain of evil it is.

3. Help them you could.

4. Chewbacca and Tarfful, miss you I will .

5. Truly wonderful the mind of a child is.

6. Much to learn you still have .

7. When nine hundred years old you reach , look as good you will not.

8. Lost a planet Master Obi-Wan has .

9. Begun the Clone Wars have .

10. Your father he is .

Rachel Hawkes / UKLO

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Q. What does the position of the subject and verb tell us about how Yoda forms his sentences?

The subject moves to the end of the sentence just before the verb.
VERBS move!

If there is just one main verb, it moves to the end of the sentence.
If there are two verbs (e.g. modal verb + main verb), the modal verb moves to the end of the sentence and the main verb moves to the start of the sentence.

If there is an object, it moves to the start of the sentence. If there are two verbs, the object comes just after the main verb at the start of the sentence.

Q. How are Yoda’s sentences different from regular English sentences?

Rachel Hawkes / UKLO

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Practising in language analysis

Now, take the following genuine but ‘incorrect’ examples (a-j) and rewrite them in ‘pure’ Yoda-speak.

Incorrect sentences	Correct ‘Yodaspeak’
The boy has no patience.	No patience the boy has.
I cannot teach him.	Teach him I cannot.
A Jedi’s strength flows from the Force.	From the force a Jedi’s strength flows.
The fear of loss is a path to the dark side.	A path to the dark side the fear of loss is.
Great care we must take.	Take great care we must.
Disturbing is this move by Chancellor Palpatine.	Disturbing this move by Chancellor Palpatine is.
The capture of General Grievous will end this war.	End this war the capture of General Grievous will.
A little more knowledge might light our way.	Light our way a little more knowledge might.
Sick have I become.	Become sick I have.

Rachel Hawkes / UKLO

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Practising language analysis

UK Linguistics Olympiad

Aim to develop learners’ understanding of language

Lots of example problem sets available via the website
Wide range of languages (including Fr / Ge / Sp)
Wide range of language features / structures / patterns explored

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

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Comparing different languages

Although there is often a concern about using the L1 in the foreign language classroom, strategic, systematic use and discussion of the L1 (and other languages) and comparison with the L2 can have distinct benefits for both L1 and L2 learning.

(Cook, 2001; Horst, White, Bell, 2010; Macaro, 2002; Turnbull, 2001)

Making L1/L2 comparisons can have a positive effect on L2 learning. Some evidence…

Earlier study by White & Ranta (2002)

Study by Ammar, Lightbown, Spada (2010): positive relationship between learners’ awareness of L1-L2 differences and ability to accurately form questions

Series of studies by McManus & Marsden demonstrating the benefit of L1 grammar explanation and practice on L2 learning (see summaries from Grammar & Meaningful Practice)

Cross-linguistic awareness (awareness of the similarities and differences between languages) is part of a learners’ metalinguistic awareness

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

As noted earlier – another very effective method for developing learners’ analytical abilities and metalinguistic awareness is through activities that encourage comparisons between different languages.

As discussed in the previous CPD session on the use of the TL, strategically and systematically using the L1 (and other languages) in comparison with the L2, can be beneficial for both L1 and L2 learning.

This cross-linguistic awareness is an important part of learners’ wider metalinguistic awareness.

In previous sessions (grammar, meaningful practice, use of TL), and earlier in this session, we’ve seen a range of evidence that explicitly drawing comparisons between the L1 (i.e. English) and L2 can be beneficial for learners’ developing knowledge of the L2.

We saw this in the earlier study by W&R where we saw that metalinguistic instruction about possessive adjectives in French versus English had a positive impact of learners’ mastery of possessive adjectives in the L2 (English).
In addition, a study by Ammar, Lightbown, and Spada in (2010) looked at the benefits of instruction which focussed on drawing learners’ attention to the differences in question formation in English vs. French. The study found that this instruction had a positive impact on learners’ ability to accurately form questions.
In addition, we’ve encountered the studies by McManus and Marsden in previous sessions, which demonstrated that providing the grammar explanation and practice in the L1 English (about how habitual vs. ongoing meaning is conveyed in the past tense) as well as the L2 French, was beneficial for learning how to form these structures in French, and led to better learning than providing Explanation and practice for French alone. Note: McManus and Marsden (2018) demonstrated that the combination of L1 explanation + L1 practice was important (the L1 practice without L1 explanation did not lead to the same benefits).
Another study by McManus 2019 in Language Awareness also demonstrated that awareness of form-meaning mappings in the L1 can benefit L2 learning of crosslinguistically complex features (i.e. those that exist but behave differently in the two languages)

Important take away here from these studies is that: teaching, comparing, switching between languages can be helpful for L2 learning (see next slide).

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Comparing different languages

“regardless of the extent to which the language teacher avoids using the L1 in class,

it is still always there in the minds of the learner”

(Horst et al., 2010, p. 333)

We know that the L1 can positively and negatively influence L2 learning

Learners try to apply patterns from their L1 when interpreting and using the L2

Learners view the L2 through the “lens” of their L1, especially in earlier stages of learning (and across all areas of language learning, including phonics, vocabulary & grammar)

(N. Ellis, 2006)

Cross-linguistic comparisons can help to reinforce correct L2 form-meaning connections

particularly for features which behave differently in the L1 versus the L2

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

We know, of course, that learners’ knowledge about the L1 is always there – even if the L1 is not explicitly mentioned in the classroom.

In addition, learners are making use of this knowledge, in the process of trying to breakdown, understand, and use the L2 – with potentially positive and negative consequences.

For instance, (particularly in the early stages of language learning), learners try to apply patterns from their L1 in the L2 – for example, transferring the canonical S-V-O word order from English. This can lead to difficulties when learning languages such as German where word order behaves quite differently to English.
We know that, particularly in the earlier stages of learning, pupils are likely to be viewing the new language through the lens of their L1.

Given that learner’s knowledge about L1 is always there and that learners do make use of this (regardless of whether its explicitly mentioned or not), the important question becomes “how can we harness what pupils have been learning about English, to help them develop their knowledge and understanding of the L2”? As mentioned on the previous slide, this is where drawing cross-linguistic comparisons (i.e. comparing L2 and L1) can be useful.

Note: this is not necessarily a blanket approach for all aspects of the L2. This sort of comparison is particularly useful for features that have a complex relationship between the L1 and L2, i.e. those features that exist in both languages but behave differently.

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Comparing different languages

Handout 6: Summary of Horst, White & Bell (2010)

In both the L1 and L2 classroom, observed minimal, sporadic comparisons with the other language.
Developed cross-linguistic awareness activities for L1 French learners of English.
Learners able to clearly compare the languages and note useful points of similarity and difference.

Features Horst et al (2010) identified for the (L1 French) learners of English in their study

In your own teaching, where do you think it might be useful to draw comparisons between English and the target language?

Are there particular language structures that it would be useful to explore with your pupils?

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

Handout 6: 10 minutes to read through + 10 minutes for discussion of questions (ideas on post-it notes, see below)

Handout 6 provides a summary of a pilot study by Horst, White, and Bell, that was looking at the feasibility of using cross-linguistic comparison activities in the classroom. Within the study, the researchers observed both the first language (French) classes and second language (English classes that a group of secondary school pupils received. They then developed a series of cross linguistic awareness activities to trial in the English lessons and gathered feedback from both the teachers and the pupils about these activities. The box in the top-right hand corner lists the features that they explored in these activities.

It is important to note, that this was a pilot study and therefore, does not provide evidence about the impact of these activities.

Nevertheless, their main findings were, that:

Unprompted use of L1/L2 comparisons was rare in both of the classrooms observed 🡪 this suggests that when/where/how to draw on these comparisons and utilise these sorts of activities needs to be considered and planned systematically and explicitly.
They found that the use of cross-linguistic activities did not lead to overuse of the L1 (the students knew when it was time to talk about/use the L1), contrary to some initial concerns expressed by the teachers.
Both the teachers and students expressed positive responses to the language comparison activities.
Students’ learning diaries suggested that they were able to draw thoughtful, detailed comparisons between the two languages and reflect on similarities and differences.

At this point, it might be useful to pause the presentation for a few minutes to consider the two questions on the screen:

In your own teaching, where do you think it might be useful to draw comparisons between English and the target language?

Are there particular language structures that it would be useful to explore with your pupils?

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Asking questions

Explanation and activity

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

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Asking questions

grammar explanation

Word order

To ask a ‘yes/no’ question in English, ‘do you..’ is followed by a verb.

Statement

You	have	a football.

Question

Do you	have	a football?

In German, just swap the verb and subject (e.g. ‘du’ (you), like this:

Statement

Du	hast	einen Fußball.

Question

Hast	du	einen Fußball?

Do you	have	a bottle?

🡪

Hast	du	eine Flasche?

Note that when you hear questions, you get an extra clue from the intonation, and when you read, you see the question mark.

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

Many of the grammar explanations within the NCELP resources, begin with an explanation of how the structure is formed in English. This is important, because, as we discussed earlier, students are bringing their expectations from English with them, when they being learning the new language. So it can be helpful to remind students of how we form structures, such as questions, in English, and then explicitly contrast this with how the other language forms this structure.

This slide is included in week 1.1.7 to introduce students to question formation in German. On the screen here you can see we start with the explanation about English.

This is then followed by the explanation about German. You’ll notice that in both the English and the German examples, the verb has been highlighted to draw learners’ attention to the fact that in English the verb doesn’t move when we create a question, whereas in German the verb moves in front of the subject.

It is also useful to explain to students why they might find it tricky to remember this, i.e. because a) the English construction is different, and b) additional clues are provided by intonation in spoken form, and punctuation in written form.

Of course with German, there is also the added complication of the homophony between the English ‘do’ at the start of the question and the German ‘du’ pronoun – so it is useful to ensure pupils understand that this German ‘du’ is not the English ‘do’!

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Ist das eine Frage?

lesen

Frau Organisiert is texting Herr Organisiert to plan the shopping. �He is confused as there is no punctuation!

Help Herr Organisiert. �Write "?" after questions and "." after statements.

1. Hast du eine Flasche Cola __

2. Du hast einen Fußball __

3. Hast du ein Buch __

4. Hast du ein Heft __

5. Du hast eine Wasserflasche __

6. Du hast einen Tisch __

7. Du hast ein Lied __

8. Hast du einen Film __

9. Hast du eine Frage __

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

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Ist das eine Frage?

ANTWORTEN

Frau Organisiert is texting Herr Organisiert to plan the shopping. �He is confused as there is no punctuation!

Help Herr Organisiert. �Write "?" after questions and "." after statements.

1. Hast du eine Flasche Cola __

2. Du hast einen Fußball __

3. Hast du ein Buch __

4. Hast du ein Heft __

5. Du hast eine Wasserflasche __

6. Du hast einen Tisch __

7. Du hast ein Lied __

8. Hast du einen Film __

9. Hast du eine Frage __

?

.

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

The answers are then displayed – in the resources the answers would be revealed one by one, so that the teacher can elicit responses from the class item-by-item.

Answer slide

Teacher elicits responses by asking ‘Ist das eine Frage?’ (Ja/nein) and pointing to the item. Students already know ‘Frage’, and the grammatical focus of this week is yes/no questions so the use of those here in input serves to reinforce the pattern.��The word for sentence ‘Satz’ [582] is also a high-frequency word, and some teachers might find themselves naturally introducing it here.�

Note: Students have not yet been taught numbers in the SOW so at this point there is not direction to use them. Depending on the class, some teachers may feel that they can begin to use them in tasks receptively, priming for subsequent teaching.

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Frage oder Satz?

Closed (yes/no) questions

As you know, closed questions are formed by swapping the verb and subject:

Statement

Du	spielst	oft Tennis.

Question

Spielst	du	oft Tennis?

Statement

Du	schreibst	ein Buch.

Question

Schreibst	du	ein Buch?

You often play Tennis.

Do you often play Tennis?

You are writing a book.

Are you writing a book?

This is how you ask ‘do’ or ‘are’ questions in German.

Note that when you hear questions, you get an extra clue from the intonation, and when you read, you see the question mark.

Grammatik

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Frage oder Satz?

hören

Zorg is making observations about Wolfgang. He can produce a lot of words, but lacks intonation (and manners!)

Is Zorg asking a question or making a statement? Write ? or .

A

?

B

.

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

We then have a listening activity to revisit the VSO syntax of questions vs SVO order of statements. It is important to revisit essential grammar with different lexis for students to deepen their understanding of the grammar feature. Here vocabulary is recycled from previous weeks (1.2.1 and 1.2.2) and integrated with the frequency adverbs from this week.

Example slide

This slide is an example to do first with students and correct. It has audio inserted for A and B and the corresponding answers.

Then go to the next slide for the full exercise. The next slide has the audio and the answers.

NB: If it seems strange to students that we have so many appearances from Zorg, the robot, explain that it is important that we remove the audible clues (i.e. raised intonation) that come with questions, so that they only focus on the syntax.

Transcript

a) Hörst du jeden Tag das Leid

b) Du arbeitest kaum im Garten

c) Putzt du manchmal das Auto

d) Du tanzt nicht so gut

e) Du sitzt oft zu Hause am Computer

f) Gehst du nie in den Garten

g) Du redest sehr oft im Unterricht

h) Lernst du manchmal in der Schule

i) Spielst du nie mit Freunden Fußball

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Frage oder Satz?

hören

Zorg is making observations about Wolfgang. He can produce a lot of words, but lacks intonation (and manners!)

Is Zorg asking a question or making a statement? Write ? or .

A

?

B

.

C

?

D

.

E

.

F

?

G

.

H

?

I

?

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Open (wh-) questions

Grammatik

Open (wh-) questions

To ask an open question, place a question word directly in front of the verb:

Closed

Are you writing a book?

Schreibst	du	ein Buch?

Open

schreibst	du	ein Buch?

Wo

schreibt		ein Buch?

Wer

Where are you writing a book?

Beispiel:

Was hast du am Montag?

What do you have on Monday?

Wo spielst du Tennis?

Where do you play tennis?

Wie oft putzt du dein Zimmer?

How often do you clean your room?

Wer ist dein Lieblingslehrer?

Who is your favourite (male) teacher?

Who is writing a book?

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Order of words in a question

Grammatik

Sentences are turned into questions by swapping the verb and subject.

Du spielst zu Hause Gitarre.

Spielst du zu Hause Gitarre?

You play/are playing guitar at home.

Do you play / Are you playing guitar at home?

To ask an open question, place a question word in front of the verb.

Wann spielst du zu Hause Gitarre?

When do you play / are you playing guitar at home?

Wer spielt zu Hause Gitarre?

Who plays / is playing guitar at home?

Only the verb and subject swap places. The adverb and noun stay in the same position.

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Saying what people do [1]

Present simple and continuous

Year 7 French

Term 1.2 - Week 3 - Lesson 19

Natalie Finlayson / Emma Marsden /

Stephen Owen

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

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Possessive adjectives

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

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3^rd person singular

Explanation and activity

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Summary

Students have encountered quite a wide range of grammatical metalanguage and concepts during KS2, through the English curriculum.

Use of metalanguage can provide clarity, boost students’ confidence, and enable students’ to talk about the language.

Developing learners’ language analytic ability can have a ‘levelling’ effect.

Activities which promote crosslinguistic comparison are useful, particularly for grammatical concepts which work differently in the L2 (compared to English).

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes

This slide just provides a summary of the content of the presentation.

We looked first of all at grammar teaching at KS2 in both the English and foreign language curriculums. We saw that students have encountered quite a wide range of grammatical metalanguage and concepts during KS2, in particular through the English curriculum.

We also considered the role of metalanguage and discussed the study by Safford from 2016 which highlighted that adopting standard terminology for talking about language can provide clarity and boost students’ confidence, and equip students with the language they need to talk about the language itself as well as their learning.

We looked at a number of key research findings, which have demonstrated the benefits of developing learners’ language analytic ability – and this indeed seems to have a levelling effect, helping a wider range of learners to access and benefit from more explicit teaching.

And in the final part of this session we have looked at ways in which we can draw cross-linguistic comparisons, which can be particularly helpful for grammatical features which exist, but work differently, in the target language compared to English.

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References

Ammar, A., Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (2010). Awareness of L1/L2 differences: Does it matter? Language Awareness 19(2), 129-146.

DfE (2013a). English programmes of study: Key Stages 1 and 2. London: Crown Copyright.

DfE (2013b). Languages programme of study: Key Stage 2. London: Crown Copyright.

DfE (2019). National curriculum assessments at Key Stage 2 in England, 2019: Revised. London: Crown Copyright.

Ellis, N. (2006). Selective attention, and transfer phenomena in L2 acquisition: Contingency, cue competition, salience, interference, overshadowing, blocking, and perceptual learning. Applied Linguistics, 27(2), 164-194.

Han, Y. & Ellis, R. (1998). Implicit knowledge, explicit knowledge and general language proficiency. Language Teaching Research, 2, 1-23.

Horst, M., White, J., & Bell, P. (2010). First and second language knowledge in the language classroom. International Journal of Bilingualism, 14(3), 331-349.

McManus, K. & Marsden, E. (2017). L1 explicit instruction can improve L2 online and offline comprehension. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39, 459-492.

McManus, K. & Marsden, E. (2018). Online and offline effects of L1 practice in L2 grammar learning: A partial replication. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40, 459-475.

Roehr-Brackin, K. & Tellier, A. (2019). The role of language analytic ability in children’s instructed second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45(5), 1111-1131.

Roehr-Brackin. K. & Tellier, A. (2018). Esperanto as a tool in classroom foreign language learning in England. Language Problems and Language Planning, 42(1), 89 –111.

Safford, K. (2016). Teaching grammar and testing grammar in the English primary school: The impact on teachers and their teaching of the grammar element of the statutory test in spelling punctuation and grammar (SPaG). Changing English, 23(1), 3-21.

White, J. & Ranta, L. (2002). Examining the interface between metalinguistic task performance and oral production in a second language. Language Awareness, 11(4), 259-290.

Rowena Kasprowicz

Material licensed as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0�

Rachel Hawkes