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��Vernacular Scripture Use Research - �The Sequencing of Translation: �What we know so far from Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria

CANIL

January 2026

Stan Anonby, David Eberhard, Hannah Bossers

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What is the greatest challenge to BT?

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Non-use!

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Non-use: our greatest challenge

In the BT world, non-usage of translations is one of our greatest challenges.

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Non-use: our greatest challenge

In the BT world, non-usage of translations is one of our greatest challenges.

For every translation that is finished but not used, three communities are negatively affected - the community that did not use it or need it (through wasted time and effort of those involved), the community that did need it and could have been served by those same funds and resources, and the community of support staff that facilitated it all - funders, consultants, administrators, and others whose funds and efforts did not have the effect they were expected to have.

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Non-use: our greatest challenge

In the BT world, non-usage of translations is one of our greatest challenges.

For every translation that is finished but not used, two language communities are negatively affected - the one that did not use it or need it (through wasted time and effort of those involved), and the one that did need it and could have been served by those same funds and resources.

How we deal with non-use of Scripture is fundamentally a stewardship issue.

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Research Objectives

Our research (Anonby et al, 2025) has two aims:

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Research Objectives

Our research (Anonby et al 2025) has two aims:

1) gain a better understanding, via evidence-based research, of the extent to which local and majority Scriptures are used or not used in local language communities.

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Research Objectives

Our research (Anonby et al, 2025) has two aims:

1) gain a better understanding, via evidence-based research, of the extent to which local and majority Scriptures are used or not used in local language communities.

2) gain a better understanding of the sequencing of translation (whether the local or majority Scripture was used first) and if that sequencing has any bearing on current Scripture use.

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Diglossia: the force behind non-use

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign a prestige language to more formal functions and local language(s) to more informal functions (Ferguson 1959, Fishman 1965). It’s a common part of most multilingual language ECOLOGIES (their social contexts).

We believe Diglossia is one of the primary reasons behind the non-use of local lg Scriptures.

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign the majority language to more formal functions and the local language(s) to more informal functions. (Ferguson and Fishman have written about this). It’s a common part of many language ECOLOGIES.

As Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language, the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of majority Lg Scriptures over local Lg Scriptures when there is a choice.

Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL's SE leaders, claims lack of diglossia is part the ‘appropriate language condition’. He states: “if a language doesn’t pass that ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”. (i.e.- if we choose the wrong language, nothing else matters)

Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition for Scripture use but hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

Diglossia: “appropriate language” is the first thing to determine, and diglossia is part of that assessment. If we choose the wrong language to start with, nothing else will matter. The other condition that Dye said was also hard to change was “Freedom of Choice”. That is true, and it actually comes before we do our survey. We are not doing this survey in any place where there the culture does not allow them the freedom to choose. Even though its not part of our research, we agree with that as well - that is another additional ecology issue that is a non-starter if it is not met.

11 of 148

Diglossia: the force behind non-use

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign a prestige language to more formal functions and local language(s) to more informal functions (Ferguson 1959, Fishman 1965). It’s a common part of most multilingual language ECOLOGIES (their social contexts).
Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language. So the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of the most prestigious language in the ecology for Scripture use when there is a choice.

We believe Diglossia is one of the primary reasons behind the non-use of local lg Scriptures.

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign the majority language to more formal functions and the local language(s) to more informal functions. (Ferguson and Fishman have written about this). It’s a common part of many language ECOLOGIES.

As Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language, the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of majority Lg Scriptures over local Lg Scriptures when there is a choice.

Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL's SE leaders, claims lack of diglossia is part the ‘appropriate language condition’. He states: “if a language doesn’t pass that ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”. (i.e.- if we choose the wrong language, nothing else matters)

Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition for Scripture use but hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

Diglossia: “appropriate language” is the first thing to determine, and diglossia is part of that assessment. If we choose the wrong language to start with, nothing else will matter. The other condition that Dye said was also hard to change was “Freedom of Choice”. That is true, and it actually comes before we do our survey. We are not doing this survey in any place where there the culture does not allow them the freedom to choose. Even though its not part of our research, we agree with that as well - that is another additional ecology issue that is a non-starter if it is not met.

12 of 148

Diglossia: the force behind non-use

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign a prestige language to more formal functions and local language(s) to more informal functions (Ferguson 1959, Fishman 1965). It’s a common part of most multilingual language ECOLOGIES (their social contexts).
Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language. So the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of the most prestigious language in the ecology for Scripture use when there is a choice.
Diglossia is thus the social pressure in the broader society that is responsible for most of the non-use of local translations.

We believe Diglossia is one of the primary reasons behind the non-use of local lg Scriptures.

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign the majority language to more formal functions and the local language(s) to more informal functions. (Ferguson and Fishman have written about this). It’s a common part of many language ECOLOGIES.

As Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language, the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of majority Lg Scriptures over local Lg Scriptures when there is a choice.

Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL's SE leaders, claims lack of diglossia is part the ‘appropriate language condition’. He states: “if a language doesn’t pass that ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”. (i.e.- if we choose the wrong language, nothing else matters)

Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition for Scripture use but hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

Diglossia: “appropriate language” is the first thing to determine, and diglossia is part of that assessment. If we choose the wrong language to start with, nothing else will matter. The other condition that Dye said was also hard to change was “Freedom of Choice”. That is true, and it actually comes before we do our survey. We are not doing this survey in any place where there the culture does not allow them the freedom to choose. Even though its not part of our research, we agree with that as well - that is another additional ecology issue that is a non-starter if it is not met.

13 of 148

Diglossia: the force behind non-use

Wayne Dye (2009) posits choosing the “appropriate language” as the first condition for vernacular scripture use.

We believe Diglossia is one of the primary reasons behind the non-use of local lg Scriptures.

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign the majority language to more formal functions and the local language(s) to more informal functions. (Ferguson and Fishman have written about this). It’s a common part of many language ECOLOGIES.

As Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language, the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of majority Lg Scriptures over local Lg Scriptures when there is a choice.

Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL's SE leaders, claims lack of diglossia is part the ‘appropriate language condition’. He states: “if a language doesn’t pass that ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”. (i.e.- if we choose the wrong language, nothing else matters)

Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition for Scripture use but hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

Diglossia: “appropriate language” is the first thing to determine, and diglossia is part of that assessment. If we choose the wrong language to start with, nothing else will matter. The other condition that Dye said was also hard to change was “Freedom of Choice”. That is true, and it actually comes before we do our survey. We are not doing this survey in any place where there the culture does not allow them the freedom to choose. Even though its not part of our research, we agree with that as well - that is another additional ecology issue that is a non-starter if it is not met.

14 of 148

Diglossia: the force behind non-use

Wayne Dye (2009) posits choosing the “appropriate language” as the first condition for vernacular scripture use.
Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL’s SE leaders, reminds us that lack of diglossia is part of the ‘appropriate language condition’. “If a language doesn’t pass the ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”.

We believe Diglossia is one of the primary reasons behind the non-use of local lg Scriptures.

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign the majority language to more formal functions and the local language(s) to more informal functions. (Ferguson and Fishman have written about this). It’s a common part of many language ECOLOGIES.

As Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language, the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of majority Lg Scriptures over local Lg Scriptures when there is a choice.

Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL's SE leaders, claims lack of diglossia is part the ‘appropriate language condition’. He states: “if a language doesn’t pass that ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”. (i.e.- if we choose the wrong language, nothing else matters)

Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition for Scripture use but hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

Diglossia: “appropriate language” is the first thing to determine, and diglossia is part of that assessment. If we choose the wrong language to start with, nothing else will matter. The other condition that Dye said was also hard to change was “Freedom of Choice”. That is true, and it actually comes before we do our survey. We are not doing this survey in any place where there the culture does not allow them the freedom to choose. Even though its not part of our research, we agree with that as well - that is another additional ecology issue that is a non-starter if it is not met.

15 of 148

Diglossia: the force behind non-use

Wayne Dye (2009) posits choosing the “appropriate language” as the first condition for vernacular scripture use.
Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL’s SE leaders, reminds us that lack of diglossia is part of the ‘appropriate language condition’. “If a language doesn’t pass the ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition. So if we choose the wrong language, addressing other factors wont make any difference.

We believe Diglossia is one of the primary reasons behind the non-use of local lg Scriptures.

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign the majority language to more formal functions and the local language(s) to more informal functions. (Ferguson and Fishman have written about this). It’s a common part of many language ECOLOGIES.

As Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language, the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of majority Lg Scriptures over local Lg Scriptures when there is a choice.

Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL's SE leaders, claims lack of diglossia is part the ‘appropriate language condition’. He states: “if a language doesn’t pass that ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”. (i.e.- if we choose the wrong language, nothing else matters)

Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition for Scripture use but hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

Diglossia: “appropriate language” is the first thing to determine, and diglossia is part of that assessment. If we choose the wrong language to start with, nothing else will matter. The other condition that Dye said was also hard to change was “Freedom of Choice”. That is true, and it actually comes before we do our survey. We are not doing this survey in any place where there the culture does not allow them the freedom to choose. Even though its not part of our research, we agree with that as well - that is another additional ecology issue that is a non-starter if it is not met.

16 of 148

Diglossia: the force behind non-use

Wayne Dye (2009) posits choosing the ‘appropriate language’ as the first condition for vernacular scripture use.
Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL’s SE leaders, reminds us that lack of diglossia is part of the ‘appropriate language condition’. “If a language doesn’t pass the ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition. So if we choose the wrong language, addressing other factors won’t make any difference.
Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.

We believe Diglossia is one of the primary reasons behind the non-use of local lg Scriptures.

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign the majority language to more formal functions and the local language(s) to more informal functions. (Ferguson and Fishman have written about this). It’s a common part of many language ECOLOGIES.

As Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language, the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of majority Lg Scriptures over local Lg Scriptures when there is a choice.

Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL's SE leaders, claims lack of diglossia is part the ‘appropriate language condition’. He states: “if a language doesn’t pass that ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”. (i.e.- if we choose the wrong language, nothing else matters)

Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition for Scripture use but hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

Diglossia: “appropriate language” is the first thing to determine, and diglossia is part of that assessment. If we choose the wrong language to start with, nothing else will matter. The other condition that Dye said was also hard to change was “Freedom of Choice”. That is true, and it actually comes before we do our survey. We are not doing this survey in any place where there the culture does not allow them the freedom to choose. Even though its not part of our research, we agree with that as well - that is another additional ecology issue that is a non-starter if it is not met.

17 of 148

Diglossia: the force behind non-use

Wayne Dye (2009) posits choosing the ‘appropriate language’ as the first condition for vernacular scripture use.
Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL’s SE leaders, reminds us that lack of diglossia is part of the ‘appropriate language condition’. “If a language doesn’t pass the ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition because if we choose the wrong language, addressing other factors won’t make any difference.
Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We also agree that diglossia in a language ecology is hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

We believe Diglossia is one of the primary reasons behind the non-use of local lg Scriptures.

“Diglossia” is the tendency for multilingual communities to assign the majority language to more formal functions and the local language(s) to more informal functions. (Ferguson and Fishman have written about this). It’s a common part of many language ECOLOGIES.

As Scripture is commonly seen as a highly formal function for language, the presence of diglossia in an ecology would normally predict a preference for the use of majority Lg Scriptures over local Lg Scriptures when there is a choice.

Rick Nivens (p.c.), one of SIL's SE leaders, claims lack of diglossia is part the ‘appropriate language condition’. He states: “if a language doesn’t pass that ‘appropriate language’ test, then all the other conditions are irrelevant”. (i.e.- if we choose the wrong language, nothing else matters)

Wayne Dye (2009) claims the ‘appropriate language condition’ is one of the hardest conditions to change.
We agree w/Dye & Nivens that lack of diglossia is a primary condition for Scripture use but hard to change, while most other conditions are secondary and easier to change.

Diglossia: “appropriate language” is the first thing to determine, and diglossia is part of that assessment. If we choose the wrong language to start with, nothing else will matter. The other condition that Dye said was also hard to change was “Freedom of Choice”. That is true, and it actually comes before we do our survey. We are not doing this survey in any place where there the culture does not allow them the freedom to choose. Even though its not part of our research, we agree with that as well - that is another additional ecology issue that is a non-starter if it is not met.

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The ‘Sequencing of Translation’ hypothesis

But preliminary data suggests that the timing of translation - which translation came first - can affect diglossia. We call this the sequencing of translation hypothesis.

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The ‘Sequencing of Translation’ hypothesis

Based on the understanding of ‘diglossia’ as the primary force behind the non-use of local Scripture use, we propose that the sequencing of translation fundamentally impacts diglossia in the following way:

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The ‘Sequencing of Translation’ hypothesis

Based on the understanding of ‘diglossia’ as the primary force behind the non-use of local Scripture use, we propose that the sequencing of translation fundamentally impacts diglossia in the following ways:
a local language may continue to be used as the language of normative Scripture use in public worship if it was used first in that domain.

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The ‘Sequencing of Translation’ hypothesis

Based on the understanding of ‘diglossia’ as the primary force behind the non-use of local Scripture use, we propose that the sequencing of translation fundamentally impacts diglossia in the following ways:

a local language may continue to be used as the normative* language of Scripture in public worship if it was the first language used in that domain.

a local language does not readily become a normative* language of Scripture in public worship if the majority language was used first in that domain.

*(normative use - once a week or more)

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Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

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Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

Language use is always messy – so we expected there would be some exceptions to our sequencing hypothesis. We are calling these exceptions ‘ecologies of resistance’ - communities that are able to resist diglossia in the Scripture use domain. Below are the types of ecologies where we either found resistance to diglossia, or it was reported to us by others:

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Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

Language use is always messy – so we expected there would be some exceptions to our sequencing hypothesis. We are calling these exceptions ‘ecologies of resistance’ - communities that are able to resist diglossia in the Scripture use domain. Below are the types of ecologies where we either found resistance to diglossia, or it was reported to us by others:

Church policy- there is a denomination-wide policy to use the local Lg*

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Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

Language use is always messy – so we expected there would be some exceptions to our sequencing hypothesis. We are calling these exceptions ‘ecologies of resistance’ - communities that are able to resist diglossia in the Scripture use domain. Below are the types of ecologies where we either found resistance to diglossia, or it was reported to us by others:

Church policy- there is a denomination-wide policy to use the local Lg*

�

*(this can include language use policies for revitalization purposes)

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Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

Language use is always messy – so we expected there would be some exceptions to our sequencing hypothesis. We are calling these exceptions ‘ecologies of resistance’ - communities that are able to resist diglossia in the Scripture use domain. Below are the types of ecologies where we either found resistance to diglossia, or it was reported to us by others:

Church policy- there is a denomination-wide policy to use the local Lg*
Limited Multilingualism - the local community is not multilingual in the majority Lg

*(this can include language use policies for revitalization purposes)

27 of 148

Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

Language use is always messy – so we expected there would be some exceptions to our sequencing hypothesis. We are calling these exceptions ‘ecologies of resistance’ - communities that are able to resist diglossia in the Scripture use domain. Below are the types of ecologies where we either found resistance to diglossia, or it was reported to us by others:

Church policy- there is a denomination-wide policy to use the local Lg*
Limited Multilingualism - the local community is not multilingual in the majority Lg
LWC - the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

*(this can include language use policies for revitalization purposes)

28 of 148

Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

Language use is always messy – so we expected there would be some exceptions to our sequencing hypothesis. We are calling these exceptions ‘ecologies of resistance’ - communities that are able to resist diglossia in the Scripture use domain. Below are the types of ecologies where we either found resistance to diglossia, or it was reported to us by others:

Church policy- there is a denomination-wide policy to use the local Lg*
Limited Multilingualism - the local community is not multilingual in the majority Lg
LWC - the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity
No prestige - the current Scripture is not in a prestigious language

*(this can include language use policies for revitalization purposes)

29 of 148

Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

Language use is always messy – so we expected there would be some exceptions to our sequencing hypothesis. We are calling these exceptions ‘ecologies of resistance’ - communities that are able to resist diglossia in the Scripture use domain. Below are the types of ecologies where we either found resistance to diglossia, or it was reported to us by others:

Church policy- there is a denomination-wide policy to use the local Lg*
Limited Multilingualism - the local community is not multilingual in the majority Lg
LWC - the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity
No prestige - the current Scripture is not in a prestigious language
Resistance identity- the local lg community is actively resisting the majority community via conflict or separation.

*(this can include language use policies for revitalization purposes)

30 of 148

Exceptions as ecologies of resistance

Language use is always messy – so we expected there would be some exceptions to our sequencing hypothesis. We are calling these exceptions ‘ecologies of resistance’ - communities that are able to resist diglossia in the Scripture use domain. Below are the types of ecologies where we either found resistance to diglossia, or it was reported to us by others:

Church policy- there is a denomination-wide policy to use the local Lg*
Limited Multilingualism - the local community is not multilingual in the majority Lg
LWC - the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity
No prestige - the current Scripture is not in a prestigious language
Resistance identity - the local lg community is actively resisting the majority community via conflict or separation.

These are all exceptions and not the rule, occurring seldom in our data.

*(this can include language use policies for revitalization purposes)

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Scope: current extent of this research

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Scope: current extent of this research

We have researched this question so far in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria

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Scope: current extent of this research

We have researched this question so far in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria
We collected data on the use of both print Scripture in paper format and in digital format, as well as comments and observations of usage of Scripture in audio format.

34 of 148

Scope: current extent of this research

We have researched this question so far in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria
We collected data on the use of both print Scripture in paper format and in digital format, as well as comments and observations of usage of Scripture in audio format.
We surveyed the use of Scriptures in both church settings and house group settings.

35 of 148

Scope: current extent of this research

We have researched this question so far in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria
We collected data on the use of both print Scripture in paper format and in digital format, as well as comments and observations of usage of Scripture in audio format.
We surveyed the use of Scriptures in both church settings and house group settings.
We gathered data from all denominations present.

36 of 148

Scope: current extent of this research

We have researched this question so far in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria
We collected data on the use of both print Scripture in paper format and in digital format, as well as comments and observations of usage of Scripture in audio format.
We surveyed the use of Scriptures in both church settings and house group settings.
We gathered data from all denominations present
Ground Zero – we first targeted the village where translation was done because our strategy is to always go where we would expect the most use. Then we gathered data in as many other villages as possible.

37 of 148

Scope: current extent of this research

We have researched this question so far in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria
We collected data on the use of both print Scripture in paper format and in digital format, as well as comments and observations of usage of Scripture in audio format.
We surveyed the use of Scriptures in both church settings and house group settings.
We gathered data from all denominations present
Ground Zero – we first targeted the village where translation was done because our strategy is to always go where we would expect the most use. Then we gathered data in as many other villages as possible.
We started by looking only at languages reported to be at EGIDS 6a+ (languages with strong vitality), but once we were on the ground some proved to be weaker. Some of those weaker languages showed more usage than stronger ones, so we included them.

38 of 148

Scope: current extent of this research

We have researched this question so far in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria
We collected data on the use of both print Scripture in paper format and in digital format, as well as comments and observations of usage of Scripture in audio format.
We surveyed the use of Scriptures in both church settings and house group settings.
We gathered data from all denominations present
Ground Zero – we first targeted the village where translation was done because our strategy is to always go where we would expect the most use. Then we gathered data in as many other villages as possible.
We started by looking only at languages reported to be at EGIDS 6a+ (languages with strong vitality), but once we were on the ground some proved to be weaker. Some of those weaker languages showed more usage than stronger ones, so we included them.
We researched the history of each translation to discover which came first - local Lg or majority Lg Scripture.

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Sampling: Criteria for language selection

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Sampling: Criteria for language selection

We targeted all the languages in a country or region within a country that:

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Sampling: Criteria for language selection

We targeted all the languages in a country or region within a country that:

had a NT or full Bible in the local language

42 of 148

Sampling: Criteria for language selection

We targeted all the languages in a country or region within a country that:

had a NT or full Bible in the local language
had a translation published over one year ago

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Sampling: Criteria for language selection

We targeted all the languages in a country or region within a country that:

had a NT or full Bible in the local language
had a translation published over one year ago
were safe for survey

44 of 148

Sampling: Criteria for language selection

We targeted all the languages in a country or region within a country that:

had a NT or full Bible in the local language
had a translation published over one year ago
were safe for survey

In countries where there were too many translations to survey, we attempted to get a representative sample across the whole country using 3 additional criteria:

45 of 148

Sampling: Criteria for language selection

We targeted all the languages in a country or region within a country that:

had a NT or full Bible in the local language
had a translation published over one year ago
were safe for survey

In countries where there were too many translations to survey, we attempted to get a representative sample across the whole country using 3 additional criteria:

same # of languages in every accessible region of the country

46 of 148

Sampling: Criteria for language selection

We targeted all the languages in a country or region within a country that:

had a NT or full Bible in the local language
had a translation published over one year ago
were safe for survey

In countries where there were too many translations to survey, we attempted to get a representative sample across the whole country using 3 additional criteria:

same # of languages in every accessible region of the country
half of them from the most populous communities and half from the least populous ones

EXTENT OF OUR RESEARCH SO FAR
We have researched this question so far in Sulawesi and Vanuatu
We collected data on the use of both print Scripture in paper format and in digital format, as well as comments and observations of usage of Scripture in audio format.
We surveyed the use of Scriptures in both church settings and house group settings.
We gathered data from all denominations present
Ground Zero - we always targeted the village where translation was done. It’s where we would expect the most use. Then we gathered data in as many other villages as possible.
We started with a list of languages having strong EGIDS (6a+), but once we got there, some proved to be weaker. Some of those weaker languages showed sporadic usage in churches, so we included them.
We surveyed only those languages that either have a full NT or a whole Bible translation completed.
We researched the history of each translation to discover which was used first - local lg or majority lg Scripture.
We did find some exceptions to our hypothesis. (see Appendix A).

47 of 148

Sampling: Criteria for language selection

We targeted all the languages in a country or region within a country that:

had a NT or full Bible in the local language
had a translation published over one year ago
were safe for survey

In countries where there were too many translations to survey, we attempted to get a representative sample across the whole country using 3 additional criteria:

same # of languages in every accessible region of the country
half of them from the most populous communities and half from the least populous ones
half with NTs and half with full Bibles

EXTENT OF OUR RESEARCH SO FAR
We have researched this question so far in Sulawesi and Vanuatu
We collected data on the use of both print Scripture in paper format and in digital format, as well as comments and observations of usage of Scripture in audio format.
We surveyed the use of Scriptures in both church settings and house group settings.
We gathered data from all denominations present
Ground Zero - we always targeted the village where translation was done. It’s where we would expect the most use. Then we gathered data in as many other villages as possible.
We started with a list of languages having strong EGIDS (6a+), but once we got there, some proved to be weaker. Some of those weaker languages showed sporadic usage in churches, so we included them.
We surveyed only those languages that either have a full NT or a whole Bible translation completed.
We researched the history of each translation to discover which was used first - local lg or majority lg Scripture.
We did find some exceptions to our hypothesis. (see Appendix A).

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Methods: evidence-based research

49 of 148

Methods: evidence-based research

We believe it is vital to use evidence-based research for VSU survey, and compare both local and majority Lg Scripture use. These are the methods we used:

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Methods: evidence-based research

We believe it is vital to use evidence-based research for VSU survey, and compare both local and majority Lg Scripture use. These are the methods we used:

Interviews (with both church leaders AND laypeople)

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Methods: evidence-based research

We believe it is vital to use evidence-based research for VSU survey, and compare both local and majority Lg Scripture use. These are the methods we used:

Interviews (with both church leaders AND laypeople)
Audio recordings of Scripture being read in group worship (in both churches and homes)

52 of 148

Methods: evidence-based research

We believe it is vital to use evidence-based research for VSU survey, and compare both local and majority Lg Scripture use. These are the methods we used:

Interviews (with both church leaders AND laypeople)
Audio recordings of Scripture being read in group worship (in both churches and homes)
Photos of Bibles (both local and majority Scriptures) comparing their presence and state of use

53 of 148

Methods: evidence-based research

We believe it is vital to use evidence-based research for VSU survey, and compare both local and majority Lg Scripture use. These are the methods we used:

Interviews (with both church leaders AND laypeople)
Audio recordings of Scripture being read in group worship (in both churches and homes)
Photos of Bibles (both local and majority Scriptures) comparing their presence and state of use
Observation of language usage in multiple villages and churches

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Avoiding bias

We found that Vernacular Scripture Use research requires taking steps to mitigate the effects of response bias, surveyor bias, survey bias, and the observer's paradox.

55 of 148

Avoiding bias

We found that Vernacular Scripture Use research requires taking steps to mitigate the effects of response bias, surveyor bias, survey bias, and the observer's paradox. This involves among other things:

using tools other than just self-report (mitigates response bias)

56 of 148

Avoiding bias

We found that Vernacular Scripture Use research requires taking steps to mitigate the effects of response bias, surveyor bias, survey bias, and the observer's paradox. This involves among other things:

using tools other than just self-report (mitigates response bias)
getting responses from laypeople as well (mitigates response bias from leaders who could benefit from giving positive answers)

57 of 148

Avoiding bias

We found that Vernacular Scripture Use research requires taking steps to mitigate the effects of response bias, surveyor bias, survey bias, and the observer's paradox. This involves among other things:

using tools other than just self-report (mitigates response bias)
getting responses from laypeople as well (mitigates response bias from leaders who could benefit from giving positive answers)
not allowing those who were part of the translation project to be on the survey team (mitigates surveyor bias)

58 of 148

Avoiding bias

We found that Vernacular Scripture Use research requires taking steps to mitigate the effects of response bias, surveyor bias, survey bias, and the observer's paradox. This involves among other things:

using tools other than just self-report (mitigates response bias)
getting responses from laypeople as well (mitigates response bias from leaders who could benefit from giving positive answers)
not allowing those who were part of the translation project to be on the survey team (mitigates surveyor bias)
spending multiple days in each village (mitigates observer's paradox)

59 of 148

Avoiding bias

We found that Vernacular Scripture Use research requires taking steps to mitigate the effects of response bias, surveyor bias, survey bias, and the observer's paradox. This involves among other things:

using tools other than just self-report (mitigates response bias)
getting responses from laypeople as well (mitigates response bias from leaders who could benefit from giving positive answers)
not allowing those who were part of the translation project to be on the survey team (mitigates surveyor bias)
spending multiple days in each village (mitigates observer's paradox)
not mixing SE and survey activities (mitigates survey bias)

60 of 148

Avoiding bias

We found that Vernacular Scripture Use research requires taking steps to mitigate the effects of response bias, surveyor bias, survey bias, and the observer's paradox. This involves among other things:

using tools other than just self-report (mitigates response bias)
getting responses from laypeople as well (mitigates response bias from leaders who could benefit from giving positive answers)
not allowing those who were part of the translation project to be on the survey team (mitigates surveyor bias)
spending multiple days in each village (mitigates observer's paradox)
not mixing SE and survey activities (mitigates survey bias)

Of the above, we have found so far that avoiding response bias has been the most difficult challenge in this research.

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Scripture use categories in individual churches

REGULAR USE

Weekly- used once a week or more

Monthly- used once, twice or three times a month

NON-REGULAR USE

Occasional- used between once a year and once a month

Once a year- customary annual use

No use- no use over an entire year

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Scripture use categories across all churches in a language community

REGULAR COMMUNAL USE

Weekly- used once a week or more by half or more churches*

Monthly- used once, twice or three times a month by half or more churches*

NON-REGULAR COMMUNAL USE

Occasional- used between once a year and once a month by more than 1/5th of churches*

Once a year - customary annual use

No communal use - no use over an entire year

*churches investigated: those most likely to use Local Lg Scripture

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Findings from Indonesia

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Findings from Indonesia

Total # of Lg communities surveyed - 19

18 local Lgs and 1 LWC

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Findings from Indonesia

Total # of Lg communities surveyed - 19

18 local Lgs and 1 LWC

REGULAR COMMUNAL USAGE

Weekly use:

0 communities

Monthly use:

4 communities (where more than half were Reformed churches)

NON-REGULAR COMMUNAL USAGE

Occasional use:

11 communities (including the LWC, Manado Malay)

No use:

4 communities

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Findings from Indonesia

In the 11 communities with occasional usage:

average # of Sundays local Scriptures used per year - 4 Sundays per yr

(used to express cultural identity)

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Findings from Vanuatu

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Findings from Vanuatu

Total # of Lg communities surveyed - 25

(24 local Lgs and 1 LWC)

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Findings from Vanuatu

Total # of Lg communities surveyed - 25

(24 local Lgs and 1 LWC)

REGULAR COMMUNAL USE

Weekly use:

1 community (Bislama - LWC)

Monthly use:

0 communities

NON-REGULAR COMMUNAL USE

Occasional use:

16 Communities (most of these are just ‘a few times’, often meaning ‘never’...)

No use:

8 communities

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Findings from Vanuatu

We did find regular weekly usage of local Lg Scripture in a single church
in 2 communities (or 8% of the 25 Lg communities surveyed)

However, this usage is represented only by a single congregation in each of these 2 language communities - one Catholic church in one community and one Anglican church in the other (likely influenced by liturgical church norms)

The LWC (Bislama) is taking over the use of English in the Scripture domain

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General findings from Nigeria

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General findings from Nigeria

Total # of Lg communities surveyed - 28

26 local Lgs and 2 LWCs

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General findings from Nigeria

Total # of Lg communities surveyed - 28

26 local Lgs and 2 LWCs

Findings for Nigeria are all preliminary as data analysis has not been completed. But we can give the following estimates based on what we have seen so far…

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General findings from Nigeria:

- where the local language came first

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General findings from Nigeria:

- where the local language came first

In 2 of these 28 communities, the oldest churches in the community used Scripture in the local language first. These Scriptures were translated 100+ years ago. These churches still read Scripture in the local Lg Scripture weekly today.

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General findings from Nigeria:

- where the local language came first

In 2 of these 28 communities, the oldest churches in the community used Scripture in the local language first. These Scriptures were translated 100+ years ago. These churches still read Scripture in the local Lg Scripture weekly today.

These 2 communities showed by far the most local Lg Scripture use of all languages surveyed. One of these, the Tiv language, was used in 10 different churches surveyed, with only 2 churches surveyed not using it.

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General findings from Nigeria:

- age

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General findings from Nigeria:

- age

On the whole, the vast majority of those who own local Lg Scriptures are older.

Younger people tend to own and prefer English and other LWC Scriptures.

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General findings from Nigeria:

- revitalization attempts

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General findings from Nigeria:

- revitalization attempts

In up to 4 communities, local Lg Scripture is used every week in at least 1 church in an effort to revitalise the language.

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General findings from Nigeria:

- revitalization attempts

In up to 4 communities, local Lg Scripture is used every week in at least 1 church in an effort to revitalise the language.

In these communities, special local Lg denominations/services have been created for the purpose of revitalization

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General findings from Nigeria:

- revitalization attempts

In up to 4 communities, local Lg Scripture is used every week in at least 1 church in an effort to revitalise the language.

In these communities, special local Lg denominations/services have been created for the purpose of revitalization

These revitalization churches are in communities where all adults are still speaking the language

83 of 148

General findings from Nigeria:

- revitalization attempts

In up to 4 communities, local Lg Scripture is used every week in at least 1 church in an effort to revitalise the language.

In these communities, special local Lg denominations/services have been created for the purpose of revitalization

These revitalization churches are in communities where all adults are still speaking the language

These revitalization churches represent a fraction of churches in the language communities concerned

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Summary of findings from Nigeria:

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Summary of findings from Nigeria:

Of the predicted exceptions to the sequencing of translation hypothesis, we found these three in Nigeria:

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Summary of findings from Nigeria:

Of the predicted exceptions to the sequencing of translation hypothesis, we found these three in Nigeria:

Church policy (this explains most of the local Lg Scripture use in Nigeria), including for revitalization purposes

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Summary of findings from Nigeria:

Of the predicted exceptions to the sequencing of translation hypothesis, we found these three in Nigeria:

Church policy (this explains most of the local Lg Scripture use in Nigeria), including for revitalization purposes
Limited multilingualism (this explains local Lg Scripture use in a small number of local Lg communities)

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Summary of findings from Nigeria:

Of the predicted exceptions to the sequencing of translation hypothesis, we found these three in Nigeria:

Church policy (this explains most of the local Lg Scripture use in Nigeria), including for revitalization purposes
Limited multilingualism (this explains local Lg Scripture use in a small number of local Lg communities)
LWC: (Hausa and Igbo) As we saw in Indonesia and Vanuautu, LWC Scripture use is the norm

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What this research has not yet addressed

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What this research has not yet addressed

OBT

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What this research has not yet addressed

OBT
Church centric translation, where the local church funds their own translation

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What this research has not yet addressed

OBT
Church centric translation, where the local church funds their own translation
We believe these newer methodologies could also benefit from evidence-based assessment to discover the extent of actual usage

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Next steps in our research

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Next steps in our research

This year’s goals - 2 of the following:

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Next steps in our research

This year’s goals - 2 of the following:

Brazil: focusing on translations done before diglossia

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Next steps in our research

This year’s goals - 2 of the following:

Brazil: focusing on translations done before diglossia

Francophone Africa: (potentially different ecologies)

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Next steps in our research

This year’s goals - 2 of the following:

Brazil: Focusing on translations done before diglossia

Francophone Africa: (potentially different ecologies)

PNG: (potentially different ecologies)

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Broader Implications

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

99 of 148

Broader Implications

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

100 of 148

Broader Implications

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

101 of 148

Broader Implications

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of the previously mentioned exceptions exist.

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

102 of 148

Broader Implications

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

103 of 148

Broader Implications

This research helps us to:

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

104 of 148

Broader Implications

This research helps us to:

be able to better identify where future translation is needed most = better stewardship

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

105 of 148

Broader Implications

This research helps us to:

be able to better identify where future translation is needed most = better stewardship

recognize that multilingual minority culture churches that choose to use majority Lg Scriptures are healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

106 of 148

Broader Implications

This research helps us to:

better identify where future translation is needed most = better stewardship

recognize that multilingual minority culture churches that choose to use majority Lg Scriptures are healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

recognize that we are closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

BROADER IMPLICATIONS

If the ‘sequencing of translation’ hypothesis continues to hold true across multiple language ecologies on multiple continents, then:

1) Starting local Lg BT in multilingual communities where there is an existing church already using a majority language Scripture would not be recommended.

2) Future local Lg BT starts only recommended where there is no current church (& no use of majority Lg Scriptures/no diglossia), or where one of these exceptions exist:

there is higher church policy to use the local Lg

the local Lg community is not multilingual in the majority lg

the local Lg is already a large LWC marking regional or national identity

the current Scripture is not in a prestigious LWC

local lg community is actively resisting the majority community

3) Multilingual minority culture churches that choose to thrive using majority Lg Scriptures could be recognized by the BT movement as healthy expressions of the Kingdom.

4) End result: we would

be better able to identify where future translation is needed most,

be closer to eradicating Bible poverty than previously thought.

T

107 of 148

Recap

Most of the churches that we surveyed in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria are well attended, with active youth groups, supporting their own pastors, and reaching out to their communities.

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109 of 148

Recap

Most of the churches that we surveyed in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria are well attended, with active youth groups, supporting their own pastors, and reaching out to their communities.

There was plenty of evidence that they were self-propagating, self-governing and self-supporting (the 3-selfs).

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111 of 148

Recap

Most of the churches that we surveyed in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria are well attended, with active youth groups, supporting their own pastors, and reaching out to their communities.

There was plenty of evidence that they were self-propagating, self-governing and self-supporting (the 3-selfs).

And – instead of using their local Lg Scriptures, which they all had, they overwhelmingly used the majority Lg Scriptures.

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113 of 148

Recap

Most of the churches that we surveyed in Indonesia, Vanuatu, and Nigeria are well attended, with active youth groups, supporting their own pastors, and reaching out to their communities.

There was plenty of evidence that they were self-propagating, self-governing and self-supporting (the 3-selfs).

And – instead of using their local Lg Scriptures, which they all had, they overwhelmingly used the majority Lg Scriptures.

Taken together, this suggests that indigenous churches can thrive while reading the Bible in an LWC.

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115 of 148

Is this good news or bad?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

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Is this good news or bad?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

All the places we surveyed had vibrant Christian communities

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

117 of 148

Is this good news or bad?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

All the places we surveyed had vibrant Christian communities

The most enjoyable surveys we've ever been on

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

118 of 148

Is this good news or bad?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Why are we translating the Bible into vernacular languages?

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

119 of 148

Is this good news or bad?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Why are we translating the Bible into vernacular languages?

So that people will read the Bible, understand Christianity better, and be transformed.

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

120 of 148

Is this good news or bad?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Why are we translating the Bible into vernacular languages?

So that people will read the Bible, understand Christianity better, and be transformed.

Karl Anderbeck: The more important thing is the life in the Spirit, not the language they're using

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

121 of 148

Ted Bergman

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Survey isn't a matter of determining whether there is a need, or no need for translation

122 of 148

Ted Bergman

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Survey isn't a matter of determining whether there is a need, or no need for translation

If we had unlimited resources, why not translate into every language?

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

123 of 148

Ted Bergman

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Survey isn't a matter of determining whether there is a need, or no need for translation

If we had unlimited resources, why not translate into every language?

Survey is about prioritizing the greatest need for translation

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

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What are the highest priority needs?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

125 of 148

What are the highest priority needs?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Lausanne World Pulse:

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

126 of 148

What are the highest priority needs?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Lausanne World Pulse:

No Christians

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

127 of 148

What are the highest priority needs?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Lausanne World Pulse:

No Christians

No Scripture

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

128 of 148

What are the highest priority needs?

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Lausanne World Pulse:

No Christians

No Scripture

No missionaries

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

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What are the implications for SIL?��

130 of 148

What are the implications for SIL?��Prioritize the following:

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Translation in non-Christian communities

132 of 148

Translation into respected scripts, such as Ajami

Arabic script for some African languages.

الأفريقية. لاقى نجاحًا باهرًا. تُعتبر الكتابة بالخط��Writing in the Roman script is seen as Christian, while Ajami is respected.

133 of 148

Translation in monolingual communities

134 of 148

Translation and Scripture engagement in languages of wider communication��

135 of 148

Translation and Scripture engagement in languages of wider communication��

Bislama

136 of 148

Translation and Scripture engagement in languages of wider communication��

Bislama

Chadian Arabic

137 of 148

Translation and Scripture engagement in languages of wider communication��

Bislama

Chadian Arabic

Creole in Guinea Bissau

138 of 148

Translation and Scripture engagement in languages of wider communication��

Bislama

Chadian Arabic

Creole in Guinea Bissau

Papiamentu

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Translation and Scripture engagement in languages of wider communication��

Bislama

Chadian Arabic

Creole in Guinea Bissau

Papiamentu

Hausa

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Final word:

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

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This research celebrates them both.

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.

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Final word:

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.

This research celebrates them both.

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Thank you

Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing Both local Lg and majority Lg Scripture use can produce vibrant, flourishing churches.churches.

�

This research celebrates them both.

This research celebrates them both.This research celebrates them both.

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References:

Anonby, Stan, Tiar Simanjuntak & David Eberhard. forthcoming. Observation-based research in vernacular Scripture use: The picture in Sulawesi. In Gary Simons and Steve Watters (eds.), Evidence based research in language program assessment . Dallas: SIL International. (acces here: Evidence-Based Research in Language Program… [PDF/iPad/Kindle ])
Anonby, Stan, David M Eberhard, and Tiar Adam Simanjuntak. 2025. “The Sequencing of Local Language & National Language Translations: Why Vernacular Scriptures Are Not Being Used—A Pilot Study Focused on Sulawesi.” Journal of Language, Culture, and Religion 6 (2): 1–26. https://doi.org/10.64830/001c.145157.
Dye, T.W., 2009. Scripture in an accessible form: The most common avenue to increased Scripture engagement. International Journal of Frontier Missiology, 26(3), pp.123-128.
Ferguson, Charles. 1959. Diglossia. Word 15. 325–340.
Fishman, Joshua A. 1965. Who speaks what language to whom and when. La Linguistique 1(2).67-88.
Frank, Paul. n.d. Old Habits Die Hard. Ms
Nehrbass, Kenneth. 2014. “Do Multilingual Speakers Understand the Bible Best in their Heart Language? A Tool for Comparing Comprehension of Translations in Vernacular Languages and Languages of Wider Communication.” The Bible Translator 65, no. 1: 88–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/2051677013518301

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Appendix A: Historical usage

PAST USAGE IN SULAWESI - data from literature

8 of the 19 language communities had local Scripture translations before the majority language arrived,

and some of them showed signs of regular usage for many decades (even though no longer used today).

In all other locations where the first translation used was the majority language, subsequent translations into the local Lg have had no signs of regular use outside of the aforementioned exceptions

(regular use = more than once per month).

PAST USAGE IN VANUATU - data from literature

6 of the 25 language communities had local Scripture translations before the majority language arrived, and some of them showed signs of regular usage for many decades (even though no longer used today). At least one (Ngunis) was used for over a century.

In all other locations where the first translation used was the majority language, subsequent translations into the local Lg have had no signs of regular use outside of the aforementioned exceptions

Both of the above histories support the hypothesis that the ‘sequencing of translation’ affects Scripture use.

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Appendix B: Understandability of an LWC

In Vanuatu, the LWC, Bislama, is growing in use

Our data shows that Bislama is well understood by the vast majority from all ethnic groups across the country.
In our recordings of worship services, Scriptures were read in Bislama almost as much as in English. Bislama: 21 churches, English: 25 churches, local Lg: 2 churches.
In Port Vila, Bislama is the local Lg of many youth.
Ken Nehrbass (2014) showed that LWC Scriptures (Bislama) can be better understood than local Scriptures even in high vitality language communities (Southwest Tanna).

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Appendix C: Some positive takeaways from Sulawesi, Vanuatu and Nigeria

Low vitality: whilst it normally decreases usage - it does not do so in every ecology. Where there are denominational policies to use local Lg Scripture, vitality is largely irrelevant (most likely found in liturgical churches). Sulawesi: weaker language Scriptures were used slightly more than stronger language Scriptures due to church policy.

Usage of printed music in the local Lg was found in many churches, and catechisms in the local Lg were used in some churches (Vanuatu)

LWC Scripture can replace the usage of national language Scriptures (Bislama has replaced English Scripture in many communities in Vanuatu, Igbo and Hausa have replaced English in some communities in Nigeria )

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Appendix D: Original idea from Brazil

The original basis for this research project were our observations of the usage of local Lg Scriptures in Brazil.

In talks with translators we realized that the only local Lg Scriptures currently used in Brazil are in places where the translation was done before majority Lg Scriptures had become the norm in those communities (these highly successful translations are: Kayapó, Xavante, Guajajara, Sataré-Mawé, Apalai, WaiWai). All subsequent translations in Brazil that came after majority Lg Scriptures were introduced are not being used.

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Appendix E: Responding to SE concerns

“We ignored other factors”: We DO agree that other factors influence use. However, the factors are weighted - primary vs secondary. And diglossia is the most prevalent primary factor.
“We avoided good SE”: There are claims that where we did our research there were simply no cases of ‘high level’ SE. Some of the historical data from Vanuatu shows that there was high Scripture use in the absence of intentional SE activities. Some of the languages researched in Nigeria were recommended to us by SIL staff as having had good SE.
“We ignored SE case studies”: There are claims that there are case studies that show local Lg use where there was strong SE. We have strong misgivings about Scripture use research that includes SE activities. Such data cannot be considered objective. In some of the other case studies the methodologies used were not always clear, making it hard for us to evaluate them. We will be looking at all of the rest very soon.

Response: We are now surveying places where it is agreed that strong SE was done and hope to do more.