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Chapter 5

Physical Development in Infancy

Child Development

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How do the human body and nervous system develop?
Does the environment affect the pattern of development?
What developmental tasks must infants undertake in this period?
What is the role of nutrition in physical development?
What sensory capabilities do infants possess?

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Physical Growth

The average newborn weighs just over 7 pounds
By 5 months, the average infant’s birthweight has doubled to around 15 pounds
By the first birthday, the infant’s weight has tripled to 22 pounds
By the end of the second year, the child’s weight has quadrupled since birth

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Physical Growth

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Principles of Growth

Cephalocaudal principle states that growth follows a pattern that starts with the head and upper body then proceeds to the rest of the body

Proximodistal principle states that growth proceeds from the center of the body outward

Principle of hierarchical integration states that simple skills typically develop separately and independently

Principle of the independence of systems suggests that different body systems grow at different rates

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Principles of Growth

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Nervous System and the Brain

Neurons are the basic cells of the nervous system

Synapses are the gaps between neurons through which communication occurs

Myelin is the fatty substance that acts like insulation to assist speed of neural impulses

Cerebral cortex is the upper layer of the brain

Plasticity refers to the degree which a developing structure or behavior is modifiable due to experience

Sensitive period is a specific and limited time in an organism’s life when it is particularly susceptible to environmental influences relating to a facet of development

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Nervous System and the Brain

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Integrating Bodily Systems: �Life Cycles of Infancy

Awake states

Alertness

Nonalert waking

Fussing

Crying

Transition states between sleep and waking

Drowsiness

Daze

Sleep-wake transition

Sleep states

Active sleep – involves intermittent REM (Rapid Eye movement)

Quiet sleep

Transitional sleep state

Active-quiet transition sleep

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Rhythms are repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior

State is the degree of awareness the infant displays to both internal and external stimulation

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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Cause of SIDS is unknown
1 in 1,000 infants die a year in the US from SIDS
No means to prevent SIDS have been found
Risk factors may include boys, African Americans, low birthweight, low APGAR scores, a mother that smokes during pregnancy, possible brain defect

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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

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Motor Development

Reflexes are the unlearned, organized, voluntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

Rooting reflex: turning head towards things that touch the cheek
Stepping reflex: legs move in a stepping fashion when held upright with feet on the floor
Swimming reflex: paddle and kick motion while on belly
Moro reflex: activated when support for head removed – arms thrust out and appear to grasp
Babinski reflex: fanning the toes when outside of foot is stroked
Startle reflex: flinging of arms outward and arching of back when loud noise occurs
Eye-blink reflex: rapid opening and closing of eyes to direct light exposure
Sucking reflex: tendency to suck things that touch the lips
Gag reflex: clearing the throat of obstructions

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Milestones of Motor Development in Infancy

Gross motor skills - scooting on the floor, crawling, walking, sitting up
Fine motor skills - coordinate movement of limbs, reach and grasp objects, pick up small objects

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Developmental Norms

Norms represent the average performance of a large sample of children of a given age

Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale (NBAS) – a measure used to determine infants’ neurological and behavioral responses to the environment

To be effective, norms need to be based on large, heterogeneous, culturally diverse samples of children

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Nutrition in Infancy

Malnutrition is a condition of having improper amount and balance of nutrients – results to development could be slower growth, lower IQ scores later in life as well as poor school performance
Marasmus is a disease characterized by cessation of growth as a result of malnutrition
Kwashiorkor occurs to older, malnourished children and is characterized by swelling of the stomach limbs and face with water. The body is struggling to make use of the few nutrients it has available
Nonorganic failure to thrive is a disorder in which infants stop growing due to lack of stimulation and attention as a result of inadequate parenting. This has an emotional cause
Obesity is defined as weight greater than 20% above the average. The effects of obesity in infants is not quite clear yet

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Underweight Children

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Breast Feeding vs. �Bottle Feeding

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Breast Feeding vs. �Bottle Feeding

Breast milk contains all the nutrients necessary for growth and offers immunity to various childhood diseases.

Breast feeding offers emotional advantages to mother and child and may cause decreased risk of ovarian and breast cancers to the mother.

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Development of the Senses

Sensation is the stimulation of the sense organs
Perception is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli involving the sense organs and the brain

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Visual Perception

Newborn’s vision ranges from 20/200 to 20/600 meaning they cannot distinguish beyond 20 feet
By 6 months, the average infant has 20/20 vision
Binocular vision is achieved by 14 weeks
Infants show clear visual preferences from birth

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Auditory Perception

Hearing begins prenatally
Infants are born with preference to certain sound combinations
Sound localization, the ability to determine where a sound is coming from, is at adult level by 1 year old
By four and a half months, infants can discriminate their own names

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Smell and Taste

Sense of smell is extremely well developed in infants. A 12-18 day old infant can distinguish the smell of the mother.
Taste is also well developed in infants who can distinguish disgust and bitter and show preference for sweet. Infants also develop taste preferences depending on what the mother drank while they were in the womb.

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Sensitivity to Pain and Touch

Infants are born with the capacity to experience pain. Pain produces signs of distress such as increased heartbeat, sweating, facial expressions, and changes in intensity and tone of crying
Touch is one of the most highly developed sensory systems of the newborn and one of the first to develop. Being touched promotes growth and emotional development. Infants reaching out to touch assists in exploring the world

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Sensitivity to Pain and Touch

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Multimodal Approach to Perception

considers how information that is collected by various individual sensory systems is integrated and coordinated

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Affordances are action possibilities that a given situation or stimulus provides.

Infants learn they may fall when walking down a ramp so the ramp affords the possibility of falling. This is crucial information as a child learns to walk.

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