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ENG 101

Professor Dr. Surriya Shaffi Mir

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Table of Contents:

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Lesson -01

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Reading and Dictionary

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This lesson is in two parts. In the first part, you will learn about the:

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• uses of a language dictionary
• how to use a dictionary

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In the second part of the lesson, you will read an interesting story.

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Definition of Dictionary

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A dictionary is a book that not only lists and records the words of a language but it also tells you how speakers of the language spell, pronounce, define, explain and use the words of their language.

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Reference Book - provides useful information. It is valuable only if you learn how to use it correctly and efficiently.

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List of Dictionary Uses (9)

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The following is a list of things that can be learned from a dictionary:

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1. Spelling
2. Pronunciation
3. Part of speech
4. Origin of word
5. Meaning/explanation
6. Usage/restrictive lables
7. Synonyms & antonyms
8. Foreign words & phrases

ix) General information.

i)

Spelling

Many students find English spelling very confusing. So what do you do? Consult your dictionary. It will clarify your confusion by showing you the different spellings of the same word.

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Look at the words catalogue and theatre. You must have noticed that the dictionary lists both BRE and AE/US spelling of the words. Both are correct.

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Exercise (i) Spelling:

Use the dictionary to answer the following questions about spelling.

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1. What other possible spellings does your dictionary give for these words?

Centre Color

2. Does your dictionary say anything about the spelling ‘humor’ and ‘rumor’?

(ii)

Pronunciation

Students have problems in pronouncing English words. A dictionary will help you learn the pronunciation of any word but only if you are familiar with the symbols in which they are written. We will discuss this in greater detail in the next lesson.

All language dictionaries carry a pronunciation key/table. Be sure to read it.

(iii)

Part of speech

All dictionaries indicate the part of speech a word belongs to - whether the word is commonly used as a Noun, Pronoun, Verb (transitive, intransitive), Adjective, Adverb, Conjunction, or Preposition etc.

iv) Origin of Words

Some dictionaries indicate the origin and derivation of a word before it became an English word.

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5. Meaning/ Explanation / Definition of words

The most important information that a dictionary provides about a word is its meaning. Most of the words have many meanings or shades of meaning. Do not just read the first listed meaning of the word you are looking for. Go down the numbered list. Look for the meaning that best suits the context in which the word is used.

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Also look up words above and below the word that you are looking for. You will find that words are often closely related. It will help to extend your recognition of the word in other forms and contexts.

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Exercise (v-a) Meaning:

Look up the words ‘fast’ and ‘set’ in a dictionary. Write the total number of different meanings of each word. Include all the numbered and lettered meanings for each part of speech.

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Exercise (v-b): Meaning/ Explanation / Definition of words.

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Use the dictionary to find the specific meanings of the word ‘play’ in each of the following:

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• The boys like to play on the hard court.
• Amna will play the sitar in the concert.
• The play produced by the arts club was a success.
• It was a clever play that won the football game.
• The gardener played the hose on the flower beds.

6. A ‘week without water can make one weak’ is a play on words.

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(vi) Usage/Restrictive Labels

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A dictionary uses different labels like Br (British), Am (American), fml (formal), infml (informal), col (colloquial), pl (plural), poetic (poetic), sl (slang).This information is important in writing.

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A dictionary will tell you the usage of words and phrases, idioms / proverbs of the language. It will also tell you about the limitations of the use of the word. Special labels are used to show this. If a word is no longer in current use it will be labelled archaic (arch) or obsolete (obs). Other labels will tell you of the level of usage: whether the word has literary flavour (poetic) or is slang (sl), formal (fml) informal (infml).

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Exercise( vi-a )Usage Restrictive Labels:

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Idioms / Two-word Verbs / Phrasal Verbs / Noun Phrase

Look up the underlined words in the dictionary and write their meanings.

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1. Prof. Widdowson held forth for over an hour about the need for communication language teaching.
2. I don’t get how you found the answer.
3. My roommate is pretty hard up these days.

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Exercise (vi-b) Restrictive or Usage Labels:

a)

Look up the following words / phrases in the dictionary. Write whether its use is primarily slang, informal or colloquial.

Guys Cool

Example:

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Will it be O.K. if I meet you in the library about eight?

Label: Colloquial

Meaning: All Right

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7. Synonyms and Antonyms:

Similar and opposite meanings of words are also given but not in all dictionaries.

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8. Foreign words and Phrases:

Dictionaries define / explain many common foreign words and phrases, either with the main entries or in a special section at the back.

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Exercise(viii)Foreign Words & Phrases:

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Look up each of these foreign words or phrases. Write its English meaning.

etcetera, e.g., et al., a prior, coup d’état, per se.

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9. General Information

This section varies from dictionary to dictionary. Names of important persons, places, countries, nationalities, are listed either in the alphabetical order of words or in special sections at the back. Some dictionaries may include rules for spelling, punctuation, list of common first names in English, systems of weights and measures, conversion tables, etc.

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How to use a dictionary:

Learning what a dictionary contains and how it is used will save much of your time.

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Step I: Know the correct order of the letters of the English alphabet.

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• all entries in dictionary are arranged in an alphabetical order.
• words are arranged according to the 1st letter.
• when the words begin with the same letter, they are arranged according to the 2nd letter.
• if both the 1st and the 2nd letters are the same then the words are arranged according to the 3rd letter, & so on...

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Step 2: Finding Words Quickly

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1. When looking for a word, first thumb through pages quickly.

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• Look only at guide words
• When you come to the guide word nearest the word you want, then look

down that page for the word.

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Guide Words

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2. Look at top of any page in the dictionary. The words in heavy type/bold face are the GUIDE WORDS. They guide you to the word you are looking for.

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• The word on the top left are same as the first bold face word on that page.
• Word on the top right of the page is the last bold face entry on that page.

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RECAP

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• As the students of English you need to know how to use a dictionary.
• Dictionary is a tool - must learn to use it properly in order to discover the full potential

of the language.

• It will make you an independent learner.
• It is helpful like a friend.

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This concludes the first part of the lesson1. Now we move to the second part which, I hope you will enjoy.

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First we are going to show you the text of a story.You will read a folk tale from North America. The story is about a natural event.

Raven and the Coming of Daylight

(Gail Robinson and Douglas Hill)

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When the earth was very young, it was dark and old like a winter’s night through all the year’s seasons. Gull was the Custodian of Daylight, and he kept it locked tight in a cedar box beneath his wing. Being Custodian made Gull feel very important, and he was not going to lose his position by letting Daylight out of the box.

“He is too vain!” screeched Owl, at a meeting of the People upon Meeting Hill. “We can never travel, in this darkness, to our half-homes in this south,” cried

Robin. Her breast was bleached of colour for the lack of light.

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Gull agreed to come to the meeting. But it was clear, when he came, that he was not going to change his mind or listen to what Raven said. He had come only because it made him feel even more important to have Raven pleading with him.

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“I was made Custodian of Daylight in the beginning of things,” said Gull. “I am to keep Daylight safe. And I will keep it safe.” And he curved his swing tighter around the cedar box.

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Raven had run out of words to make Gull see the People’s need for light. He thought angrily to himself, “I wish this Gull would step on a large thorn.”

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No sooner had he shaped this thought than Gull cried out, “Squee! My foot!” “A thorn, Cousin?” asked raven innocently. “Let me see-I will take it out for you.”

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But of course it was so dark that he could not see the thorn to remove it. “I must have light to take out the thorn,” said Raven.

“Light? Never!” said Gull. “Then the thorn will remain.”

Gull complained and hopped on one foot and wept, and he finally opened his cedar box a crack, a crack so narrow that out glanced a shaft of light no brighter than a single star.

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Raven put his hand to Gull’s foot, then pretended not to see the thorn. Instead, he pushed it in deeper.

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“Squee!” cried Gull. “My foot!”

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“More light, more light!” shouted Raven.

And the lid of the box raised a further crack, so that light gleamed forth like a winter moon. Then Raven reached again for the thorn and pushed it even further into the soft flesh of Gull’s foot.

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“More light!” roared Raven.

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“Squee, squee, squee!” screamed Gull, and in his pain he flung off the lid of the cedar box.

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Like a molten fish the sun slithered from the box, and light and warmth blazed out over the world.

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Nor was it ever to be recaptured, no matter how loudly or how sadly Gull called to it to return to its safe hiding place beneath his wing.

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Now after reading the story answer the following questions.

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Q1. Read the four statements given below. Select the one which best expresses the main idea of the story.

a)

b)

c)

d)

The removal of the thorn from the Raven’s foot.

The meeting of birds and animals upon Meeting Hill. The release of daylight over the earth.

The capture of daylight in the cedar box.

‘C’ is the correct statement. “The release of daylight over the earth”.

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Q2. Read the following statements: Write T if it is true or F if it is false.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

Raven and Gull are birds. Gull and Raven are related.

Raven felt important being custodian of Daylight. Daylight was kept under a wing.

Raven pushed a thorn into Gull’s foot.

Gull at once opened the box for Raven to see the thorn. The sun slipped out of the box.

Gail Robinson is the author of the tale.

Statements a, b and g are true. Statements c, d, e, f and h are false.

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Try to answer the following questions:

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1. What is the story about?

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• What natural event the writer is trying to explain in this story?

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• What is a myth?

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It is an ancient story containing magical and religious ideas. It describes an early attempt of mankind to understand their surroundings and to give meaning to life.

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An honest, plain sensible Country Mouse is said to have entertained in his hole, one day, a fine Mouse of the Town. Having formerly been playfellows together, they were old acquaintances, which served as an apology for the visit. However, as master of the house, he thought himself obliged to do the honours of it, in all respects, and to make as great a stranger of his guest as he possibly could. In order to do this, he set before him a reserve of delicate grey peas and meat, a dish of fine oatmeal, some parings of new cheese, and to crown all, with a dessert, a remnant of a charming mellow apple. In good manners her forbore to eat any himself, lest the stranger should not have enough, but, that he might seem to bear the other company, sat and nibbled a piece of wheaten straw very busily. At last, said the spark of the town, “Old Crony, give me leave to be a little free with you: how can you bear to live in this nasty, dirty, melancholy hole here, with nothing but woods, and meadows, and mountains, and rivulets about you?

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Do you not prefer the conversation of the world to the chirping of birds; and the splendour of a court to the rude aspect of an uncultivated desert? Come, take my word for it, you will find it a change for the better. Never stand considering, but away this moment. Remember we are not immortal, and therefore we have no time to lose. Make sure of to-day, and spend it as agreeably as you can; you know not what may happen tomorrow.” In short, these and suchlike arguments prevailed, and his country acquaintance was resolved to go to town that night. So they both set out upon their journey together, proposing to sneak in after the close of the evening. They did so, and about midnight made their entry into a certain great house, where there had been an extraordinary entertainment the day before, and several titbits, which some of the servants has purloined, were hid under the seat of a window. The country guest was immediately placed in the midst of a rich Persian carpet: and now it was the courtier’s turn to entertain, who indeed acquitted himself in that capacity with the utmost readiness and address, changing the courses as elegantly, and tasting everything first as judiciously as any clerk of the kitchen.

The other sat and enjoyed himself like a delighted epicure, tickled tot he last degree with this new turn of his affairs; when, on sudden, a noise of somebody opening the door made them start from their seats, and scuttle in confusion about the dining-room. Our country friend, in particular, was ready to die with fear at the barking of a huge mastiff or two, which opened their throats just about the same time, and made the whole house echo. At last recovering himself. “Well,” said he, “if this be your town life, much good may it do you; give me my poor quiet hole again, with my homely, but comfortable grey peas.”

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Does the fable teach you any lesson?

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Possible answer: To each his own environment.

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How important are Freedom and Security in life?

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Reading exercises:

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Just read the stories — Do not look up the meanings of words in the dictionary.

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• Is there anything common between the two stories?

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• Are there any specific lessons the authors want you to learn?

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This brings us to the end of our first lesson.

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Let us recapitulate/ recall what we learnt today:

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• We learnt to use the dictionary.

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• Then we read simple texts to find the general meaning.

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Consult your reading package for assignments related to the first lesson. Your next lesson will deal with using the dictionary for learning pronunciation of English words.

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Lesson -02 Pronunciation

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This lesson is about the usage of a dictionary to know the pronunciation of English words. The students of English are often worried about English pronunciation because spellings of English words often cause confusion. The students generally face difficulty to pronounce a word correctly after they read it.

This lesson is in two parts. In the first part, you will be familiarized with a set of special symbols known as phonemic symbols that are used to indicate each speech sound.

The second part of the lesson consists of a few exercises.

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Look at the following words:

The word ‘chorus’ which begins with the letters ch is pronounced with the 'k' sound while in the word church the letters ch is pronounced as the Urdu/Punjabi letter : .

e.g. In the word ‘ration’,- tion is pronounced as ‘sh’ while in the word ‘machine’- ‘ch’ is also pronounced as ‘sh’

Remember that the phonemic symbols are given in slash brackets in the dictionary. / /

Now try to say these words louder. Pay special attention to the shape of your mouth and lips.

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Short Vowels (7) Long Vowels (5)

Notice that the symbols for long vowels have two small dots in front of them.

Next we have 8 diphthong vowels. These are sounds which are produced by combining two vowel sounds. There is a movement or glide from one vowel sound to another.

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So there are 20 vowel phonemes in English. (7 short, 5 long and 8 diphthongs).

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Now we will look at the consonant sounds / phonemes. In English there are 24 consonant sounds. These are the sounds produced by the complete or partial stoppage of breath.

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Now repeat after me.

Another area closely related with English pronunciation is STRESS.

Stress

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Stress is the extra force used in pronouncing or speaking a particular word. A dictionary will indicate stress by a tiny mark on the top of a word like this: `

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When you look up a word in the dictionary, be sure to learn where the stress falls on the word. E.g.:

1. mother table after

– In these examples the first part of the word is stressed.

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2. hotel bamboo banana-

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There are some words in English which have the same spelling but belong to different parts of speech because they are stressed differently. E.g.

`rebel (n) re`bel (v)

The r`ebels laid down their arms. Children re`bel against their parents.

`present (n)

`present (adj) Pre`sent (v)

The `present was lovely.

Were you `present at the party? Please pre`sent your work.

Read the following passage.

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COMPUTERS IN OUR DAILY LIVES

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Computers are now an integral part of our lives. Many things, public or private, that we do during the course of the day are affected by them. Visit any public organization or office, from hospitals to schools, from the meteorological bureau to the stock exchange, etc. and you are sure to come across people working at computers. Gone are the days when entries were made manually in registers and ledgers at the bank. Now all monetary transactions are conducted by the computer.

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Most films and TV advertisements use graphics or pictures produced with the help of a computer. There is hardly a sphere of life that does not involve the use of a computer.

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Even when you go out on personal errands, to the travel agent to buy an airline ticket or book a seat on the inter city bus, to the shopping plaza or a grocery store, the man behind the counter uses a computer equipped with laser and bar code technology to scan the price of each item you put before him and then uses it to add up the price to present you with a total, all within few minutes.

A bar code is a pattern of thick and thin lines and spaces that represent characters that can be read by a scanner. The bar code identifies the item to which it is affixed; the scanner transfers the signal to a computer that matches the code to a price or inventory unit.

Computers are no longer things only encountered outside the home; they are very much a part of the household items. One cannot imagine a world without computers.

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Exercise I:

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The passage will be read out a second time. As you read this passage you will see a list of words on your TV screen.

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Tick only the words that you hear being read.

1. Integral
2. Games
3. Machines
4. Ledgers
5. Flight

6. Involve
7. Maintain
8. Errands
9. Grocery
10. Libraries

11. Bookkeeping
12. Encountered
13. Scanner
14. Art

Exercise II:

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You may face difficulty in using the right stress for the following words. Use dictionary to find where the stress falls in the each word:

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Lesson -03

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Reading for Main Idea

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Lesson 3 is devoted to develop your reading skills. It is the most important skill that you will need for success in your studies. If you read inaccurately you will miss some of the information or ideas that you read. If you read slowly, you will unnecessarily spend a lot of time in reading, so your other work will suffer.

Your ability to read English rapidly and accurately depends upon purposeful practice. This lesson will introduce you the ways by which you can improve your reading skills. You learn to read by reading. You must continue to practice on your own later.

This lesson is in three parts. In the first part you will learn to identify the topic of a paragraph, in the second part you will learn to pick the main idea of the paragraph and in the last part you will learn to recognize details which support the main idea.

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Topic of a paragraph

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If you are able to identify the topic of a paragraph it will go a long way in developing your reading ability. A good reader is quickly able to identify the topic of a paragraph.

What is the topic of a paragraph? It is the subject of the whole paragraph — i.e. what the whole paragraph is about. It can usually be expressed in a word or two. When you read a paragraph ask yourself the question: What is the writer trying to say or discuss throughout the paragraph? And the answer that comes up (from your heart or mind) will surely be the answer.

Here are a number of short paragraphs taken from different text books. At the end of each paragraph three or four possible answers are given. Select one which you consider is the topic of the paragraph.

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Text 1:

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New species of plants are being discovered every year. It is estimated that the yearly average, for the higher groups of plants alone is approximately 4700 proposed new species. It is obviously necessary, from practical as well as scientific standpoint that attention be given to the naming and the proper classification of the vast assemblage of plants, both native and cultivated. The scientists who do these things are systematic botanists or taxonomists. Most certainly it is essential for those working on the various fields of plant science- whether they are agriculturists, florists, foresters, physiologists or morphologists- to know which plants they are dealing; they must know their proper scientific names and their relationships. (Robbins et al., Botany, p. 7.)

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1. the role of taxonomists.
2. new plant species.
3. plant science.
4. importance of classifying new plant species.

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Text2:

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The term Groups has long been a pivotal concept of sociology. A group is any number of human beings in reciprocal communications. It may be well to emphasize certain aspects and implications of this short definition which beginning students, as well as some sociologists themselves, frequently overlook or do not appreciate fully. First, a group refers only to persons in communication. Mere physical closeness, if there is not communication, does not make a group. The communication creates the group, not the mere fact of spatial proximity or physical contact. Second, a group maybe of any size from two persons, to theoretically and potentially the entire population of the world. Third, communication need not be face-to-face or by “word of mouth”; it may be indirect through writing or at long range through such instruments as the telegraph.

(Cuber, Sociology, p.273.)

1. communication in groups.
2. definition of a group.
3. social limitations of a group.
4. size of groups.

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Text 3:

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Plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil; they take in oxygen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. They manufacture sugars, starches, fats, proteins, and scores of other substances; they conduct materials from one part of the plant to another; they respire, they grow; they react to the environment in which they live; they reproduce. In short, plants carry on a number of activities; they do work; they have functions. Plant physiology is the area of botany concerned with the study of these activities and functions.

(Robinsetal., Botany, p. 9)

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Topic:

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Now here is a short exercise to test what you have learnt.

Topic sentences are given, followed by three statements. Choose the statement that best expresses the topic sentence. The first one is done for you.

1. TOPIC SENTENCE

The Nile, the largest river in Egypt, is unique because it:

A.

B.

C.

describes where Egypt is. explains why the river is unique

compares the Nile with other large rivers.

The correct answer is B — explains why the river is unique.

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2. TOPIC SENTENCE

A little-known story about M.A. Jinnah tells about his manner of thinking.

A.

B.

C.

Describes the passing of the Lahore Resolution. Summarizes Jinnah’s speech at Lahore, March 1940. Relates the “Little Known Story”.

3. TOPIC SENTENCE

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If you want to spend your holidays in a truly unique place, the northern areas of Pakistan are just the place for you.

A.

B.

C.

Identifies the place and explain its uniqueness.

Explains the physical and emotional importance of holidays. Relates the history of the Pushtoons.

Text 4:

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TOPIC SENTENCE

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The development of speech in infants follows a definite sequence or patterns of development.

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Details:

A.

By the time an infant is six months old, he or she can make twelve different speech

sounds.

B. Before the age of three months, most infants are unable to produce any recognizable syllables.

C During the first year, the number of vowel sounds a child can produce is greater than the number of consonant sounds he can make.

4. During the second year, the number of consonant sounds a child can produce increases.
5. Parents often reward the first recognizable word a child produces by smiling or speaking to the child.

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Text 5:

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TOPIC SENTENCE

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In some parts of the world, famine is a constant human condition and exists due to a variety of causes.

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Details:

1. In parts of Africa, people are dying of hunger by the tens of thousands.
2. Famine is partly caused by increased population.

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C.

Advances in medicine have increased life expectancies, keeping more people active for longer periods of time.

Agricultural technology has not made substantial advances in increasing the food supply.

Due to growth of cities, population has become denser, and the agricultural support for these population centers is not available.

D.

E.

Text 6:

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TOPIC SENTENCE

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An individual deals with anxiety in a variety of ways and produces a wide range of responses.

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Details:

A.

Anxiety may manifest itself by such physical symptoms as increased heart activity or labored breathing.

Fear, unlike anxiety, is a response to real or threatened danger.

Psychologically, anxiety often produces a feeling of powerlessness, or lack of direct control over the immediate environment.

Temporary blindness, deafness, or the loss of the sensation of touch is examples of extreme physical responses to anxiety.

Some people cannot cope with anxiety and are unable to control the neurotic behavior associated with anxiety.

B.

C.

D.

E.

Before we end the lesson, let me go over what you have learnt in today’s lesson. In today’s lesson you have learnt three important skills related with reading.

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- First, to identify the topic of a paragraph.

- Second, to select the main idea of the paragraph, and

-Third, to recognize the details which support the main idea.

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Lesson -04

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Reading: Topic, Main Idea

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In this lesson we will practice skills learnt in previous lessons. These skills are:

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1. Identifying the topic of each paragraph.
2. Identifying the main idea.
3. Identifying supporting ideas.

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The given text is about computers. It consists of six paragraphs. Read the text once through without stopping. As you read the text you will come across many words and expressions that you are not familiar with. Do not be upset. Keep on reading. In your second reading, pause after every paragraph and ask yourself - what the paragraph is about? You will find that each paragraph has a topic, a main or a primary idea and / or secondary ideas that support the main idea.

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What is a computer?

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1- A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. The switches, like the cores, are capable of being in one of two possible states, that is, on or off: magnetized or demagnetized. The machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters, and characters. The basic idea of a computer is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that turn certain switches on and turn others, off, or that magnetizes or de- magnetizes the cores.

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2. The basic job of computers is the processing of information. For this reason, computers can be defined as a device which accepts information in the form of instructions called a program and characters called data, perform mathematical and / or logical operations on the information, and then supply results of these operations. The program, or part of it, which tells the computers what to do and also provides the information needed to solve the problem, is kept inside the computer in a place called memory.

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• Computers are thought to have many remarkable powers. However, the most of computers, whether large or small have three basic capabilities. First, computers have circuits of performing arithmetic operations, such as: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation. Second, computers have a means of communicating with the user. After all, if we couldn’t feed information in and get results back, these machines wouldn’t be of much use. However, certain computers (commonly minicomputers and microcomputers) are used to control directly things such as robots, aircraft's navigation systems, medical instruments, etc.

4. Some of the most common methods of inputting information are to sue punched

cards, magnetic tape, disks and terminals. The computer’s input device (which might be

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a card reader, a tape drive or disk drive, depending on the medium used in putting information) reads the information into the computer. For outputting information, two common devices used are a printer which prints the new information on paper, or a CRT display screen which shows the results on a TV-like screen.

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5. Third, computers have circuits which can make decisions. The kinds of decisions which computer circuits can make are not of the type: ‘Who would win a war between two countries?’ or ‘Who is the richest person in the world?’ Unfortunately, the computer can only decide three things, namely: Is one number less than another? Are tow numbers equal? Is one number greater than another?

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• A computer can solve a series of problems and make hundreds, even thousands, of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored. It can find the solution of a problem in a fraction of time. A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality; it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any valuable judgments. There are times when a computer seems to operate like a mechanical ‘brain’, but its achievements are limited by the minds of human beings. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it what to do and give it the appropriate information; but as electric pulses can move at the speed of light, a computer can carry out vast numbers of arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously. A person can do everything a computer can do, but in many cases that person would be dead long before the job was finished.

(N. Mullen & P. Brown: English for Computer Science; OUP 16-18)

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Paragraph 1:

A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. The switches, like the cores, are capable of being in one of two possible states, that is, on or off: magnetized or demagnetized. The machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters, and characters. The basic idea of a computer is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that turn certain switches on and turn others, off, or that magnetizes or de-magnetizes the cores.

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Topic: A computer is a machine.

Main Idea: We can make the machine do what we want it to do.

Supporting Idea: Machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers letters, and characters.

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Paragraph 2:

The basic job of computers is the processing of information. For this reason, computers can be defined as a device which accepts information in the form of instructions called a program and characters called data, perform mathematical and / or logical operations on the information, and then supply results of these operations. The program, or part of it, which tells the computers what to do and also provides the information needed to solve the problem, is kept inside the computer in a place called memory.

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Topic: Processing of information.

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Main Idea: The program, which tells the computer what to do and stores the information, is called memory.

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Paragraph 3:

Computers are thought to have many remarkable powers. However, the most of computers, whether large or small have three basic capabilities. First, Computers have circuits of performing arithmetic operations, such as: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation. Second, computers have a means of communicating with the user. After all, if we couldn’t feed information in and get results back, these machines wouldn’t be of much use. However, certain computers (commonly minicomputers and microcomputers) are used to control directly things such as robots, aircraft's navigation systems, medical instruments, etc.

Topic: Powers of computers.

Main Idea: Three basic capabilities of computers

Supporting Idea: Computers are used to control robots, aircraft navigation systems, medical instruments, etc.

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Paragraph 4:

Some of the most common methods of inputting information are to sue punched cards, magnetic tape, disks and terminals. The computer’s input device (which might be a card reader, a tape drive or disk drive, depending on the medium used in putting information) reads the information into the computer. For outputting information, two common devices used are a printer which prints the new information on paper, or a CRT display screen which shows the results on a TV-like screen.

Topic: Method of inputting information.

Main Idea: Input and Output devices. Supporting Idea: Examples of devices. 14

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Paragraph 5:

Computers have circuits which can make decisions. The kinds of decisions which computer circuits can make are not of the type: ‘Who would win a war between two countries?’ or ‘Who is the richest person in the world?’ Unfortunately, the computer can only decide three things, namely: Is one number less than another? Are tow numbers equal? Is one number greater than another?

Topic: Circuits that make decisions.

Main Idea: Computer can only make logical decision

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Paragraph 6:

A computer can solve a series of problems and make hundreds, even thousands, of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored. It can find the solution of a problem in a fraction of time. A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality; it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any valuable judgments. There are times when a computer seems to operate like a mechanical ‘brain’, but its achievements are limited by the minds of human beings. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it to do something and give it the appropriate information; but as electric pulses can move at the speed of light, a computer can carry out vast numbers

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of arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously. A person can do everything a computer can do, but in many cases that person would be dead long before the job was finished.

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Topic: Speed at which a computer works

Main Idea: A computer works according to instructions.

Supporting Idea: Computer operations are limited.

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Main idea

Now that you have read each paragraph in detail, let us look at the text as a whole.

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Read the following four statements and choose the statement that best expresses the main idea.

1. Computers have changed the way in which many kinds of jobs are done.
2. Instructions and data must be given to the computer to act on.
3. Computers are machines capable of processing and outputting.
4. Without computers, many tasks would take much longer to do.

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Which statement did you choose? The correct answer is choice no.2 Why didn’t you select the other choices?

The other choices do not give the distinctive characteristics of what a computer is i.e. the

main idea of the passage. They simply provide the details.

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Understanding the Passage:

Decide if these statements are true or false by referring to the text. T F

• A computer can store or handle any data even if it hasn’t received

information to do so.

• All computers accept and process information in the form of instructions and characters.
• The information necessary for solving problems is found in the memory of the computer.
• Not all computers can perform arithmetic operations, make decisions and communicate in some way with the user.
• Computers can still be useful machines even if they can’t communicate with the user.
• There are many different devices used for feeding information into a computer.
• There aren’t as many different types of devices used for giving results as there are for accepting information.
• Computers can make any type of decision they are asked to.
• Computers can work endlessly without having to stop to rest unless there is a breakdown.

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Statements no. 1, 4 and 8 are false. These false statements can be made true by making necessary changes.

1. Computer can store or handle any data which is input.

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4. All computers can perform arithmetic operations, make comparisons and output information.

8. Computer can decide only these things:

-Is one number less than another?

• Are two numbers equal?
• Is one number greater than another?

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Content Review

The following statements are all taken from the text you have just read. Certain words are missing in these statements. Complete these statements with the appropriate words from the word bank given below. Make sure that you use the correct form i.e. singular or plural. Some words can be used more than once.

core device

programme memory

data medium

circuit terminal switch CRT display

1. Every computer has circuits for performing arithmetic operations, operating

or magnetized .

2. A with a screen is normally referred to as a unit.
3. A computer is a that processes information in the form of and

and can store this information in a .

4. Card readers, tape drives, or disk drives are different for inputting information.

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Lesson -05

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Connectives and Link Words: References

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In the last lesson you were introduced to two new terms: References and Connectives. The sentences and paragraphs are not words, just put together; they express ideas which are connected to each other. In this lesson, you will practice to recognize these words and phrases i.e. references and connectives that link ideas in a sentence.

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These words make the text smoother to read. Your reading speed and comprehension will increase considerably if you are able to recognize the links between and within the sentences. References are sometimes relative pronouns, sometimes demonstrative pronouns, or adverbs. Sometimes they are substitutes for words that have come earlier or will come later.

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We will first look at references within a text. Read the following seven sentences given below. Notice the reference words are italicized and the connectives are underlined. The first five have been done for you. Connect the last two on your own.

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Text 1:

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1. Mr. Salman bought a new car. His children haven’t seen it yet.
2. Our neighbor’s old car didn’t work, but their new one is fine.
3. Everyone seems to think the chairman is guilty. If so, he will probably resign. If not, we should apologize to him.
4. Mrs. Mahmood thought the new curtains were a waste of money, and Saima, her daughter-in-law thought the same.
5. Although the new Hostel warden doesn’t seem to trust the guard, everyone else did.
6. Shama liked the brown sofa but her husband, Salman. preferred the red.
7. The chair was so well made that Ms. Gull decided to buy two.

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Connectives:

Now you will look at another kind of link which is made by conjunctions that join ideas into some kind of relationship within the text. These words or phrases are also known as transitional markers that connect ideas together. They indicate:

1. Result
2. Contrast
3. Comparison
4. Illustration / Example
5. Cause and Effect
6. A series / Time Sequence
7. Addition.

Link words: References and Connectives:

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in spite of

on the other hand on the contrary

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3. Words that show COMPARISON:

1. Driving a motor car is a skill we learn through practice. Similarly, cooking is a skill we learn through hands-on experience.
2. When family members communicate, they are more likely to solve their problems. In a similar fashion, countries can best solve their problems through communication.

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4. Words that show ILLUSTRATION / EXAMPLE:

6. Words that show A SERIES / TIME:

Examples:

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1. First I skim the newspaper to see what films are on, and then I circle the ones I want to record on the VCR.
2. Previously, the two countries got along. Now, they have resumed diplomatic relations.

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7. Words that show ADDITION:

You will now look at two sample paragraphs. In the first paragraph the references are highlighted and the connectives are underlined. The arrows connect the references to the ideas they relate to.

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Sample 1

Some people, of course, still believe that Shakespeare could not have written the plays attributed to him, but they have difficulty in explaining the fact that many contemporaries of Shakespeare, who knew and worked with him, considered him, first, as the actual author, and second, a very fine author indeed. Ben Johnson, for example, never doubted the authenticity of the plays. William Green also referred to Shakespeare as a very fine playwright. These are only two of the many contemporary references that leave little doubt that Shakespeare wrote the plays of William Shakespeare.

(Yorkey: p. 133)

Sample 1 – A

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References

1. him
2. they
3. who
4. him
5. him
6. these

Shakespeare (1) few contemporaries Shakespeare (2)

Shakespeare (2)

Ben Johnson, William Green

Connectives

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1. of course
2. but
3. first
4. second
5. for example 6- also

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Sample 2

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A computer like any other machine is used because it does certain jobs better and more efficiently than humans. It can receive more information and process it faster than any human. The speed at which a computer works can replace weeks or even months of pencil - and - paper work. Therefore, computers are used when the time saved offsets their cost which is one of the many reasons they are used so much in business, industry and research.

(N. Mullen & P. Brown: English for Computer Science p. 21 -22)

Sample 2 - A

1. it
2. It
3. it
4. their
5. which
6. they

computer

like any other machine, is used because information

computers

the time saved offsets their cost computers

Exercise 1

In the following paragraphs some words are highlighted. Draw a box around the word that the bold words refer to. Then join the circle and the box with arrows. Also, underline any transitional or connective word in the paragraph.

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Paragraph 1:

Computers are electronic machines that process information. They are capable of communicating with the user, of doing different kinds of arithmetic operations and of making three kinds of decisions. However, they are incapable of thinking. They accept data and instructions as input, and after processing it they output the results.

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Paragraph 2:

When talking about computers, both hardware and software need to be considered. The former refers to the actual machinery, whereas the later refers to the programs which control and coordinate the activities of the hard ware while processing the data.

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Paragraph 3:

The first computer was built in 1930 but since then computer technology has evolved a great deal. There are three different kinds of computers in use today: the mainframe, the minicomputer and the microcomputer. These all have one thing in common: they operate quickly and accurately in solving problems.

(N. Mullen & P. Brown: English for Computer Science p. 21)

Exercise 1- A

1. that
2. they
3. they
4. it
5. they
6. former
7. which
8. these

machines computers computers input computers hardware programs

the mainframes, the minicomputer, and the microcomputer

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9- they do

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Exercise 2

Fill in the gaps by using the correct connectives from the word bank.

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but ,however, because, so for, this reason, therefore

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Floppies are very cheap, ; they are slow and have a limited capacity. Hard disks are fast and can store large amounts of data they are fixed inside the computer, you cannot use them to transfer data. You can transfer data with removable hard disks, they are expensive. CD- ROM disks can hold quite large amounts of data. they are usually read only you cannot change the information on them. Magneto-optical disks are like CD-ROMs you can write data on to them. They are removable and have large capacities, they are expensive and do not conform to a standard. they are not very common. Magnetic tape is cheap and has a large capacity. it does not allow random access and drives are slow.

it is only suitable for backups.

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(Glendenning & McEwan Basic English for Computer Science Page 36)

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What Are Computers

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Computers are the electronic machines that process information. They are capable of communicating with the user, of doing different kinds of arithmetic operations and of making three kinds of decisions. However, they are incapable of thinking. They accept data and instructions as input, and after processing it they output the results.

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When talking about computers, both hardware and software need to be considered. The former refers to the actual machinery, whereas the latter refers to the programs which control and coordinate the activities of the hardware while processing the data.

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The first computer was built in 1930 but since then computer technology has evolved a great deal. There are three different kinds of computers in use today: the mainframe, the minicomputer and the microcomputer. These all have one thing in common: they operate quickly and accurately in solving problems.

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Recap:

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Recognizing reference, connectives/ transitional words improves reading speed and comprehension.

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Lesson -06 Reading Skills

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This lesson will follow the pattern established by us in the earlier lessons. We will read a text to help us in comprehension, and then we will do exercises based on that text.

When you read the following text, you will probably meet words and expression that are new to you. First try to understand their meaning from the context - read the same passage a few times. When you have read the whole text, check new words in a dictionary. Those words in bold typeface are explained in the Glossary at the end of your reading package.

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History of Computers

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1. Let us take a look at the history of the computers. The very first calculating device used was the ten fingers of a man’s hands. This, in fact, is why today we still count in the tens and multiples of tens. Then the abacus was invented, a bead frame in which the beads are moved from left to right. People went on using some form of abacus in the 16th century, and it is still used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read.

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• During the 17th and 18th centuries, many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. J. Napier, a Scotsman, devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which is how the modern slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napier’s ideas produced logarithm tables, which all mathematicians use today. Calculus, another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by Sir Isaac Newton, an Englishman, and Leibnitz, a German mathematician.

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• The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of several people’s experiments. This type of machine, which saves a great deal of time and reduces the possibility of making mistakes, depends on a series of ten toothed gear wheels. In 1830 Charles Babbage, an Englishman, designed a machine that was called ‘The Analytical Engine’. This machine, which Babbage showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, was an attempt to cut out the human being altogether, except for providing the machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never finished this work, but many of his ideas were the basis for building today’s computers.

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• In 1930, the first analog computer was built by an American named Vannevar Bush. This device was used in World War II to help the aim guns. MarkI, the name given to the first digital computer, was completed in 1944. The men responsible for this invention were Professor Howard Aiken and some people from IBM. This was the first machine that could figure out long lists of mathematical problems, all at a very fast rate. In 1946 two engineers at the University of Pennsylvania, J. Ecker and J. Mauchly, built the first digital computer using parts called vacuum tubes. They named their new invention ENIAC. Another important advancement in computers came in 1947, when John von Newmann developed the idea of keeping instructions inside the computer’s memory.

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5. The first general of computers, which used vacuum tubes, came out in 1950. Univac I is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. In 1960, the second generation of computers was developed and these could work ten times faster than their predecessors. The reason for this extra speed was the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Second generation computers were smaller, faster and more dependable than the first-generation computers. The third generation computers appeared in the market in 1965. These computers could do a million calculations in a second, which is 1000 times as many as first-generation computers. Unlike second-generation computers, these are controlled by tiny integrated circuits and are consequently smaller and more dependable.

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Fourth-generation computers have now arrived, and the integrated circuits that are being developed have been greatly reduced in size. This is due to microminiaturization, which means that the circuits now fit onto a single chip. A chip is a square or rectangular piece of silicon, usually from 1/10 to 1/4 inch, upon which several layers of an integrated circuit are etched or imprinted, after which the circuit is encapsulated in plastic, ceramic or metal. Fourth generation computers are 50 times faster than third-generation computers and can complete approximately 1,000,000 instructions per second.

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6. The rate at which computer technology is growing; today’s computers might be obsolete by 1985 and most certainly by 1990. It has been said that if transport technology had developed as rapidly as computer technology, a trip across the Atlantic Ocean today would take a few seconds.

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EXERCISES:

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1. Main Idea

Which statement best expresses the main idea of the text? Why did you eliminate the other choices?

• Computers, as we know them today, have gone through many changes.
• Today’s computer probably won’t be around for long.
• Computers have had a very short history.

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Answer:

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Main Idea: 1 and 3. Choice 2 is a prediction not a fact. It is not the main point in the description of the history of computers.

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2. Understanding the Passage:

Decide whether the following statements are true or false (T/F) by referring to the information given in the text. Then make the necessary changes so that the false statements become true.

T F

1. The abacus and the fingers are two calculating devices still in use today.

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• The slide rule was invented hundreds of years ago.

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3.

4.

6.

3. During the early 1880s, many people worked on inventing a mechanical calculating machine.

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• Charles Babbage, an Englishman, could well be called the father of

computers.

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5. The first computer was invented and built in the USA.

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• Instructions used by computers has always been kept inside the computer’s memory.

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• Using transistors instead of vacuum tubes did nothing to increase the speed at which calculations were done.

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• As computers were evolved, their size decreased and their dependability

increased.

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9. Today’s computers have more circuits than previous computers.

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• Computer technology has developed to a point from which new developments in the field will take a long time to come.

Answers:

1. T
2. F - The slide rule is a modern invention
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. F- Instructions which are not being executed are usually kept in secondary memory.
7. F- The use of transistors increased the speed at which calculations were done.
8. T
9. T
10. F- Computer technology is constantly developing and at a very fast rate.

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3. Locating Information:

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Find the passages in the text where the following ideas are expressed. Give the line references.

……..1.

During the same period of history, logarithm tables and calculus were developed.

It wasn’t until the 19th century that a calculating machine was invented which tried to reduce manpower.

Integrated circuitry has changed the computers further. People used their fingers to count.

The computers of the future may be quite different from those in use today.

……..2.

……..3.

……..4.

……..5.

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……..6.

……..7.

Today’s computer circuits can be put on a chip.

Then an instrument with beads was invented for counting before a mechanical way for multiplying and dividing was devised.

……..8.

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.

Answers:

1. Paragraph 2
2. Paragraph 3
3. Paragraph 5
4. Paragraph 1
5. Paragraph 6
6. Paragraph 5
7. Paragraph 1
8. Paragraph 5

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4. Understanding Words

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Refer back to the text and find synonyms (i.e. words with a similar meaning) for the following words.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

machine designed a lot errors solve

(I. 2) ………………………

(I. 9) ………………………

(I. 16) ………………………

(I. 17) ………………………

(I. 30) ………………………

Answers:

Refer back to the text and find synonyms (i.e. words with a similar meaning) for the following words.

1. machine (paragraph1) device
2. designed ( paragraph 2) devised
3. a lot (paragraph 3) a great deal
4. errors ( paragraph 3) mistakes
5. solve ( paragraph 4) figure out

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Now refer back to the text and find antonyms (i.e. words with an opposite meaning) for the following words.

6. old
7. a few
8. to include
9. contemporaries
10. still in use

(p 2) ………………… (p-3) ………………… (p-3) …………………..

(p-5) …………………..

(p-6) ………………….

Answers:

Now refer back to the text and find antonyms (i.e. words with an opposite meaning) for the following words.

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6. old (l. 10) modern
7. a few (l. 16) several
8. to include (l. 21) cut out
9. contemporaries (l. 41) predecessors
10. still in use (l. 60) obsolete

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5a. Content Review:

Match the words in column A with the statements in column B.

A

1. Abacus
2. calculus
3. analog computer

B

1. instrument used for doing multiplication and division
2. used in the first digital computers
3. an instrument used for counting
4. used in mathematics
5. circuitry of fourth- generation computers

4. digital computer

5. vacuum tubes
6. transistors

7. chip

f. Invented by Americans in

1944

7. made computers smaller and faster
8. used to help aim guns
9. the reduction of circuitry onto a chip

8. microminiaturization

9. slide rule
10. logarithm tables

j. a branch of mathematics

Answers:

1. c
2. j
3. h
4. f
5. b
6. g
7. e
8. I
9. a
10. d

5b. Content Review

Use the information in the text on ‘History of Computers’ to complete the following table.

TIME EVENT

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Primitive Times

Abacus invented

17th and 18th centuries

Henry Briggs produced Logarithm tables

1930

Charles Babbage designed

1947

First use of in

New

Future Second-generation computers using

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6. Focus Review:

New look back at the text ‘History of Computers’ and find out what the words in bold typeface refer to.

1. that we know today
2. and it is still being used
3. which all mathematicians use today
4. which saves a great deal of time
5. that was called ‘The analytical Engine’
6. that could figure out long lists
7. They named their new invention
8. which could perform
9. And these could perform
10. that are being developed

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Answers:

Now look back at the text ‘History of Computers’ and find out what the words in italics refer to.

1. that we know today (history)
2. and it is still being used (abacus)
3. which all mathematicians use today (logarithm tables)
4. which saves a great deal of time (machine)
5. that was called ‘The analytical Engine’ (machine)
6. that could figure out long lists (machine)
7. they named their new invention (2 engineers)
8. which could perform (computers)
9. and these could perform (computers)
10. that are being developed (circuits)

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Lesson -07

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Word Formation

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When you are reading, you will come across unfamiliar words. It is often possible to guess the meanings of these words if you understand the way words are generally formed in English. Learning the use and meaning of words in English can be made easier, and even enjoyable, if you understand something about the way in which many English words are formed.

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An English word can be divided into three parts:

• Prefix
• Stem
• Suffix.

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Prefix

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Pre-means ‘before’ and therefore, is what comes before the stem.

Example

Consider as an example, the prefix de-(meaning ‘reduce’ or ‘reverse’) in a word like demagnetize (‘to deprive of magnetism’).

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Suffix

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A suffix is what is attached to the end of the stem.

Example

Consider as an example the suffix -er (meaning (‘someone who’) in programmer (‘the person who programs’).

Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as affixes.

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Stem

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The stem of a word is its basic form, the fundamental element which is common to all the other forms of the word. A prefix is a form which is fixed to the beginning of a stem; a suffix is a form which is fixed to the end of a stem.

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Example

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Stem = measure Suffix= measurable Prefix =immeasurable

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A prefix usually changes the meaning of a word while a suffix usually changes its part of speech. E.g. the suffix -able changes verbs into adjectives (breakable, enjoyable). The prefix im- changes the meaning to the opposite: measurable means capable of being measured; immeasurable means “not capable of being measured.”

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By learning only a few prefixes and suffixes, you will be able to recognise or guess the meaning of hundreds of English words.

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The English language makes frequent use of this method of word formation. Notice the numerous words formed on the stem act.

AFFIXES

SUFFIXES

PREFIXES (STEM)

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Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as Affixes

Suffixes and their meanings :

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Let us now consider some suffixes and their usual meanings.

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Suffixes

Study these tables and try to find additional examples. Use your dictionary if necessary.

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Noun-forming suffixes:

Verb-forming suffixes:

Adverb-forming suffixes:

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Adjective-forming suffixes:

It is sometimes difficult to locate base word, because their spellings frequently change when suffixes are added to them.

1. If a base word ends in e, the e may be dropped when a suffix is added to it. Mature +it y=maturity
2. If a base word ends in y, the y may be changed to i ,when a suffix is added to it: harmony +ous=harmonious
3. Base words may undergo other spelling changes when suffixes are added to them: reclaim+ation=reclamation (the I in reclaim is dropped)

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Exercise1

Locate the base words in the boldface words and write them on the given lines.

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1. We established the authenticity of our antique chair. We have an ------------ antique chair.
2. We enjoy the collegiate athletic games.

We enjoy the athletic games at --------------.

3. The automobile left her comatose. The accident left her in a --------------.
4. We had comparative good luck

If you ----------- our luck with that of others, our luck was good.

5. Can you differentiate between them? Can you see how they -------------?
6. His knowledge of China is not experiential.

His knowledge of China is not based on actual ------------------------?

7. She has expertise in mathematics. She is an --------- in mathematics.

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8. She gave her answer with finality. We knew her answer was ----------.
9. They have servile attitudes.

They have attitudes of those who -------.

10. The numbers are in tabular form. The numbers are in a ---------------.
11. We enjoyed her commentary on the news. We enjoyed her ----------s about the news.
12. Who were the disputants?

Who engaged in the -----------?

13. This machine has a multiplicity of parts. It has ------- parts.

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Exercise 2

Read the following sentences and underline all the suffixes. Then try to find out what parts of speech the words are.

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1. The systems analyst provides the programmer with the details of the data processing problems.
2. CRT terminals are very useful interactive devices for use in offices because of their speed and quietness.

3.

4.

The new microcomputer we purchased does not have a Fortran compiler. It is programmable in Basic only.

A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate

switches or magnetize tiny metal cores.

5. In very large and modern installations, the computer operator sits in front of a screen that shows an up-to-date summary of the computer jobs as they are being processed.

The introduction of terminals and screens has partly replaced the use of punched

6.

cards.

7. Binary arithmetic is based on two digits: 0 and 1.
8. Multiplexing is when many electrical signals are combined and carried on only one

optical link.

9. Computers are machines designed to process electronically specially prepared pieces of information.
10. The computed results were printed in tables.

​

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Exercise 3

Fill in each blank with the appropriate form of the words.

​

1. operation, operate, operator, operational, operationally, operating

1. A computer can perform mathematical operations very quickly.
2. One of the first persons to note that the computer is malfunctioning is the computer

operator.

3. The job of a computer operator is to operate the various machines in a computer installation.
4. The new machines in the computer installation are not yet operating/operational.

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2.

a.

b.

acceptance, accept, accepted, acceptable, acceptably

A computer is a device which accepts processes and gives out information. The students are still waiting for their acceptance into the Computer Sciences program.

It is acceptable to work without a template if the flowcharts are not kept on the file.

c.

3.

a.

b.

c.

solution, solve, solvable, solver

It may take a lot of time to find a solution to a complex problem in programming. A computer can solve a problem faster than any human being.

A computer has often been referred to as a problem solver.

4. remark, remarkable, remarkably, remarked
1. Today’s computers are remarkably faster than their predecessors.
2. System analysts will often make remarks about existing programs so as to help make the operations more efficient.
3. There have been remarkable developments in the field of computer science in the last decade.

​

5. communication, communicate, communicable, communicative, communicably

1. A computer must be able to communicate with the user.
2. Fiber optics is a new development in the field of communication.
3. Some people working in computer installations aren’t very communicative because they are shy.

​

6. calculation, calculate, calculating, calculated, calculator, calculable, calculus

1. A computer can do many kinds of calculations quickly and accurately.
2. Calculus is a branch of mathematics for making calculations without the use of a

calculating machine.

3. A computer can calculate numbers much faster than a manual calculator.
4. Some problems aren’t calculable without logarithm tables.

7.

mechanic, mechanism, mechanize, mechanical, mechanically, mechanistic, mechanics, mechanization, mechanized

Today’s computers are less mechanized than they used.

The mechanical devices in a computer system operate more slowly than the electromagnetic devices.

The mechanism of the brain is very complicated but unlike a computer it isn’t

mechanical.

a.

b.

c.

8.

a.

b.

c.

necessity, necessitate, necessary, necessarily, necessities, need, needed

Because it is expensive to set up a computer department it is necessary to budge well for the basic necessities of the installations.

A good programmer isn’t necessarily going to be a good systems analyst.

Students’ lack of understanding of the basic concepts in computer science may

necessitate the instructor to restructure the course.

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9.

dependence, depend on, dependable, dependably, dependent, dependency, depending

1. The length of time a programmer takes to make a program will vary depending on

the complexity of the problem and his ability and experience.

2. One can always depend on a computer to obtain accurate answers because it’s probably the most dependable machine in the world today.

10. technology, technological, technologically, technologist
1. Computer technology is a fast growing discipline.
2. The technological improvements of computers are reducing man’s workload.

​

Let us recap:

​

An English word can be divided into three parts: a prefix, a stem and a suffix. Prefix is what comes before the stem. A suffix is what is attached to the end of the stem. A stem is the root of the word. Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as Affixes.n Esh word can be divided into three parts:

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Lesson -08

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Word Formation- Prefixes

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We have already learned how words can be formed by looking at suffixes. In this lesson, we will look at some other ways, beginning with prefixes and stem words, followed by synonyms and antonyms as a means of enhancing your vocabulary.

​

A prefix is a letter or group of letters that is added to the beginning of a stem/ base word

e.g. in untrue the prefix is un- and the stem/base word is true. Words that are unfamiliar to you may sometimes consist of a stem word you know and an added prefix, for instance: We were shocked to learn of the illimitability of the dictator’s power.

​

Illimitability is a word that does not often appear in print. It may be unfamiliar to you. However, you can locate its stem word, limit, which means ‘to restrict’. If you also know that the prefix il- (as in illegal) means ‘not’, you should be able to determine that illimitability refers to which has no limits or restriction. The sentence means ‘we were shocked to learn that there is no limit to the dictator's power.

Now you will look at a list of words in which adapt is the stem/ base word. If this word is preceded by a prefix you can make twenty -four additional words.

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Defining Words with Prefixes

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Make sentences by writing the base/stem words and the meanings of the prefixes in the boldface words on the lines provided.

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1. Hermits are asocial people

They are people.

2. The child’s hyperactivity is alarming. The child is
3. Outer space is illimitable

There is to outer space.

4. The castle was Impenetrable to ancient armies. Ancient armies could the castle.
5. We took an intercontinental flight.

We took a flight .

6. The fire did irreparable damage to the house.

They could the damage to the house.

7. Did he make maladjustment to marriage?

Did he to marriage? 14

8. The story is pseudo biographical.

It is a .

9. The patient is semiconscious.

The patient is .

10. Some thoughts are unutterable.

Some thoughts one can . 15

If you know that adapt means ‘to make suitable’ and you also know the meanings of the prefixes mal-, non-, pre-, re-, and un- you know the essential meanings of these twenty four words, even if you have not seen them in the print before. You will now look at nineteen prefixes and by understanding the most useful meanings of these common English prefixes you will increase your vocabulary by hundreds or even thousands of words in a very short time.

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Word Formation - Prefixes

​

Let us now consider some more prefixes, their usual meanings, and how they change the meanings of English words. These prefixes will make words related to computers.

​

PREFIXES

​

NEGATIVE/ SIZE LOCATION TIME AND NUMBER

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Study these tables and try to find additional examples. Use your dictionary if necessary.

Negative and positive prefixes

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PREFIX MEANING

EXAMPLES

Positive prefixes

Prefixes of Size

Prefixes of Location

PREFIX

MEANING

EXAMPLES

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Prefixes of Time and Order

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PREFIX MEANING

EXAMPLES

Prefixes of Numbers

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PREFIX MEANING

EXAMPLES

Other Prefixes

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​

Read the following sentences and underline all the prefixes. Then try to find out what the prefixes mean by referring back to the tables you have just completed.

​

1. Non-impact printers are inexpensive and silent.
2. Tape-marks are unmagnetized reflective strips stuck onto the tape.
3. The octal and the hexadecimal systems are number systems used as a form of shorthand in reading groups of four binary digits.
4. The internal shortage locations of a computer are called its primary memory. 28
5. Multiprogramming is when more than one program can be present at different storage locations of the memory at the same time.
6. Peripheral devices can be either input devices (such as card readers) or output devices (such as printers).
7. The decoder (a component of the control unit) takes the coded instruction and breaks it down into the individual commands necessary to carry it out.
8. Microcomputers are becoming very important in small business applications.
9. A tape drive transmits the electromagnetic impulses to the memory of the computer.
10. Semiconductor materials are used in the making of transistors. 30

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Exercise 3

Fill in the blanks with the correct prefix from the following list. Use the glossary at the end of the reading package.

​

multi deci- sub- inter semi- mono- mega- auto mini- de- inter- prim –

​

1. …Mega… byte means one million bytes.
2. …Multi… plexing is when many electrical signals are combined and carried on only one optical link. 34
3. Blocks are separated from each other by marks called …inter…. block gaps.
4. The number system we use in everyday life is the deci….mal system which has a base of 10.
5. CRT terminals are very useful…inter..active devices for use in airline reservations.
6. Some screens are …mono... chromatic whereas others produce multicolor pictorial graphics.
7. The complete description of the logical structure of data is called the schema and the description of the parts, the …sub…… schema.
8. The main storage locations of a computer are called its …prim…. ary storage.
9. The small ferrite rings called cores have two states: they can be either magnetized or…de….magnetized.
10. The introduction of chips or …semi….. conductor memories made it possible to reduce the size of the computer.

3 Exercise4

Exercise 4

Read the following paragraph and underline the prefixes then complete the table that follows it.

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Computers may have a short history but prior to their development, there were many other ways of doing calculations. These calculations were done using devices that are still used today; the slide rule being a perfect example, not to mention the ten fingers of the hands. These machines, unlike computers, were not electronic and were replaced by faster calculating devices. It wasn’t until the mid-1940s that the first digital computer was built. The post-war industrial boom saw the development of computers take shape.

​

By the 1960s, computers were faster than their predecessors and semiconductors had replaced vacuum tubes by tiny integrated circuit boards. Due to microminiaturization in the 1970s, these circuits were etched onto wafer thin rectangular pieces of silicon. This integrated circuitry is known as a chip and is used in microcomputers of all kinds. It has been forecasted, by the end of this decade, exceptionally faster and smaller computers will replace those in use today.

and complete the table

Exercise 5: Review of Suffixes

Read the following paragraph and underline the suffixes.

​

A computer can solve a series of problems and make hundreds, even thousands, of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored. It can find the solution of a problem in a fraction of time than it takes a human being to do the job. A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality; it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any valuable judgment. There are times when a computer seems to operate like a mechanical ‘brain’, but its achievements are limited by the minds of human beings. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it what to do and gives it the appropriate information; but as electric pulses can move at the speed of light, a computer can carry out vast numbers of arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously. A person can do everything a computer can do, but in many cases that person would be dead long before the job was finished.beings. A computer cannot do anything unless

Having dealt with the roots of words and how suffixes and prefixes work, let us look at another way of enhancing your vocabulary:

​

Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning. For example, big large, huge, enormous monumental, gigantic, immense, and colossal are synonyms. Synonyms have two characteristics that you must understand in order to use them appropriately.

First Characteristic:

​

Most synonyms have similar meanings in only one of their senses.e.g appropriate and apt are synonyms when they are used to indicate that something is ‘fit’ for a specific purpose. He made an appropriate remark

He made an apt remark

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​

Appropriate and apt may be used interchangeably to mean “fit” but they have other meanings that they do not share. For instance apt may mean “likely”, but appropriate does not have this meaning.

When he is nervous he is apt to laugh.

Here appropriate may not be used interchangeably with apt.

​

Second Characteristic:

​

Synonyms often have shades of meaning in addition to the meaning they share.

For instance blame and denounce are synonyms that refer to the act of making an unfavourable judgement. However, to blame is to fix the responsibility for an error whereas to denounce is to state intense disapproval in public. If you receive a letter in your letterbox that should have been delivered to a neighbour, you may blame your postman, but you are not likely to publicly denounce the postal employee for such a trivial mistake.

​

On the other hand, if elected officials are found guilty of stealing taxpayers’ money, they are denounced; they are severely criticised in public, and in some cases thrown out of the office.

​

Blame does not convey the kind of unfavourable judgement that elected officials receive when they betray the trust of those who elected them.

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Final Mastery

Selecting Word Meanings

​

In each of the following groups, encircle the word or expression that is most nearly the same in meaning as the word in boldface type in the introductory phrase.

1. Admonish the child

a. dress b. teach c. praise d. warn

2. Efface a wrong

a. discover b. wipe out c. hide d. apologize for

3. A perennial favorite

a. old-fashioned b. recent c. temporary d. enduring

4. Subjugate the enemy

a. torture b. release

c. kill

d. defeat 56

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a. shower b. argument

c. relief

d. statement

11. An intrepid camper

b. strong

a. tireless

12. Revile the driver

a. adore

c.fearless

d. skilled

b. train

c. pay

d. abuse

13. Made a trite remark

a. stale b. witty

c. original

d. in bad taste

14. Rectify an impression

a. explain b. make

c. correct

d. confirm

15. Daunted by their treats

We have dealt with Vocabulary Building in this lesson by focussing on Affixes and Suffixes.

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Lesson -09

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Dear SteReading: Description, Locating Information

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In this lesson we will read a text and then solve exercises based on that text. These exercises will again emphasize and improve your reading comprehension abilities.

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Characteristics

​

When you read the following text, remember to try and understand the meaning of new words and expressions from the context. Don’t check new words in the dictionary until you have read the whole text. Those words in bold typeface are explained in the Glossary at the end of the book.om the context. Don’t check new words in the

​

1. Computers are machines designed to process electronically the specially prepared pieces of information which are termed as data. Handling or manipulating the information that has been given to the computer, in such ways as doing calculations, adding information or making comparisons is called processing. Computers are made up of millions of electronic devices capable of sorting data or moving them, at enormous speed, through complex circuits with different functions.

​

• All computers have several characteristics in common, regardless of design. Information, in the form of instructions and data, is given to the machine, after which the machine acts on it and result is then shown. The information presented to the machine is the input; the internal manipulative operations, the processing; and the result, the output. These three basic concepts of input, processing, and output occur in almost every aspect of human life whether at work or at play.

For example, in clothing manufacturing, the input is the pieces of cut cloth, the processing is the sewing together of these pieces, and the output is the finished garment.

INPUT

COMPUTER

OUTPUT

STORAGE

[3] Figure 3.1 shows schematically the fundamental hardware components in a computer system. The centerpiece is called either the computer, the processor, or, usually, the central processing unit (CPU). The term ‘computer’ includes those parts of hardware in which calculations and other data manipulations are performed, and the high-speed internal memory in which data and calculations are stored during actual execution of programs. Attached to the CPU are the various peripheral devices such as card readers and keyboards (two common examples of input devices). When data or programs need to be saved for long period of time, they are stored on various secondary memory devices or storage devices such as magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.

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4. Computers have often been thought of as extremely large adding machines, but this is a very narrow view of their function. Although a computer can only respond to a certain number of instructions, it is not a single-purpose machine since these instructions can be combined in an infinite number of sequences. Therefore, a computer has no known limit on the kinds of things it can do; its versatility is limited only to the imagination of those who use it.

​

• In the late 1950s and early 1960s when electronic computers, in use today, were being developed, they were very expensive to own and run. Moreover, their size and reliability were such that a large number of support personnel were needed to keep the equipment operating. This has all changed now that computing power has become portable, more compact, and cheaper.

​

• In only a very short period of time, computers have greatly changed the way in which many kinds of work are performed. Computer can remove many of the routine and boring tasks from our lives, thereby giving us more time for interesting, creative work. It goes without saying that computers have created whole new areas of work that did not exist before their development.

​

Exercises

1: Main Idea

​

Which statement or statements best express the main idea of the text? Why did you eliminate the other choices?

​

• Computers have changed the way in which we live.

​

• All computers have an input, a processor, an output and a storage device.

​

• Computers have decreased man’s workload.

​

• All computers have the same basic hardware components.

​

2: Understanding the Passage:

​

Decide whether the following statements are true or false (T/F) by referring to the information given in the text. Then, make the necessary changes so that the false statements become true.

​

T F

1. All information to be processed must be prepared in such a way that the computer will understand it.

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2. Because of the complex electronic circuitry of a computer, data can either be stored or moved about at high speeds.

​

• Not all computers can process data given to them and produce results.

​

• The basic concepts of data processing are restricted to computers alone.

​

• The processor is the central component of a computer system.

​

• All other devices used in a computer system are attached to the CPU.

​

• Memory devices are used for storing information.

​

• Computers are very much restricted in what they can do.

​

• Computers today cost less, are smaller, and need fewer people to operate them than in the past.

​

• Computer hasn’t changed our working conditions very much.

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3: Locating Information:

Find the passages in the text where the following ideas are expressed. Give the paragraph reference.

………. 1. All computers are basically the same.

………. 2. Then arithmetic and / or decision-making operations are performed.

………. 3. Computers are limited by man’s imagination more than anything else.

………. 4. All the equipment used in a computer system is hardware.

………. 5. Computers are electronic machines used for processing data.

………. 6. If programs or data need to be kept for a long time, they are stored on tapes or disks.

………. 7. First the computer accepts data.

……….8. Finally, new information is presented to the user.

​

4: Contextual Reference:

Look back at the text and find out what the words in bold typeface refer to.

1. Which are termed data
2. Or moving them
3. The machine acts on it
4. They are stored on
5. It is not a single-purpose machine
6. The kinds of things it can do
7. Of those using it
8. They were very expensive to own
9. Moreover, their size and reliability 10.That did not exist

(para.1)……… (para.1)……… (para.2)……… (para.3)……… (para.4)……… (para.4)……… (para.4)……… (para.5)……… (para.5)……… (para.6)………

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5: Understanding Words:

​

Refer back to the text and find synonyms (i.e. words with a similar meaning) for the following words.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

called tremendous ideas

react

take away

(para.1)……… (para.1)……… (para.2)……… (para.4)……… (para.6)………

Now refer back to the text and find antonyms (i.e. words with an opposite meaning) for the following words.

taken away wide limited immovable

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. after

(para.2)……… (para.4)……… (para.4)……… (para.5)……….

(para.6)……….

6: Word Forms:

​

First choose the appropriate form of the words to complete the following sentences. Then check the difference of meaning in your dictionary.

​

1. Imagination, imagine, imaginable, imaginative, imaginary
1. A computer is limited in its ability by the ……………. of man.
2. Some people are good at inventing …...…… stories.
3. It is practically impossible to …………… the speed at which a computer calculates numbers.

​

• Addition, add, added, additional, additional, additive
• Many terminals can be …………… to a basic system if the need arises.
• …………….. and subtraction is two basic mathematical operations.
• when buying a system there is often no …………… charge for the programs.

​

• Complication, complicate, complicated, complicating, complicatedly
• There can be many…………… involved in setting up a computer in an old building.
• It is sometimes a very …………. process getting into a computer installation for security reasons.
• It is sometimes very …………….. to explain computer concepts.

​

• Difference, differ, different, differently, differential, differentiate
• There isn’t a very big ….…………. in flowcharting for a program to be written in Cobol or Fortran.
• There are many ……………… computer manufactures today, and a buyer must be able to ……………..between the advantages and disadvantages of each.
• The opinions of programmers as to the best way of solving a problem often……….. greatly.

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5. Reliably, rely on, reliable, reliability
1. computers are …………………… machines.
2. If you don’t know the meaning of a computer term, you cannot always………………… an all-purpose dictionary for the answer.
3. Computers can do mathematical operations quickly and………………… .

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7a: Content Review

Try to think of a definition for each of these items before checking them in the Glossary. Then complete the following statements with the appropriate words. (some words can be used more than once.) Make sure you use the correct form, i.e. singular or plural.

​

processing, hardware, magnetic tape, input, processor, magnetic disk, output, secondary memory, personnel, single-purpose

41

• Information ………. takes place in the processor not in the input device or output device.
• The ……. refers to all the electromechanical devices used in a computer installation. 3...…….. and ………. units are used as ……… storage devices.

4. A computer isn’t usually a ……. machine and may require quite specialized …….. to operate it and all its related equipment.

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7b: Content Review

Summarize the text on ‘characteristics’ by completing the following table.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS PARTS

Hardware

1.

2. Control Unit 3.

1.

Peripheral devices A.

2. Disks 3.

4.

5.

6.

B. others

Organizing Information

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop an idea. In nearly every paragraph, there is one idea that is more important than others. This idea is called the main idea of the paragraph and is usually found at the beginning of the paragraph.

​

Sample Paragraph 1

All computers, whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities. They have circuits for performing arithmetic operations. They all have a way of communicating with the person(s) using them. They also have circuits for making decisions. 44

​

In this sample paragraph 1, the first sentence, ‘All computers, whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities’ expresses the main idea of the paragraph.

All main idea sentences have a topic and say something about the topic.

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Example

All computers, [topic] whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities.

[about the topic] 45

In some of your reading, finding main ideas may serve your needs but in much of your studying you need to grasp details. It is sometimes more difficult to grasp and understand details than main ideas. You will find it helpful if you think of details as growing out of the main idea. In sample paragraph 1, there are three major details growing out of the main idea. These are the major details:

​

1. They have circuits for performing arithmetic operations.
2. They all have a way of communicating with the person(s) using them.
3. They also have circuits for making decisions.

​

46

A major detail often has minor details growing out of it. These minor details tell more about a major detail, just as major details tell more about a main idea. In studying, you often find a paragraph that has many small details that you must grasp and remember. Breaking up a paragraph of this kind into its three components; the main idea, major details and minor details will help you to understand and remember what it is about.

​

Sample Paragraph 2

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It is the incredible speed of computers along with their memory capacity that make them so useful and valuable. Computers can solve problems in a fraction of time. For this reason, they are used in business to keep the record of accounts and airlines, train lines and bus lines use them to keep track of ticket sales. As for memory, modern computers can store information with high accuracy and reliability. A computer can put data into its ‘memory’ and retrieve it in a few millionths of a second. It also has a storage capacity for as many as a million items.

​

​

If you were to organize this paragraph into its three components, it would look like this: 48

Main idea: It is the incredible speed of computers along with their memory capacity that make them so useful and valuable

Major details: a. Computers can solve problems in a fraction of time

b. As for memory, modern computers can store information with high accuracy and reliability

Minor Details: a. Computers are used in business to keep their accounts.

b. Airlines train lines bus lines use them to keep track of ticket sales

c.A computer can put data into its memory and can retrieve it in a few millionths of a second.

d. it also has a storage capacity for as many as a million items. 49

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N.B. The major details in a paragraph are of equal importance. Because minor details grow out of major details and also give information about major details, they are less important. In making a block diagram you don’t have to write every word of the main idea sentence.

​

​

Exercise 1

Read the following paragraph and try to find the main idea, major details and minor details.

​

The computer has changed the production of copy in the newspaper industry. There are three steps involved in the process: input, correction and output. First, the computer numbers each story, counts words and gives a listing of the length of each story. Then a page is made up, advertisements are placed in, the copy is shifted or deleted and corrections are made. Finally, the computer hyphenates words and the result of all this is a newspaper page.

​

Main idea: The computer has changed the production of copy in the newspaper industry. Major details:

Minor details:

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​

​

Exercise 2

​

After reading the following paragraph, practice to find the main idea, major details and minor details.

​

Railways use large computer systems to control ticket reservations and to give immediate information on the status of its trains. The computer system is connected, by private telephone lines, to terminals in major train stations and ticket reservations for customers are made through these. The passenger’s name, type of accommodation and the train schedule is put into the computer’s memory.

​

53

​

On a typical day, a railway’s computer system gets thousands of telephone calls about reservations, space on other railways, and requests for arrivals and departures. A big advantage of the railway computer ticket reservation system is its rapidity because a cancelled booking can be sold anywhere in the system just a few seconds later. Railway computer systems are not used for reservations alone. They are used for a variety of other jobs including train schedules, planning, freight and cargo loading, meal planning, personnel availability, accounting and stock control.

54

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​

Main idea:

​

Major details: Terminals for ticket reservations

Minor details: Thousands of calls for reservations space, arrivals and departures.

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Lesson -10

Reading: Word Forms Mainframes:

Large computer systems, or mainframes, as they are referred to in the field of computer science, are those computer systems found in computer installations processing immense amounts of data. These powerful computers make use of very high-speed main memories into which data and programs to be dealt with are transferred for rapid access. These powerful machines have a larger repertoire of more complex instructions which can be executed more quickly. Whereas smaller computers may take several steps to perform a particular operation, a larger machine may accomplish the same thing with one instruction.

​

These computers can be of two types: digital or analog. The digital computer or general- purpose computer as it is often known makes up about 90 percent of the large computers now in use. It gets its name because the data that are presented to it are made up of a code consisting of digits–single-character numbers. The digital computer is like a gigantic cash register in that it can do calculations in steps, one after another at tremendous speed and with great accuracy.

​

Digital computer programming is by far the most commonly used in electronic data processing for business or statistical purposes. The analog computer works something like a car speedometer, in that it continuously works out calculations. It is used essentially for problems involving measurements. It can simulate, or imitate different measurements by electronic means. Both of these computer types – the digital and the analog – are made up of electronic components that may require a large room to accommodate them. At present, the digital computer is capable of doing anything the analog once did. Moreover, it is easier to program and cheaper to operate. A new type of scientific computer system called the hybrid computer has now been produced that combines the two types into one.

​

Really powerful computers continue to be bulky and require special provision for their housing, refrigeration systems, air filtration and power supplies. This is because much more space is taken up by the input/output devices – the magnetic tape and disk units and other peripheral equipment – than by the electronic components that do no make up the bulk of the machine in a powerful installation. The power consumption of these machines is also quite high, not to mention the price that runs into thousands of dollars.

​

The future will bring great developments in the mechanical devices associated with computer systems. For a long time these have been the weak link from the point of view of both efficiency and reliability.

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Exercises :

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1. Main idea

Which statement best expresses the main idea of the text? Why did you eliminate the other choices?

• Hybrid computers are a combination of digital and analog computers.

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• Digital computers are used more than any other type of computer.

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• There are three types of mainframes.

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• Analog computers can do more varied work than digital or hybrid computers.

Answer:

1. Main idea

Which statement best expresses the main idea of the text? Why did you eliminate the other choices?

1. Hybrid computers are a combination of digital and analog computers.
2. Digital computers are used more than any other type of computer.
3. There are three types of mainframes.
4. Analog computers can do more varied work than digital or hybrid computers.

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2. Understanding the passage:

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Decided whether the following statements are true or false (T/F) by referring to the information in the text. Then make the necessary changes so that the false statements become true.

T F

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• A mainframe is the type of computer that can sit on top of a desk.

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• Mainframes are very powerful and can execute jobs very rapidly and easily.

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• Digital computers are used more than analog computers.

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• The analog computer is far smaller than a digital computer and therefore occupies very little space.

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• The hybrid computer is a combination of both the digital and the analog computer.

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• The analog computer does its calculations one step at a time.

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7. The digital computer continuously works out calculations.

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• Mainframes are huge powerful machines whose peripheral equipments take up a lot of space.

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• Mainframes are expensive to buy and operate.

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• Mainframe technology has reached the end of the road. No further development is needed.

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Answers:

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Decided whether the following sentences are true or false (T/F) by referring to the information in the text. Then make the necessary changes so that the false statements become true.

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1. A mainframe is the type of computer that can sit on top of a desk. F
2. Mainframes are very powerful and can execute jobs very rapidly and easily. T
3. Digital computers are used more than analog computers. T
4. The analog computer is far smaller than a digital computer and therefore occupies very little space. F
5. The hybrid computer is a combination of both the digital and the analog computer. T
6. The analog computer does its calculations one step at a time. F
7. The digital computer continuously works out calculations. F
8. Mainframes are huge powerful machines whose peripheral equipments take up a lot of space. T
9. Mainframes are expensive to buy and operate. T
10. Mainframe technology has reached the end of the road. No further development is needed. F

They will be great developments in computer technology in the future

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3. Locating information :

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Find the passages in the text where the following ideas are expressed. Give the line references.

………. 1.

………..2.

Smaller computers may take longer to perform an operation.

More technological development is necessary in the mechanical devices associated with computer systems.

Mainframes can operate quickly and execute more complex instruments. The hybrid computer is a combination of both digital and analog computers. Digital computers are used more than analog computers.

Mainframes are large powerful computers.

………..3.

….…….4.

….……5.

….…….6.

….…….7.

An analog computer is comparable to a car speedometer in the way it operates.

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.……….8.

Digital computers do calculations, one after another, quickly and exactly.

Answers:

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Find the passages in the text where the following ideas expressed. Give the paragraph references.

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Para1 1. Smaller computers may take longer to perform an operation.

Para3 2. More technological development is necessary in the mechanical devices associated with computer systems.

Para1 3. Mainframes can operate quickly and execute more complex instruments. Para2 4. The hybrid computer is a combination of both digital and analog computers. Para2 5. Digital computers are used more than analog computers.

Para1 6. Mainframes are large powerful computers.

Para2 7. An analog computer is comparable to a car speedometer in the way it operates.

Para2 8. Digital computers do calculations, one after another, quickly and exactly.

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4. Contextual reference :

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Look back at the text and find out what the words in bold typeface refer to.

1. which can be executed
2. as it is often known
3. that are presented to it
4. in that it can do calculations
5. in that it continuously works out
6. Both of these computer types
7. that may require a large room
8. that combines the two types
9. Require special provision for their housing 10.that runs into thousands of dollars

(line.7) ……………. (line.12)…………… (line.14)…………… (line.16)…………… (line.20)…………...

(line.23)…………...

(line.24)…………...

(line.29)…………... (line.31)…………… (line.37)…………….

Answers:

Look back at the text and find out what the words in bold typeface refer to.

1. which can be executed

……….

2. as it is often known

……………

3. that are presented to it

(p.1) instructions

(p.2) General-purpose computer

(p.2) data

4. in that it can do calculations

(p.2) digital computer

5. in that it continuously works out

…………...

6. Both of these computer types

…………...

7. that may require a large room

(p.2) analog computer

(p.2) digital & analog

(p.2) electronic components

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8. that combines the two types
9. Require special provision for

theirhousing

10. that runs into thousands of dollars

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(p.2)Hybrid computer

(p.3)computer (p.3)price

5. Understanding words

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Refer back to the text and find synonyms for the following words.

1. area
2. acted on
3. do
4. composed of
5. principally

(l. 2) ……………………..

(l. 7) ……………………..

(l. 9) ……………………. (l.15)……………………. (l. 21) ……………………

Answers:

Refer back to the text and find synonyms for the following words.

1. area
2. acted on
3. do
4. composed of
5. principally

(p.1) …field…………. (p.1) …executed…….. (p.1) …accomplished… (p.2)…..consisting of … (p.2) ….essentially……

Now refer back to the text and find antonyms for the following words.

(l. 5) ……………………..

(l. 12) ……………………

6.ignored 7.seldom 8.little 9.small 10.weak

(l. 16) …………………… (l. 30)…………………

(l. 35) ……………………

Answers:

Now refer back to the text and find antonyms for the following words.

6. ignored
7. seldom
8. little
9. small
10. weak

(p.1) ……deal with……… (p.2) ……often………….. (p.2) ……gigantic………. (p.3)…… bulky…………. (p.3) ……powerful……..

6. Words forms:

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First choose the appropriate form of the words to complete the sentences. Then check the differences of meaning in your dictionary.

1. permission, permit, permissible, permitted

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1. It is usually not ……… to smoke in a computer installation.
2. Computers ……….. people to use their time more effectively.
3. Building …………. is usually required before starting any renovations to a building for computer department.

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Answers:

First choose the appropriate form of the words to complete the sentences. Then check the differences of meaning in your dictionary.

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• permission, permit, permissible, permitted

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• It is usually not .…permitted…… to smoke in a computer installation.
• Computers ……permit……. people to use their time more effectively.
• Building ……permission……. is usually required before starting any renovations to a building for computer department.

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2. continuation, continue, continuing, continuously

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• If microcomputer sales ……… to increase, it won’t be long before every household has one.
• Computers can do repetitive operations……….. without getting bored.
• There is a ……….interest in discovering new areas where computers can be used.

Answers:

continuation, continue, continuing, continuously

1. If microcomputer sales ……continue…… to increase, it won’t be long before every household has one.
2. Computers can do repetitive operations……continuously…… without getting bored.
3. There is a …..continuing…… interest in discovering new areas where computers can be used.

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3. measurement, measure, measured, measurable
2. The analog computer is essentially used for problems is involving ……………
3. Because computer equipment is often bulky, the area used for a computer installation must be………… out carefully.
4. The number of employees a computer company has can be seen as a…….. of its success in the business world.

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Answers:

measurement, measure, measured, measurable

1. The analog computer is essentially used for problems is involving

…measurement………

2. Because computer equipment is often bulky, the area used for a computer installation must be……measured…… out carefully.
3. The number of employees a computer company has can be seen as a ….measure …… of its success in the business world.

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4. association, associate, associated

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1. Computers are …….. with speed and accuracy.
2. There are many computers around the worlds to which computer professionals belong………….
3. Business …………. in different cities often communicate with each other via their computers.

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Answers:

1. associated
2. associations
3. associates

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5. Efficiency, efficient, efficiently
1. Using a hand calculator to do simple mathematics is an …...………way of working.
2. Computers can solve problems faster and more ……….. than humans.
3. ………… is important in any service industry.

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Answers:

1. efficient
2. efficiently
3. efficiency

. There are many com……………. a7. Content review:

Complete the following statements with the appropriate words. (Some can be used more than once.) Make sure you use the correct form, i.e. singular or plural.

1. The …………. system is a computer which has combined the features of both the

…….…… and ……….. computer. It is used mainly in scientific research. 2.……………computers get their name form the word……………These are single character numbers that make up the …………. in which the data are presented to the computer for processing.

3. ……………… are usually found in large ………………
4. The most commonly used language of ………….. in the business community is

……………

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Answers

1. hybrid computer, digital, analog
2. digital, digits, code

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Lesson -11

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Reading: Understanding Reading

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Reading is the most important skill you will need for success in your studies. Poor reading may be a problem for many of you, but it is not a hopeless one. We have been learning ways in which you can improve your reading comprehension. Remember, this will only be an introduction. You must continue to read and practice on your own. You learn to read by reading.

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Our main concern is improving your comprehension. There is a relationship between reading speed and reading comprehension. You may think that if you read rapidly, your comprehension will suffer. This is a false assumption. As you push yourself to read slower you may find that you comprehend less.

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One cause of slow reading is VOCALIZATION - the forming of the sounds of each word even though you may not say them aloud. Vocalization is very common among our students. It is a sure sign that the reader is a poor reader. So, learn to read with your eyes and mind and not with your lips. In simple words learn to read silently.

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If you learn to recognize and understand the principles and methods of writing - rhetoric - it will help improve your reading. If you learn to understand why a piece of text or writing was written, what it says, both in overall statement and major sub points, and how the author or writer has made those major statements and the minor sub parts fit in, it will help improve your understanding of the reading text.

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All successful writers work along these lines. The way they write will provide answers to the three questions - Why? What? And How?

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An important part of reading is realizing that everything you read has an author or writer who has something to say, and he says it in a particular way or manner. You, as a successful reader, must apply the same technique that the writer used - the questions, why? What? How? And decode what he has said.

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To answer the first question - Why? - remember the author is a person who has a reason for writing a given piece of text, and who works from a personal point of view. As a skilled reader you must fully understand and evaluate what you read. The writer has a purpose in writing. You must recognize that PURPOSE. Aligned with purpose are two other things which are known as ATTITUDE and TONE - the expression of the writer’s feelings.

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There are 3 common purposes of communication: to inform, to persuade and to entertain. When the purpose is to inform, the writer gives information on facts about the topic or subject he is writing about. When the purpose is to persuade, the aim is to convince the

reader to agree with the writer’s point of view. Here, also writers may give facts but their

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main goal is to promote an opinion. For the third purpose which is to entertain, the author appeals to the reader’s senses and imagination with the aim of amusing and delight.

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Closely related to the question of purpose is the matter of ATTITUDE. What is the writer’s attitude toward his purpose, and toward his subject, or toward you, the reader? Even if he is arguing, he can be arguing coolly and logically, or angrily and heatedly. He can see something funny in the situation or something frightening.

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Similarly, he can approach his audience - the readers as friends, as enemies, as equals, or he can talk down to them from a position of authority. Attitude, then, is the author’s approach, position, the stance that he adopts towards the material he is presenting, the audience i.e. you, the reader and the situation in which he is writing.

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A good clue to the author’s attitude and approach to the subject is his TONE. This is the voice in which he is speaking to you - the language, the words and phrases he chooses to write. It is through the author’s tone that we sense his wit, humor, sadness, indignation, friendliness etc.

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Just as a speaker’s voice can project a range of feelings, a writer’s words and phrases can project one or more tones or feelings. Understanding tone is an important part of understanding what the writer has written. Sometimes, tone is evident from the first line, from the first paragraph. Sometimes, the tone, purpose and attitude will not be evident or clear to you until the entire piece or text has been read.

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Authors and their works are complex. An author may use different types of writing to put forward his views. He may narrate, describe, explain or argue. Not all writing fits neatly into one of these categories. He may combine all these types in one piece of writing. Description and narration are often used to help developing a further purpose – either Exposition or Argument.

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Or he may use exposition to develop an argument. Thus, you may find combinations of purpose involved in what you read. The same approach can apply to humor and entertainment. If you can find out what is the underlying purpose and intention of the author, and what technique or strategy he is employing, then you are a successful reader.

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All this might not be evident in your first reading. So, this means you will have to re-read. At least, this might be necessary till you are a practiced reader. You cannot always rely on your first reading to bring you the comprehension, the analytical understanding. But the clues that your first reading will supply will then be valuable in your re-reading.

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The second technique that the writer uses - the WHAT question. What the writer says in the overall statement and major sub points of the text leads us to the author’s basic

statement - his thesis statement about his subject. For you, the reader, the thesis also indicates what the writer is NOT saying. It shows you the limitations the writer has set for

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himself, how much of the general subject he is going to deal with. A good reader makes sure that he reads within the boundaries of those limitations.

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To help readers understand their main points, authors try to present supporting details in a clearly organized way. Details might be arranged in any of several common patterns. Sometimes, authors may build a paragraph or longer passage exclusively on one pattern; very often the patterns are mixed. By recognizing the patterns, you, the reader, will be better able to understand and remember what you read.

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The most commonly used patterns of organization or subdivisions are time order / sequences. List of items, comparison or contrast, cause and effect, definition and example. These subdivisions complete the pattern of the writer’s basic statement, his thesis, his main thought.

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The reader’s recognition and understanding of these subdivisions are a part of answering the question HOW - the third important technique used by the writer. Recognition of the main subdivisions is recognition of the techniques and devices of the organization.

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Paragraphs and particularly, the topic sentences of paragraphs are important clues. The topics of the individual paragraphs are the core statements in explaining the thesis: each paragraph will make some kind of core statement and then develop it with some concrete details.

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In short pieces of writing each paragraph may be a separate subdivision; in longer pieces, a number of paragraphs may form a subdivision, each contributing to the total understanding. Relationships between the parts are conveyed throughout a text by transitions. Recognition of these transitions - the movement from or connection between one part and the next will lead to a general improvement of your reading. In other words it means noticing important words and phrases which connect the parts. These may be function words or content words.

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Function words are an important part of writing and reading and are used no matter what the subject of the text is. These are the small words such as in, at, and, but… the prepositions, the conjunctions, the modifiers, etc. They establish emphasis and relationships between the parts. They are the chief clues to the organization of a piece of writing.

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Content words are those words that are central to the development of the subject of any particular piece of writing. They are often words that are most fully defined. But it is also possible that the author assumes you know their definitions. In either case you, the reader, have to be sure you understand these key words. Also you need to notice how an author modifies key content words at different parts of the text. He may use synonyms

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i.e. use other words with similar meaning or he may use antonyms – words that are in contrast to the key content words.

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The successful reader learns to recognize and understand the clues that the writer gives. This can only happen through practiced reading.

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READING AND UNDERSTANDING

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An Approach to Comprehension

You have probably realized by now that everything you learn in this course is geared towards the end of writing and understanding English and nothing is merely an exercise learnt for examination purposes. What we call ‘comprehension exercises’ are in fact a test of this understanding. Up till now, you have been dealing with computer related passages, now we will shift gear and make you look at other kinds of reading materials.

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The pieces of writing we use will be of two varieties: imaginative and practical.

The ‘imaginative’ passage will be a piece of creative writing, an extract from a novel or a short story dealing with a fictional situation; it could alternatively be a poem.

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1. In answering the questions you will show that you can understand what the writer is talking about, not just on the surface, but also the subtleties and implications.

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• You will also need to say something about how the writer is getting his points over, the effectiveness or otherwise of the way he uses words, images and sentences to create particular effects. In other words, some insight into matters of style and the appropriateness of style to content will be demanded. The ‘practical’ passage will deal mainly with facts. It may be a report, an account or someone expressing his opinions on a particular matter, a series of instructions or a set of statistics which you will be asked to interpret. The emphasis here will be on making sure that you can understand the line of argument or the logical step-by-step statement of the facts. You may be asked to summarize the points made in the passage about a particular aspect of the matter being discussed. Keep in mind that the computer texts that we did in the earlier lessons were factual texts.

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Kinds of Questions: The kinds of questions on reading passages are likely to be as follows:

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1. Meaning. You may be asked to explain the meaning of the word or phrase as it is used in the passage, e.g. when you see the word ‘execute’, you may immediately think of the meaning ‘inflict capital punishment on’. But this would not be an appropriate meaning in a context like this: ‘To execute the plan for redevelopment of the town we will call for the support of all citizens.’ Here ‘execute’ means ‘carry into effect’.

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• Facts. You may be asked to answer questions about what the passage is actually saying to make sure that you understand it, e.g. if the piece of writing is about a character digging his allotment, you may be asked ‘what is the character doing?’

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• Reading between the lines. Writers do not always state facts directly. They imply emotions and attitudes and suggest points of view, and they depend on the reader being perspective enough to be able to form a total impression greater than the bare words on the page. For instance, an author may not state directly that he dislikes a particular character he

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is writing about, but the words he uses to describe that character and the situations he presents him in may convey the author’s attitude towards the character, and that attitude is passed on to the perceptive reader. The words are not chosen accidentally but with a purpose, and you must be able to get beyond the surface meaning of the words and see what the implications of such words are. For example:

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1. The same soldiers could be called ‘terrorists’ or ‘freedom-fighters’, according to the writer’s attitude towards them.

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• In describing someone eating, a writer may use the words ‘wolfed down’, ‘slobbered’, ‘guzzled’. If he is describing a baby eating, these words may be merely a statement of fact, but if they are about an adult, there may well be a suggestion of distaste towards the character.

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4. Metaphorical language. You may be asked to explain what it is exactly that a writer has in mind when he makes a comparison or uses a metaphorical expression, e.g. in The Story by Dylan Thomas, the author says ‘my uncle blew and bugled whenever he won’ (at cards). The word ‘blew’ suggests a literal and factual way of expelling; the breath from his mouth in a burst, but the word ‘bugled’ is being used in a metaphorical way. Thomas is making a comparison between the noise his uncle made and the sound of a bugle. He is trying to make more vivid, to our imaginations, the kind of noise his uncle made. The word ‘bugled’ suggests things like ‘high-pitched’, ‘strident’, ‘sudden and loud’, perhaps even ‘triumphant’. These are ideas which this metaphorical use of the word conveys which otherwise, a literal word could not produce.

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• Style. Just as people are individual and different, so the way they write varies. In addition, a particular writer may write in different ways depending on what effects he is trying to achieve, e.g. he may use very flowery language if he is trying to create an atmosphere; he may write very simple if he is concerned with getting important facts over; he may have his tongue in his cheek. You may be asked to comment on the style of the passage you are studying and you may have to justify the appropriateness and effectiveness or otherwise of the style to the content – what the writer is saying. The kinds of points you would have to be aware of are the variety of sentences used, the kinds of words chosen, particular literary devices he uses, etc. These are very important aspects of understanding writing, and they will be discussed in greater detail in later units.

6. Summary. You may be asked to pick out certain facts in a passage relevant to a particular point, e.g. you may be asked ‘what do we learn about X’s physical appearance?’ and you will have to search through the piece of writing to find all the details that the writer gives you about this.

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• Opinions. You may be asked to comment on the views expressed in the passage, to say whether you think they are convincing, or to give your own views on the topic, e.g. if the passage is about homeopathy, you may be asked, ‘Do you think Homeopathy is harmful?’ Or you may be asked to develop or expand on an area of experience described in the

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passage, but this time treating it from a personal point of view. For example, the passage may be about working conditions, and you may be asked, ‘Comment on the conditions under which you work, indicating the area in which you think improvements could be made.’

These are the main kinds of questions and approaches you are likely to be asked. There may be others, but if you become acquainted with these types of questions and texts and can understand them, you should be well prepared confident.

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Listing

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It is important when reading to recognize and understand the relationship in which sentences and groups of sentences combine to present information. This information may be linked by means of a connective word or marker. Making a list, enumerating, and giving instructions, indicates a cataloguing of what is being said. It is important to note that most enumerations belong to clearly defined sets. The following table is a list of the markers that can be used to show the order in which things are to be said.

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LISTING MARKERS

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1, 2, 3, etc.

One, two, three, etc. First(ly), second(ly), third(ly) In the first/second/third place Another, next, then

Furthermore, afterwards, moreover Lastly/finally

to begin/start with, and to conclude First and foremost mark the beginning

First and most important(ly) of a descending order Above all mark the end of

Last but not least an ascending order 42

There are many ways of showing sequential relationships. Those given in the table above are not the only ones, they are the most common ones used in listing or enumerating. The – ly forms are usually used when listing.

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Sample Paragraph

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More and more police departments have now sophisticated devices to help control the increasing crime rate. Some of these are: Firstly, a computer terminal inside a police vehicle to answer an officer’s questions; secondly, a computer-controlled display unit for displaying fingerprints; and thirdly, educational systems for police officers such as terminals, enabling them to verify changes in laws, rules and regulations. The computer memory of many law enforcement systems contains all kinds of information. First and foremost, it has data on stolen items such as cars, license plates and property. Second, it has information on missing persons and wanted fugitives. Last but not least, it contains information on political extremist groups and their activities. It goes without saying that computers have certainly revolutionized police work by providing access to millions of

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items of information with the least possible delay and speeding up the process of apprehending suspicious-looking characters.

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Exercise 1

The following paragraph is an excerpt from a passage you have read earlier. ‘What Is a Computer? While reading this paragraph underline the listing marks. Computers are thought to have many remarkable powers. However, most computers whether large or small have three basic capabilities. First, computers have circuits for performing arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation. Second, computers have a means of communicating with the user. After all, if we couldn’t be of much use. Third, computers have circuits which can make decisions. The computer can only decide three things:

1. Is one number less than another?
2. Are two numbers equal? And
3. Is one number greater than another?

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Exercise 2

Complete the following paragraph by filling in the blanks with appropriate listing markers.

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Computers can do wonders, but they can waste a lot of money unless careful consideration goes into buying them. Any businessman thinking of buying a computer system should ..… admit he knows very little about computers….., he must realize that the computer salesman doesn’t know how his business works.

.…., that he should get that outside advice is a must, not necessarily from consultants but from other executives who have had recent experience buying a computer system ..… He should try to see systems similar to ones under consideration in operation. Because his operations will have the differences that must be accommodated, he should ….. find out what would be involved in upgrading a system. ….. Important thing to know before buying a computer is the financial situation of the supplier because computer companies come and go and not all are financially stable. ….. the perspective buyer should demand that every details be covered in writing. Including hardware and software, they are supplied by different companies. There’s nothing wrong with computers, it’s how and why they are used that can cause problem.

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Lesson -12

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Reading: Making Inferences Making Inferences

You are familiar with the expression “to read between the lines”, which means you pick up

ideas that are not directly stated in the material you are reading. The writer is giving or making a suggestion but stating it indirectly i.e. he is implying something. These implied ideas are often important for a full understanding of what the writer means. To discover the implied or underlying ideas in the writing is called ‘making inferences’ or drawing conclusion.

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Our aim is to help you not only become a better reader but a strong thinker – a person able not only to understand what is read but to analyze and evaluate it as well. In fact, reading and thinking are closely related skills, and practice in thoughtful reading will also strengthen your ability to think clearly and logically. It is a higher level skill.

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In everyday life, we keep on making inferences. For example, you go out in the street and you notice a large crowd gathered outside a shop, and you also notice a lot of broken glass on the road. As you get closer, you hear loud talking. Before you even reach the shop, you have inferred what all the fuss is about - there has been an accident.

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How did you arrive at these inferences? First, you used your experience of life and general knowledge of people. Second, you made informed guesses which were based on the facts you observed. Remember not all your inferences will necessarily prove true. For example, it is possible that the crowd gathered outside is not because of an accident between cars etc. but because of a quarrel among some people and while fighting among themselves they hit the glass windows of the shop and it turned into a nasty brawl. In any case, the more evidence you have, the more solid your inferences are.

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1. Consider two incidents. Write down on a piece of paper what you might infer if you saw the following two occurrences.

1. A high school has policemen walking up and down its main hall.

What would you infer?

2. A dog shrinks or cringes when you try to pat him. What would you infer?

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The inferences you probably made are that, in the first situation, there is a public examination going on/or there is an important function taking place and some high-ranking person is present. And in the second situation you probably inferred that the dog has previously been maltreated and is afraid of people.

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Look at the following two pictures on your screen and put a tick mark against the inference(s) most logically supported by the information given in the picture.

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Picture 1:

The old woman is asking for something.

The old woman couldn’t see because of the smoke. The old woman was pointing to a no-smoking sign.

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Picture 2 :

The man has a problem with his vision. The boy is doing his home work.

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The man watches a lot of TV. The father cannot read.

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Inferences in Reading:

In reading also we make logical jumps from the information given or stated directly to ideas that are not stated directly i.e. we make statements or draw conclusions about what is not known on the basis of what is known or given. So, to draw inferences the reader uses all the clues provided by the writer, his own experience i.e. the reader’s own experience and logic.

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2. Read the sentences given below and mark the inference most logically based on the information in the sentence.

Sohail always sits in the last row of the classroom.

• Sohail dislikes his college courses.
• Sohail is unprepared for his class.
• Sohail feels uncomfortable sitting in the front row.
• Sohail is farsighted

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The given sentence tells us nothing about how Sohail feels about his college courses, how prepared he is, or how well he sees. So answers a, b or d are possibilities, but none is directly suggested by the sentence. The correct answer is therefore c. Based on the information we are given, we can conclude only that Sohail – for some reason – does not like sitting in the front. We are not given enough information to know why he feels this way. Remember your inferences will be stronger if you don’t jump to conclusions that are unsupported or that are only very weakly supported by the available information.

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3. Now you will have some more practice in drawing inferences. Read the given sentences and put a tick mark by the inference, most logically supported by the information given in the sentence.

1. The Arabic language contains numerous words describing different types of camels.
2. There is really only one kind of camel.
3. The Arabic language clearly has many times more words than the English language.
4. The Arabic language probably also has numerous words for different types of dates.
5. The exact nature of camels is important to the desert way of life.

2. A man enters his office building, marches past a group of fellow employees without returning their greetings and goes into his office, slamming the door.

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1. The man has just lost his job
2. The man has quarreled with his boss.
3. The man is in a bad mood.
4. The man is angry with his wife.

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4. Read the passage & then check the four statements which are most logically supported by the information given.

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1. The elimination of jobs because of super-automation is not limited to industrial factories

– offices are increasingly electronic. Engineers and architects now draw three dimensional designs, update them, test them, and store them almost instantaneously in computer. Agriculture employs robot fruit pickers and sheepshearers, computerized irrigation systems that use sensors to calculate water and fertilizer needs in different parts of a field, and automated chicken houses.

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Retail stores, banks, and brokerage houses use on-line transaction processing to obtain instant information and to conduct transactions. Laser scanning and bar codes are transforming the physical handling of codes by retailers and wholesale distributors. A final example of technological change affecting jobs is the widespread use of televisions, telephones, and personal computers for the purposes of home banking and shopping.

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1. Computers will soon replace engineers and architects.
2. There will be more jobs for people who run and repair electronic devices.
3. One function of super automation is the handling and storage of information.
4. Restaurants can’t benefit from super automation
5. Machines can help company employees accomplish more.
6. Super automation requires few adjustments form society.
7. Super automation has advantages and disadvantages.
8. Laser technology is limited to the business world. 20

2. a) You might like to ask why the Sun is able to supply its own light, heat, and energy, whereas the Earth and the other planets only shine feebly with the aid of borrowed light. Strange as it may seem, it is best to start this problem by considering the interior of the Earth.

b) The morrow brought a very sober-looking morning, the sun making only a few efforts to appear; and Catherine augured from it everything most favourable to her wishes. A bright morning so early in the year, she allowed, would generally turn to rain; but a cloudy one foretold improvement as the day advanced.

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c) Your mother and I were so happy then. It seemed as though we had everything we could ever want. I think the last day the sun shone was when that dirty little train steamed out of that crowded, suffocating Indian station, and the battalion band playing for all it was worth. I knew in my heart it was all over then. Everything!

(No statements are given for these paragraphs) ((99922

Inferences in Literature:

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If you are fond of reading novels, short stories, poetry, etc. you might be aware that inference is very important in understanding and appreciating literature. While nonfiction writers, that is, writers of factual material, usually state directly what they mean, fiction or creative writers often show what they mean by describing the scene or situation. It is for the reader to infer the point of what the writer has to say. I shall illustrate this with an example. A non-fiction writer might write:

Henry was angry at his wife.

A fiction/creative writer might write:

Henry’s eyes narrowed when his wife spoke to him. He cut her off in the middle of the sentence with the words,” I don’t have time to argue with you.”

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Instead of simply stating that Henry was angry, the creative writer has through his description shown Henry’s anger. If you read literature – poetry, short stories, novels, biographies, etc… you need to apply inference skills. Your understanding and appreciation of such works where a lot of meaning is implied i.e. not stated directly, will depend on this skill. Now, I shall read a very short poem of four lines. It is written by the American poet James Russell Lowell and is called “Sixty – Eight Birthday”.

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As life runs on, the road grows strange With faces new, and near the end

The milestones into headstones change, ‘Neath every one a friend.

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J. R. Lowell

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Milestone: a slab of stone set up in the ground to show the distance in miles on a road. Headstone: a stone which marks the top end of a grave, usually having the buried person’s name on it.

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1. We infer that the speaker in the poem is sixty-eight although the poem does not state that the speaker is sixty eight. The title of the poem strongly implies it. That is the purpose of the title.
2. The poem compares life to a road with milestones – 1^st & 3rd lines suggest that life runs on a road marked by milestones along it. As we move along the road, we meet new faces of people we are not familiar with.
3. The poem implies that birthdays are like milestones that mark the distance covered i.e. the years lived.

A time comes when life’s milestones turn into headstones, the markers set into graves, meaning in other words that life ends in death.

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4. The final line implies that as we get older, more and more friends die. Under all the headstones are friends. Now we will discuss another short poem. Read the poem titled ‘Fog’ by Carl Sandburg and answer the questions given at the end.

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Fog

The fog comes On little cat feet.

It sets looking ones harbor and city On silent haunches

And then moves on.

C Sandburg

Put a tick mark against the answer that is based on the poem.

1. The way the fog moves is compared to:
1. The movements in the harbor
2. The movements in the city
3. The way a cat moves 28
2. This comparison implies that the fog:
• floats over the harbor.
• hangs over the city.
• moves quickly and silently.

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• The comparison with the cat continues with the word:
• harbor
• haunches
• city

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• The poem implies that the fog:
• stays for a while and then leaves.
• stays too long.
• never stays.

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5. The poem shows fog as:
2. dangerous
3. quiet
4. full of movement

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Another way in which writers can indicate character is through the words they put into their character’s mouths. The readers have to read between the lines and infer meanings which may not be directly stated. This is true of novels and other genres of literature. In drama, for example, playwrights expect their audience to read between the lines of the dialogue and use inference to depict the diversity of their characterization.

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This is, of course, an important- possibly the most important element of the dramatist’s art, to reveal his characters through their speech, but other writers employ the device as well.

Study the following passage from P.G. Wood house’s ‘Thank you, Jeeves’.

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‘Jeeves’, I said, ‘do you know what?’ ‘No sir.’ 32

‘No, sir.

‘Do you know whom I saw last night? ‘No, sir.”

‘J. Washburn Stoker and his daughter, Pauline.’

‘Indeed, sir? ‘Awkward, what?’ 33

‘I can conceive that after what occurred in New York it might be distressing for you to encounter Miss Stoker, sir. But I fancy the contingency need scarcely arise.’

I weighed this.

‘When you start talking about contingencies arising, Jeeves, the brain seems to flicker and I rather miss the gist. Do you mean I ought to be able to keep out of her way? ‘Yes, sir.’

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‘Avoid her? ‘Yes, sir.’

(P.G. WODEHOUSE, Thank You, Jeeves)

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Look at Jeeves’s answers. Apart from one’s speech, they are very economical. What can we deduce about the kind of person Jeeves is, and his attitude towards his master from this economy of speech? What Jeeves actually says and what is implied?

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In today's lesson you’ve had practice in reading between lines. First in non-fiction or factual writing and then in creative writing for finding out meaning that is not stated directly. This is a skill that you can only acquire by reading extensively.

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Lesson -13

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Reading: Assessing the Text

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In this lesson we will be looking at different ways of determining fact from opinion. In the second half, we will be looking at different ways of indicating time sequences in practical scientific texts.

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Distinguishing Facts from Opinions:

Being able to dissociate facts from opinions is an essential first step in acquiring a critical ability. When most writers or speakers communicate, they include their opinions of a subject. What they say is, therefore, at least partly biased. While bias is unavoidable, writers do try to remain as objective as possible. Scientific reports are examples of writing in which authors try to be as factual as they can. However, there are other types of materials, such as newspaper editorials, political speeches, advertisement, etc… where opinions are central to the writing. In such writings the writer/author tries to convince readers to change their minds and share their view points. This means that facts and opinions are valuable to writers. But readers ought to know the difference between the two in order to evaluate what they read. In other words, a skilled reader must be able to distinguish fact from fiction. I am sure this is something we do already without realizing. Most of the time when we talk, we mix facts with opinions. In today’s lesson you will learn to sift fact from opinion.

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What is a fact? A fact is a statement that can be proved true through objective evidence. Now, this evidence may be a physical proof, or the testimony of witnesses (spoken or written). The following are some facts which can be checked for accuracy and thus can be proved true:

1. The neem tree in our garden is 25 feel tall. (Anyone can measure & confirm or disprove the fact.)
2. The Lahore Museum is the oldest museum in Pakistan. (Any researcher can check with historical publications/documents.)
3. Pakistan won the 1992 World Cup. (Anyone can check sports record to confirm this)

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Now we turn to opinion:

An opinion is a statement that cannot be objectively proved true or false. Opinions usually express beliefs, feelings, judgments that a person may have on or about a subject. Here are some opinions:

1. The Alhmara Arts Council building is the most beautiful building in Lahore.

Now, there is no way this statement can be proved true because people can look at the same building and come to different conclusions about its beauty.

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“Beautiful” is a value-word – the word we use to express our judgment. Now remember value-words are signals that an opinion is being expressed. These value-words by their very nature represent opinions, not facts. e.g.

1. The Prime Minister should have willed his property to the nation (That’s your opinion).
2. Pakistan cricket team is the best in the world. This, again, is an opinion. ‘Best’ is debatable.

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To sharpen your understanding about fact and opinion, read the following statements and decide whether they are facts (F) or opinions (O).

1. My brother, Aslam, is very handsome.
2. Last night there was an accident on the highway.
3. Mohammad Ali Bogra was the worst Prime Minister our country had ever had.
4. Ostriches do not hide their heads in the sand. (Contrary to popular opinion, this is a fact which can be checked through observation or reports of observations.)

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Some more points about fact and opinion:

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While separating a fact form opinion, keep in mind that:

1. A statement of fact can possibly be un- true.

Sometimes, evidence may show that a fact is not true.

2. Opinions may be masked as facts.

People sometimes present their opinions as facts. e.g.

1. The economy, in fact, has been in worst condition for four years.
2. In fact, none of the candidates for the Nazim’s post is well qualified.
3. The truth of the matter is that frozen meat tastes as good as fresh meat.

At the first glance, the above statements appear as statements of fact but a closer examination will show that they are statements of opinion.

iii) Value-words often represent opinions.

Value-words are generally subjective, not objective and they express judgment. Factual statements report on observed reality while subjective statements interpret reality. For instance, some value words are:

If someone says, “It’s raining outside”. Now, this observation is an objective one. It can be verified, but if someone says, “It’s bad weather”, this is a subjective statement - a personal interpretation of reality – some people consider rain to be good weather!

(iv) Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact and opinion:

Recognizing facts and opinions is important because a lot of information that we read and hear is really OPINION.

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You might, for instance, read or hear the following:

• A politician may say,” My record in the National Assembly is outstanding”.
• An advertisement may claim that a particular model of a car “is the most economical on the road”. Both statements are opinions. In the first one, the word “outstanding” needs to be probed. What does the politician exactly mean? The second statement seems very factual. But what is meant by “economical? The car might be offering more miles per liter of petrol but if it offers the worst record for expensive repairs. Then, surely, it is not economical.

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So far, you have read single statements; now you will read a passage. Be on the look out for opinion.

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1. There were several queens of Egypt by the name of Cleopatra, which also includes the one who ruled in the time of Caesar and Antony, the rulers of Rome.
2. She is one of the most interesting figures in the world and Egyptian history.
3. According to historical records, she was born in 69BC and died almost forty years later. 4- The story of how she died is very fascinating and easy to believe.
5. Reports say that she killed herself by letting a cobra bite her.
6. As the Egyptian cobra was a symbol of royalty, so it was a good way for a queen to end her life.

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Sentence 2. expresses an opinion – to some Cleopatra may not be an interesting figure. Sentence 4 - opinion: how fascinating and easy to believe will differ from person to person. Sentence 6 - mixture of fact and opinion.

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1. Although weeds are also plants, there is something negative about the name.
2. R. W. Emerson, an American poet once described a weed as “a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered”.
3. Weeds aren’t really so bad after all.
4. For instance, they can replenish depleted top soil with minerals. 5- Also, some weeds contain vitamins and are edible.

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Facts Versus Opinions:

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Read the following statements and decide whether they are facts or opinions:

1. Edgar Allan Poe is the greatest writer of horror stories in the world.
2. Poe had to leave the University of Virginia because he couldn’t pay his debts.
3. Edgar Allan Poe should not have drunk so much.
4. Lovecraft has often been compared to Edgar Allah Poe.
5. When Lovecraft died, he was practically unknown.
6. Lovecraft died in the conditions of shameful neglect.
7. Lovecraft’s stories are far more horrible than those of Edgar Allan Poe.
8. Edgar Allan Poe’s stories reflect his powerful imagination and his love for analysis.
9. Baudelaire wrote that Edgar Poe ‘pursued imagination and subjected it to the most stringent analysis’.
10. It is because of Baudelaire that Edgar Allan Poe became famous in France.

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Grellet, Francoise Developing Reading Skills, CUP, 1981, page239

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1 a) You might like to ask why the Sun is able to supply its own light, heat, and energy, whereas the Earth and the other planets only shine feebly with the aid of borrowed light.

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Strange as it may seem, it is best to start this problem by considering the interior of the Earth.

2. The morrow brought a very sober-looking morning, the sun making only a few efforts to appear; and Catherine augured from it everything most favourable to her wishes. A bright morning so early in the year, she allowed, would generally turn to rain; but a cloudy one foretold improvement as the day advanced.
3. Your mother and I were so happy then. It seemed as though we had everything we could ever want. I think the last day the sun shone was when that dirty little train steamed out of that crowded, suffocating Indian station, and the battalion band playing for all it was worth. I knew in my heart it was all over then. Everything!

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The Sequences

In lesson 11, we looked at some of the markers used for enumerating the order in which things are to be said when making lists or giving instructions. However, it didn’t mention those markers which outline the time sequence in which events occur. It is equally important to recognize the sequence of events, especially in such activities as scheduling, recounting historical facts, doing routine activities and conducting and describing experiments.

As we know, events do not simply occur; they occur either before, during or after other events. This time sequence may be chronological, logical or causal. Once a time-reference has been established, certain adjective and adverbials may order subsequent information in relation to it. The following tables are examples of time relaters.

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Table1:

Previous to given time-references, i.e. before

TIME RELATERS

Examples

1. The memory storage capacity of earlier computers was not as large as these days.
2. When the first digital computer was developed, the first analog computer had already

been in use for some time.

3. Up to now, computers have not created too much unemployment.

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Table2:

Subsequent to time-reference, i.e. after

TIME RELATERS

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Examples

1. Computers might be used in the future as simultaneous translating machines.
2. At present, computers are used for printing newspapers.
3. In future, computers will probably replace most of our daily activities, but in the meantime scientists are still trying to develop computers to their full potential.

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TIME RELATERS

Examples:

1. Since the development of the chip, computers have become cheaper and more compact.
2. You should have a good basic understanding of computers by the time you finish this reading course.
3. After the development of transistors, the later computers were much faster. 34

N.B. Time sequence is also shown by different verb tenses.

Examples:

1. Vannevar Bush had built the first analog computer long before Professor Aiken and some men at IBM invented the first digital computer.
2. At the rate computer technology is growing, computers, as we know them today, will

soon become obsolete.

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Sample Paragraph

Computers, as we know them today, haven’t been around for a long time. It wasn’t until the mid-1940s that the first working digital computer was completed. But since then, computers have evolved tremendously. Vacuum tubes were used in the first-generation computers at the beginning of the 1960s. By the end of the 1960s, transistors were replaced by tiny integrated circuit boards and, consequently, a new generation of computers was on the market. Fourth-generation computers are now produced with circuits that are

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much smaller than before and fit on a single chip. Soon, fifth-generation computers will be produced, and these will, no doubt, be better than their predecessors.

Exercise

Read the following paragraph and as you read, underline the time relaters.

There are some who say that computers have a very short history but, because they are machines that manipulate numbers, others disagree. More than 5000 years ago, a need to count was recognized, and somebody had the idea of using first his fingers, then pebbles to keep track of the count.

History is not clear as to whether the need was recognized before or after the idea occurred. Since that time, the abacus was invented and some form of it was used well into the 16th century. During the 17th and 18th centuries many easy ways of calculating were devised. Logarithm tables, calculus and the basis for the modern slide rule were born out of that period of time. It was not until the early 1800s that the first calculating machine appeared and not too long after, Charles Babbage designed a machine which became the basis for building today’s computers.

A hundred years later the first analog computer was built, but the first digital computer was not complete until 1944. Since then computers have gone through four generations from digital computers using vacuum tubes in the 1950s, transistors in the early 1960s, integrated in the mid-60s, and a single chip in the 190s. At the rate computer technology is growing now, we can expect more changes in this field by the end of this decade.

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Exercise (Answer)

Read the following paragraph and as you read, underline the time relaters.

There are some who say that computers have a very short history but, because they are machines that manipulate numbers, others disagree. More than 5000 years ago, a need to count was recognized, and somebody had the idea of using first his fingers, then pebbles to keep track of the count.

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History is not clear as to whether the need was recognized before or after the idea occurred. Since that time, the abacus was invented and some form of it was used well into the 16th century. During the 17^th and 18th centuries many easy ways of calculating were devised. Logarithm tables, calculus and the basis for the modern slide rule were born out of that period of time. It was not until the early 1800s that the first calculating machine appeared and not too long after, Charles Babbage designed a machine which became the basis for building today’s computers.

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A hundred years later the first analog computer was built, but the first digital computer was not complete until 1944. Since then computers have gone through four generations from digital computers using vacuum tubes in the 1950s, transistors in the early 1960s, integrated in the mid-60s, and a single chip in the 1970s. At the rate computer technology is growing now, we can expect more changes in this field by the end of this decade.

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Lesson -14

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Reading: Assessing Texts

In today’s lesson, we are going to begin by looking at how writers bring their characters to life by employing different descriptive and other techniques. In the second half, we will go back to practical texts pertaining to your field of study related to computers.

Characters

Characters:

Almost every example of imaginative writing has to do with people in some way or the other. We are going to look at some of the ways in which a writer is able to translate his vision of the people. He is writing to the reader by means of words. In some ways, a painter or photographer has an easier task since he is able to present his ideas directly to us in visual terms-though, of course, interpretation is necessary here, too. How, then, does an author achieve the same effect using only words. The writer achieves this effect by:

1. showing action.
2. putting actual words into characters’ mouth.
3. using direct statements.
4. making comparisons & associations.
5. associating with one particular point of view or action by which characters can easily and quickly be identified.
6. choice of words and by picking out a particular feature or detail that calls character vividly to mind.

One of the ways a writer does

1. Action: One of the ways a writer does this is by showing the character performing some action which is typical of him or performing an action in a particular way that reveals the kind of person he is. Here is another example, a description of Pip’s sister, Mrs. Gargery, from Charles Dicken’s Great Expectations.

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My sister had a trenchant way of cutting our bread-and-butter for us that never varied. First, with her left hand she jammed the load hard and fast against her bib-where it sometimes got a pin into it, and sometimes a needle, which we afterwards got into our mouths. Then she took some butter (not too much) on a knife and spread it on the loaf, in an apothecary kind of way, as if she were making a plaster-using both sides of the knife with a slapping dexterity, and trimming and molding the butter off round the crust. Then, she gave the knife a final smart wipe on the edge of the plaster, and then sawed a very thick round off the loaf; which she finally, before separating from the loaf, hewed into two halves, of which Joe got one, and I the other.

(CHARLES DICKENS, Great Expectations)

What does this account of Mrs Gargery cutting bread tell us about her?

What impression does the use of words like ‘trenchant’ ‘jammed’, ‘slapping dexterity’, ‘a final smart wipe’, ‘sawed’ and ‘hewed’ build up?

Write your answers to these questions in your notebook: it is a good practice.

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2. Speech: Another way in which writers can indicate character is through the words they put into their character’s mouths. This is, of course, an important-possibly the most important element of the dramatist’s art, to reveal his characters through their speech, but writers employ other devices as well.

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Study the following passage from P.G. Wodehouse’s ‘Thank you, Jeeves’. ‘Jeeves’, I said, ‘do you know what?’

No sir.’

‘Do you know whom I saw last night? ‘no, sir.”

‘J. Washburn Stoker and his daughter, Pauline.’ ‘Indeed, sir?

‘Awkward, what?’forming an action in a particular way that

r‘I can conceive that after what occurred in New York it might be distressing for you to encounter Miss Stoker, sir. But I fancy the contingency need scarcely arise.’

I weighed this.

‘When you start talking about contingencies arising, Jeeves, the brain seems to flicker and I rather miss the gist. Do you mean I ought to be able to keep out of her way?

‘Yes, sir.’ ‘Avoid her? ‘Yes, sir.’

(P.G. WODEHOUSE, Thank You, Jeeves)

‘Look at Jeeves’s answers. Apart from one’s speech, they are very economical. What can we deduce about the kind of person Jeeves is, and his attitude towards his master from this economy of speech? What Jeeves actually says and what is implied?

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3. Direct Statements: Some writers tell us about their characters directly instead of showing them and allowing us to draw our own conclusions. They build detail on detail until we have a clear picture of their appearance, their habits, their opinions, and their life history. Here is an account of a character called Miss Arkwright.

She was in no way a remarkable person. Her appearance was not particularly distinguished and yet she was without any feature that could actively displease.

She had enough personal eccentricities to fit into the pattern of English village life, but none so absurd or anti-social that they could embarrass or even arouse gossip beyond what was pleasant to her neighbors. She accepted her position as an old maid with that cheerful good humor and occasional irony which are essential to English spinsters since the deification of Jane Austen, or more sacredly Miss Austen, by the upper middle classes, and she attempted to counteract the inadequacy of the unmarried state by quiet, sensible and tolerant social work in the local community. She was liked by nearly everyone, though she was not afraid of making enemies where she knew that her broad but deeply felt religious principles were being opposed. Any socially pretentious or undesirably extravagant conduct, too, was liable to call for her an unexpectedly caustic and well-aimed snub.

She was invited everywhere and always accepted the invitations. Quietly but well dressed, with one or two very fine old pieces of jewellery that had come down to her from her grandmothers, she would pass from one group to another, laughing or serious as the occasion demanded.

She listened with patience, but with a slight twinkle in her eye, to Mr Hodson’s endless stories of life in Dar-es-Salaam or Myra Hop’s breathless accounts of her latest system of diet. John Hobday in his somewhat ostentatiously gentleman-farmer attire would describe his next novel about East Anglican life to her before, even, his beloved daughter had heard of it.

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Richard Trelawney, just down from Oxford, found that she had read and really know Donne’s sermons, yet she could swoop detective stories with Colonel Wright by the hour, and was his main source for quotations when The Times cross-word was in question. It was she who incorporated little Mrs Grantham into village life, when that underbred, suburban woman came there as Colonel Grantham’s second wife, checking her vulgar remarks about ‘the lower classes’ with kindly humor, but defending her against the formidable battery of Lady Vernon’s antagonism. Yet, it was also she who was first at Lady Vernon’s when Sir Robert had his stroke and her unobtrusive kindliness and real services gained her a singular position behind the grim reserve of the Vernon family.

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She could always banter the vicar away from his hobby horse of the Greek rite when at rural community meetings the agenda seemed to have been buried for ever beneath a welter of Euchologia and Menaia. She checked Sir Robert’s anti-Bolshevik phobia from victimizing the Country Librarian for her Fabianism but was fierce in her attack on the local council when she thought that class prejudice had prevented Commander Osborne’s widow from getting council house.

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She led, in fact, an active and useful existence, yet when anyone praised her she would only laugh-‘My dear’, she would say ‘hard work’s the only excuse old maids like me have got for existing at all, and even then I don’t know that they oughtn’t to lethalize the lot of us.’ As the danger of war grew nearer in the thirties, her favorite remark was ‘Well, if they've got any sense this time they’ll keep the young fellows at home and put us useless old maids in the trenches,’ and she said it with real conviction.

(ANGUS WILSON, A Little Companion)

Now sum up in a few sentences the main points of Miss Arkwright’s character. What are the reported comments that are typical of her character?

4. Comparisons and Associations: Sometimes writers tell us about their characters by comparing them to something else which calls up an image in our minds or by associating them with some idea or object that is related or which is significant.

Here is a description of Miss Murdstone.

‘It was Miss Murdstone who arrived, and a gloomy-looking lady she was; dark, like her brother, whom she greatly resembled in face and voice; and with very heavy eyebrows, nearly meeting over her large nose, as if, being disabled by the wrongs of her kind from wearing whiskers, she had carried them to that account.

She brought with her two uncompromising hard black boxes, with her initials on the lids in hard brass nails. When she paid the coachman she took the money from a hard steel purse, and she kept the purse in a very jail of a bag which hung upon her arm by a heavy chain, and shut up like a bite. I had never, at that time, seen such a metallic lady altogether as Miss Murdstone was.’

(CHARLES DICKENS, David Copperfield)

Pick out the words or objects that directly suggest metal. Which words in the description of Miss Murdstone do suggest characteristics of metal? How is this association with metal appropriate?

5. Association of the characters with one particular point of view or action by which they can be easily and quickly identified:

Who can ever forget, for instance, Uriah Heep in Charles Dickens’s David Copperfield