Migration, Education�& Family
CCCH9023
September 16, 2026 (WED)
CPD 3.28
Academic Year 2026 / 2027, Semester 1
Lecture Rundown
I. Introduction
ll. Rural-to-urban migration trends,
reasons for migration
lll. Demographics of migrants
lV. Left-Behind Children Phenomenon
V. Impact on Education
Vl. Addressing the Challenges
Conclusions, big questions?
Migration, Education & Family
About the�Speaker
Migration, Education & Family
BPsych 1st Class Hon., MSocSc in Human Rights, MSocSc in Health and Social Care Studies, PGD in Behavioral Studies (Neurophysiology) & Doctoral Candidate in Psychology
Teaching qualifications: PCTLHE and PCAP; Advance HE Fellowship (UK);
Faculty Member in the Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong & Wellbeing Tutor HKU Centre of Development and Resources for Students, Phoenix Yuen College (former College 1) Jockey Club Student Village IV;
Communications Officer at the International Sociological Association (ausp. UNESCO), with headquarters at the Autonomous University of Barcelona;
Research memberships include the ISA Research Committee 04 ‘Sociology of Education’ and the APA Division 15 ‘Educational Psychology’.
Objective
In today's lecture, we will attempt to understand the complex relationship between family, migration, and education in the context of Mainland China. As China undergoes rapid urbanization and economic development, millions of families are affected by the large-scale migration from rural to urban areas. This phenomenon has significant implications on the social fabric of families, as well as the educational opportunities and outcomes for children left behind in rural areas.
Migration, Education & Family
Importance of understanding the effects of migration on children's education
Migration, Education & Family
Promoting equal educational opportunities
Ensuring the wellbeing of children
Strengthening family ties and social cohesion
Policy and practice
Rural-to-Urban Migration is a global phenomenon
Rural-to-urban migration is a widespread phenomenon affecting countries across different regions and levels of development.
Other examples include:
Currently > India, Brazil, Nigeria, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Vietnam, Egypt , Turkey
Before > US, Russia, Germany, UK, France
Migration, Education & Family
https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/msite/wmr-2026-interactive/
International migration influencing families
Left-behind children are a significant concern in many countries where parents migrate for work, either to urban areas within the country or internationally.
Examples > Philippines, Mexico, Indonesia, Moldova, Romania, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Guatemala, Ukraine, Bangladesh
This is not an exhaustive list, and the issue of left-behind children due to international migration affects many other countries as well.
Migration, Education & Family
Rural-to-urban migration trends worldwide
1. Higher wages and improved job prospects
2. Better living conditions and access to amenities
3. Aspiration for a modern, urban lifestyle
Migration, Education & Family
Key reasons for migration:
https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/msite/wmr-2026-interactive/
Migration, Education & Family
https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/msite/wmr-2026-interactive/
Now knowing this big picture, let’s go back to China...
Key reasons behind
In 1982, only 6.57 million rural migrants worked in Chinese cities (Zhao, 2000). By 1994, the size of this population had increased to 37 million (Du, 2000), and it has climbed exponentially since, reaching the unprecedented levels of 130 million in 2005 (World Bank, 2009) and 172 million in 2021.
In China, several factors contribute to the migration of people from rural to urban areas. Some of the main reasons include:
1. Economic opportunities
2. Education
3. Healthcare
4. Infrastructure and public services
5. Urbanization policies
6. Social factors
Migration, Education & Family
Main challenges
Hukou system: The household registration system (Hukou) in China has historically restricted rural migrants' access to social services, healthcare, and education in urban areas.
Employment: While urban areas offer more job opportunities, rural migrants often find themselves in low-paying, unstable, and physically demanding jobs in sectors such as construction, manufacturing, and services. They may also face discrimination in the job market due to their rural background and limited education.
Housing: Migrants often live in crowded and substandard housing conditions in urban areas, such as informal settlements or "urban villages", which may lack basic amenities like proper sanitation, clean water, and heating.
Education: Migrant children often face challenges in accessing quality education in urban areas. As a result, many migrant children are left behind in rural areas with their grandparents or other relatives.
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Migration, Education & Family
Healthcare: Migrants may have limited access to healthcare services in urban areas due to their Hukou status, high costs, and lack of insurance. This can result in inadequate medical care and increased health risks for migrant families.
Social integration: Rural migrants may experience social exclusion and discrimination in urban areas due to their background, language differences, and cultural practices. They may also struggle to adapt to the fast-paced lifestyle and new social norms in cities.
Legal protection: Migrants may lack knowledge about their legal rights and protections, making them vulnerable to exploitation by employers, landlords, and other individuals. They may also be hesitant to seek legal assistance due to fear of losing their jobs or being forced to return to their rural hometowns.
Mental health: The challenges associated with migration, such as separation from family, social isolation, and job insecurity, can have a negative impact on migrants' mental health and well-being.
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Migration, Education & Family
The demographics of migrants in China, key factors >
Age
Gender
Education
Marital status
Hukou status
Geographic origin
Migrants in China often come from specific regions or provinces known for high levels
of out-migration, such as Sichuan, Henan, Anhui, Guangxi, Hunan.
Migration, Education & Family
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Left-Behind Children also called
‘stay-at-home children‘
children who remain in rural regions of the country while their parents leave to work in urban areas.
According to the UNICEF Annual Report (pre-pandemic 2018*), there are approximately 69 million children left behind by one or both of their parents due to migration, which is equivalent to thirty percent of the children in rural areas.��*Brief post-pandemic (2023) report by UNICEF available in the reference list.
** Didn’t change for Sem 1, 2025-2026 AY, Country Official Report UNICEF has no updated number.�*** Sem 1, 2026-2026 AY, No new comprehensive national headcount data specifically quantifying the total number of left-behind children in China has been published by UNICEF.
69 million
Six south and central provinces, including Sichuan, Anhui, Henan, Guangdong, Hunan, and Jiangxi, take up 52% of the left-behind child population.
In May 2026, 27 government departments launched a dynamic “one child, one file” tracking initiative. By auditing data silos and conducting monthly home visits, local authorities have weeded out double-counting to focus exclusively on children facing active guardianship gaps.���Official GOV CN article: http://english.scio.gov.cn/m/pressroom/2026-06/01/content_118524145.html
Left-Behind Children Phenomenon
Educational challenges. LBC may face difficulties in accessing quality education, as they often live in rural areas with limited educational resources. Furthermore, the absence of parental guidance and support can negatively affect their academic performance and motivation. X. Chen and colleagues (2019) found that maternal migration in rural China decreased left-behind children’s academic performance, while paternal migration was positively associated with children’s school success. In a similar vein, W. Liang and colleagues (2008) reported that academic outcomes of left-behind children were particularly worrisome when the mother migrated, whether alone or with her husband.
Mental health. The separation from their parents, coupled with the challenges they face in their daily lives, can lead to mental health issues among left-behind children, such as anxiety, depression, and loneliness.
Vulnerability to risks. LBC are more vulnerable to various risks, including abuse and criminal activities. The absence of parental supervision and guidance can make them more susceptible to these dangers.
Social impact? The left-behind children phenomenon has raised concerns about its long-term social impact on China's future generations.
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Migrants more likely to leave middle-school-aged daughters, but not sons
*Migration Restrictions Can Create Gender Inequality: The Story of China's Left-Behind Children by Gao, Xuwen and Liang, Wenquan and Mobarak, Ahmed Mushfiq and Song, Ran. National Bureau of Economic Research, DOI 10.3386/w30990
Another�interesting factor�> Phone addiction
According to a report by the University of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, left-behind children spend longer time on mobile games than other children.
Of those children, more than 20% spend over 6 hours on games, two times more than those kids who stay with their parents.
Rural students’ phone obsession has also turned into a business for the nearby shops. Liu Chengliang, a researcher from Huazhong University of Science and Technology, found during an investigation in Yunnan Province that shops around schools offer students a service to charge their phones and even sell mobiles, Paying two yuan students can have their batteries recharged.
Migration, Education & Family
Factors contributing to phone addiction:
1. Emotional comfort
2. Social connection
3. Entertainment
4. Lack of parental supervision
5. Peer influence
Negative consequences:
1. Academic performance
2. Physical health
3. Mental health
4. Risky behaviors
Migration, Education & Family
Shall we think of some potential benefits or resilience factors?
Developing independence
Strengthened relationships with extended family
Development of problem-solving skills
Increased sense of responsibility
Adaptability
Migration, Education & Family
Left-behind Children Movie
Book�recommendation
Caption
Hukou Reform in the context�of education >
The hukou system has historically created significant barriers for rural migrants and their children to access urban public services, including education. By easing these restrictions (1998 Urban-father, Rural-mother + 2014 urban schools for migrant children), the Chinese government has taken steps to promote greater educational equity and reduce the disparities between rural and urban residents.
1. Easier enrollment in urban schools via temporary residence permits, which grant children access to local
schools in their place of residence.
2. Reduced financial burden on migrant families.
Despite the progress made through relaxing hukou restrictions, challenges still remain in achieving full educational equity in China…
Article to explore on this: Guo, Y., & Zhao, L. (2019). The impact of Chinese hukou reforms on migrant students’ cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 101, 341–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.04.017
Migration, Education & Family
Other policies and initiatives,�examples >
Compulsory Education Law. Established in 1986, the Compulsory Education Law mandates that all children receive nine years of free and compulsory education, including six years of primary school and three years of junior high school.
Rural Education Action Plan (REAP). Launched in 2003, REAP is a comprehensive policy initiative aimed at improving education in rural areas by focusing on various aspects, including infrastructure development, teacher training, curriculum reform, and financial support for students.
Nutritional Improvement Plan for Rural Compulsory Education. Implemented in 2011, this policy aims to improve the nutritional status of rural students by providing free, nutritious meals at schools. The program targets students in poverty-stricken areas to ensure they receive adequate nutrition, which is essential for their overall development and academic performance.
Migration, Education & Family
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School Mergers and Boarding Schools. To address the issue of under-resourced and under-enrolled rural schools, the Chinese government has promoted the merging of smaller schools into larger, more centralized schools with better resources and infrastructure. This policy also includes the establishment of boarding schools to accommodate students from remote areas.
Teacher Recruitment and Training Programs. The Chinese government has implemented several programs to recruit and train qualified teachers for rural schools, including the Free Teacher Education Program, Teach for China, and the Rural Teacher Support Program.
Distance Education and Information Technology. The Chinese government has invested in distance education programs and information technology infrastructure to improve the quality of education in rural areas.
Migration, Education & Family
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Other policies, examples >
New Rural Cooperative Medical System (NRCMS)
one of the essential systems for ensuring public health in rural China. The NRCMS is a basic health social security system, started in 2003, that combines insurance and social assistance, and targets all farmers and rural residents. This system is one of the key elements of the social protection floor in China.
Rural Revitalization Strategy
launched in 2018, the Rural Revitalization Strategy aims to promote the comprehensive development of rural areas by addressing issues such as poverty, infrastructure, public services, and ecological conservation. Rural revitalization strategy aims at achieving industrial development, environmental-friendly living, civilized culture, effective governance, and abundant life for the rural sector. These five aspects are integrated, with underlying logical links.
Migration, Education & Family
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School disparities
Infrastructure and facilities
Teacher quality and training
Curriculum and extracurricular activities
Educational resources
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Migration, Education & Family
Disparities even in urban areas?
Example of The Haidian Mothers
The Haidian District (海淀区) in Beijing is often associated with highly educated and ambitious parents, including the "chicken baby mothers." Haidian District is known for its prestigious educational institutions, research centers, and technology companies. It is home to many top universities, such as Peking University and Tsinghua University, as well as renowned primary and secondary schools. This concentration of educational resources and the competitive environment in the area have contributed to the prevalence of the "chicken blood parenting" phenomenon.
Migration, Education & Family
Conclusions
We must first acknowledge and admit that the problem exists, but it is important to approach this issue in China from a holistic perspective, recognizing that the scale of the problem may be more pronounced in China due to its vast size. However, this does not imply that other nations are immune to similar challenges.
When assessing policies and initiatives, it is crucial to again adopt a holistic approach, considering not only education-specific policies but also those related to other factors, for example, such as healthcare, access to medical benefits, and social welfare in rural areas. These interconnected elements play a significant role in shaping the overall well-being and development of rural communities.
Lastly, we should consider how we can contribute to addressing these challenges, both on an institutional and individual level.
Migration, Education & Family
References & articles to explore
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375135820_Segmented_assimilation_of_migrant_children_in_urban_pu
blic_schools_of_China_Impact_of_family_resources_and_school_segregation_on_their_educational_aspirations?_t
p=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InNlYXJjaCIsInBhZ2UiOiJzZWFyY2giLCJwb3NpdGlvbiI6InBhZ2VIZWFkZ
XIifX0
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369981913_Understanding_the_Resilience_of_
Educational_Disparities_for_Migrant_Children_in_Urban_China_in_the_Context_of_Huk ou_Reform
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372795989_A_Study_of_the_Impact_of_China's_Hukou_Policy_on_Stud
ents-_Based_on_the_Perspective_of_Their_Parents
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248698801_Is_China_Abolishing_the_Hukou_System?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh
0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InNlYXJjaCIsInBhZ2UiOiJzZWFyY2giLCJwb3NpdGlvbiI6InBhZ2VIZWFkZXIifX0
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46559760_Educational_Inequality_under_China's_Rural-Urban_Divide_
The_Hukou_System_and_Return_to_Education?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InNlYXJjaCIsInBhZ2Ui
OiJzZWFyY2giLCJwb3NpdGlvbiI6InBhZ2VIZWFkZXIifX0
https://www.unicef.org/media/152106/file/China-2023-COAR.pdf
https://www.pressreader.com/china/shanghai-daily/20181115/281621011366293
Available in HKU Library:
This one is new! And available online, it’s very useful if you prepare presentations or essays on this topic: Chen, Xiaojin. China’s Left-behind Children : Caretaking, Parenting, and Struggles. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2024. Print.
Hu, Feng, Zhaoyuan Xu, and Yuyu Chen. “Circular Migration, or Permanent Stay? Evidence from China’s Rural–Urban Migration.” China economic review 22.1 (2011): 64–74. Web.
Zhang, Mei. China’s Poor Regions : Rural-Urban Migration, Poverty, Economic Reform, and Urbanisation. London ; RoutledgeCurzon, 2003. Print.
If you are generally interested in the worldwide migration trends: McAuliffe, M. and L.A. Oucho (eds.), 2024. World Migration Report 2024. International Organization for Migration (IOM), Geneva, use this link to download (can also be downloaded in Chinese): https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2024
Migration, Education & Family
THANK YOU