Module Nine: From Cave Paintings to Selfies

The History of Culture

Neolithic Culture

• The Neolithic culture was a period in human history from around 10,000 BCE to 4,500 BCE that marked the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and domestication of animals.
• Positives of the Neolithic culture include:
• Development of agriculture, which allowed humans to settle in one place and create permanent settlements, support larger populations, and develop specialized labor, leading to the creation of new technologies and the rise of civilizations.
• Development of pottery, which allowed for storage, cooking, and transportation, and weaving and textiles, which allowed for the creation of clothing and other materials.
• Negatives of the Neolithic culture include:
• The development of social hierarchies and inequalities as a result of the need for organization and control in larger populations and civilizations.
• Environmental impacts such as deforestation, habitat destruction, soil erosion, and desertification due to clearing forests, using irrigation systems, and depleting natural resources.
• The Neolithic culture laid the foundation for the development of modern civilization and is important to study to understand the origins of human society and culture and the environmental and social impacts of human development.

Stonehenge

• Stonehenge is an ancient monument located in Wiltshire, England, dating back to the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, approximately between 3000 and 2000 BCE.
• Stonehenge's positive aspects include its architectural and engineering significance, its alignment with celestial bodies, and its cultural and historical context
• Stonehenge's construction required significant labor and resources, indicating a strong social organization and shared cultural values among the people who built it.
• Stonehenge reflects significant changes in human civilization, including the emergence of agriculture, metalworking, and settled societies.
• Stonehenge's negative aspects include its appropriation and romanticization in modern culture, and its damage and modification over time.
• Stonehenge has been subject to various forms of damage and alteration over the centuries, including the removal of some of its stones, nearby construction, and recent development.
• Despite these criticisms, it is important to study Stonehenge today to understand human cultural and technological achievements, and to gain insights into the social, religious, and astronomical practices of early human society.
• Stonehenge serves as a reminder of the ingenuity and creativity of our early ancestors, offering ongoing opportunities for research and exploration.

The Pyramids of Giza

• The Pyramids of Giza were built in 2560 BCE and are enduring symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization.
• Positive impacts include establishing the power and prestige of the pharaohs who commissioned them and influencing ancient Egyptian religion and culture.
• Negative impacts include the forced labor of ordinary people, and the diversion of resources away from other important projects and needs within ancient Egyptian society.
• Despite the negatives, the Pyramids of Giza continue to be studied and revered for their historical and cultural significance, as well as for their enduring legacy of human creativity and engineering.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

• Positives:
• One of the seven wonders of the ancient world, symbolizing the wealth and power of the Babylonian Empire.
• A tourist attraction and source of inspiration for artists, writers, and poets.
• A marvel of engineering and architecture, showcasing the advanced knowledge of the Babylonians in irrigation and hydraulics.
• Negatives:
• The construction of the gardens required a massive amount of resources that may have contributed to the depletion of resources in the region.
• The Hanging Gardens represented the power and wealth of the Babylonian Empire, which was built on the exploitation of other peoples and civilizations.
• Importance:
• The Hanging Gardens are a remarkable achievement in engineering and architecture, demonstrating the advanced knowledge of the Babylonians in irrigation and hydraulics.
• The gardens were a symbol of the power and wealth of the Babylonian Empire, which had a significant impact on world history.
• The Hanging Gardens continue to inspire and fascinate people today, and they remain an important symbol of the achievements of ancient civilizations.

The Acropolis of Athens

• The Acropolis of Athens was a symbol of Athens' power, wealth, and cultural achievements in the 5th century BCE.
• The Parthenon, a temple to the goddess Athena, was built on the Acropolis between 447 and 432 BCE and overseen by the Athenian statesman Pericles to promote Athenian democracy and cultural achievements.
• The Acropolis played a positive role in the development of Athenian democracy and Greek art and architecture.
• The construction of the Acropolis was funded by the Delian League, leading to accusations of Athens exploiting its allies, contributing to the downfall of Athenian democracy.
• The construction of the Acropolis required the labor of thousands of workers, most of whom were slaves or prisoners of war, perpetuating social and economic inequality in Athenian society.
• The study of the Acropolis is important in understanding the role of architecture and culture in shaping ancient societies' political and social structures.
• Despite the negative aspects, the Acropolis remains an important symbol of Greek culture and history that continues to inspire scholars and artists to this day.

Petra

• Petra is an ancient city located in modern-day Jordan
• It was an important center of trade and commerce during the 4th century BCE
• The 4th century BCE was marked by the rise of the Hellenistic era, the conquests of Alexander the Great, and the spread of Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean world
• Petra was located at the crossroads of several important trade routes, making it a hub of commerce and a center of cultural exchange
• The Nabataeans, who controlled Petra during this period, were skilled merchants who facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas across the region
• The Nabataeans established a network of trading posts, caravanserais, and wells along the trade routes to control the flow of goods and protect travelers
• The Nabataeans were skilled builders and craftsmen who created elaborate tombs, temples, theaters, and other structures carved into the sandstone cliffs
• The structures were decorated with intricate carvings, frescoes, and sculptures that reflected a fusion of local and Hellenistic styles
• The Nabataean rulers exploited the local population by imposing heavy taxes on the local farmers and employing slave labor
• Petra was vulnerable to outside forces and was conquered by the Seleucids in 312 BCE, the Ptolemies in 260 BCE, and the Romans in 106 CE
• Petra is an important part of world history and sheds light on the economic, social, cultural, and political dynamics of the ancient world
• Studying Petra is relevant to contemporary issues such as globalization, imperialism, and human rights

The Parthenon

• The Parthenon, a temple dedicated to Athena, was completed in 438 BCE on the Acropolis of Athens.
• The Parthenon's architectural beauty and influence on subsequent Western architecture is considered a masterpiece of ancient Greek architecture.
• The temple served as a symbol of Athenian power and prestige, demonstrating the city's wealth, artistic and intellectual achievements, and devotion to the gods.
• The construction of the Parthenon required the use of slave labor and the diversion of resources from other important civic projects, which had negative consequences.
• The removal of several of the Parthenon's sculptures, including the Elgin Marbles, by Lord Elgin in the 19th century has been a source of controversy between Greece and Britain.
• Despite the controversies and negative aspects, the Parthenon remains a vital piece of world history that provides valuable insights into ancient Greek culture, mythology, and the enduring power of cultural symbols.

The Great Wall of China

• Positives:
• Symbol of China's ancient civilization and architectural achievements
• Significant defense mechanism against nomadic tribes
• Source of employment and stimulated the economy
• Facilitated cultural and economic exchanges with neighboring states
• Negatives:
• High cost of resources, limited investment in other areas
• Widespread environmental damage
• Associated with forced labor, slavery, and human rights violations
• Historical Examples:
• Walls built by the state of Qi and Wei during the Warring States Period
• Qin Shi Huang's construction of the Great Wall of China in 221 BCE
• Great Wall further extended during the Han and Ming dynasties
• Importance Today:
• Represents China's ancient civilization and national identity
• Provides insight into Chinese history, society, and culture
• Highlights importance of balancing economic development with environmental conservation and social justice..

The Colosseum

• The Colosseum was a grand structure built in 80 CE in Rome, Italy, during the reign of Emperor Titus.
• It was primarily used for gladiatorial contests, animal hunts, and other public spectacles that drew massive crowds.
• The Colosseum created jobs for people of all social classes, including slaves, gladiators, and animal trainers.
• The construction of the Colosseum stimulated the economy, as materials such as marble, stone, and wood were sourced from all over the empire.
• The Colosseum was a significant source of revenue for the Roman government.
• The use of the arena for gladiatorial contests and animal hunts was a negative aspect of the Colosseum.
• These events were cruel and violent, with gladiators often fighting to the death and animals being forced to battle each other or human combatants.
• The Colosseum was also used for public executions, which were often brutal and intended to serve as a warning to others.
• The Colosseum provides a window into ancient Roman culture and society.
• The Colosseum is significant because it represents the engineering and architectural achievements of the Roman Empire.
• The Colosseum is still important to study today because it provides insight into ancient Roman culture and society and represents the engineering and architectural achievements of the Roman Empire.

The Pyramids of Teotihuacan

• The Pyramids of Teotihuacan were built around 100 CE in central Mexico and are considered to be one of the most significant architectural achievements in pre-Columbian America.
• Teotihuacan was one of the largest cities in the world at its peak, and its pyramids remain a testament to the power and influence of its ancient civilization.
• The pyramid complex at Teotihuacan includes several structures, including the Pyramid of the Sun, the Pyramid of the Moon, and the Temple of the Feathered Serpent.
• The Pyramids of Teotihuacan were built by a civilization that had a profound impact on the development of Mesoamerican culture.
• Teotihuacan was a center of trade, religion, and political power, and its influence extended throughout the region.
• Despite the positive impact that the Pyramids of Teotihuacan had on the development of Mesoamerican civilization, there were also negative aspects to their construction.
• The labor required to build the pyramids was immense, and it is estimated that tens of thousands of people were forced to work on their construction.
• Today, the Pyramids of Teotihuacan remain an important cultural and historical site, attracting visitors from around the world.
• The study of the pyramids is important for understanding the history of the region and the development of human civilization.
• By examining the construction of the pyramids, researchers can gain insights into the technological capabilities of ancient civilizations, as well as their social, political, and economic systems.

Hagia Sophia

• Positives:
• Hagia Sophia is an architectural masterpiece that demonstrated the Byzantine Empire's power, wealth, and prestige.
• It was designed by two Greek scientists who combined their expertise in engineering, mathematics, and physics to create a dome that appeared to defy gravity.
• Hagia Sophia served as the primary cathedral of the Byzantine Empire for over 900 years, and was a place of worship, education, and culture.
• It was the site of many important religious events, including the coronation of emperors and the excommunication of heretics.
• The cathedral's grandeur symbolized the Byzantine Empire's dominance over the rest of the world.
• Negatives:
• The construction of Hagia Sophia reportedly drained the Byzantine Empire's treasury, leading to higher taxes and reduced spending on other essential services.
• The building of Hagia Sophia is said to have resulted in the deaths of many workers.
• Throughout its history, Hagia Sophia was a site of conflict between various religious factions, including the Great Schism and the Iconoclasm controversy.
• Importance of Studying Hagia Sophia Today:
• It provides valuable insights into the art, architecture, and culture of the Byzantine Empire.
• It is an essential landmark in the history of Christianity, serving as a symbol of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine Empire's role in the development of Christianity.
• It highlights the importance of religious tolerance and dialogue.
• Its history serves as a warning against the destruction of historical landmarks and the importance of preserving cultural heritage.
• The controversy over the conversion of Hagia Sophia back into a mosque in 2020 highlights its ongoing significance and relevance in today's world.

Canterbury Cathedral

• Canterbury Cathedral was completed in 1070 CE and has had a significant impact on the cultural, religious, and political landscape of England and beyond.
• The Cathedral is a fine example of Romanesque architecture and showcases the importance of art and architecture in the medieval world.
• Canterbury Cathedral is historically significant as the site of Thomas Becket's murder in 1170, which highlighted tensions between the Church and Crown in England.
• The Cathedral was funded by Archbishop Lanfranc, who used it to solidify his power and influence in England, and its construction involved the forced labor of local peasants.
• Studying Canterbury Cathedral provides insight into the social and economic structures of medieval England and the exploitation of the local population.
• Despite its negatives, the Cathedral's importance in shaping English and European history cannot be denied, and its legacy continues to this day.

Tower of London

• The Tower of London was constructed in 1078 CE by William the Conqueror.
• The Tower served as a symbol of royal power and prestige and played a pivotal role in English history.
• The Tower has been a royal palace, a fortress, and a prison throughout its history.
• The Tower played a crucial role in the defense of England, protecting the city of London from invaders.
• The Tower has a dark history of imprisonment and torture, with many famous individuals being executed there.
• Despite its negative history, the Tower of London remains an essential part of England's heritage.
• Today, the Tower is a popular tourist destination, attracting millions of visitors each year.
• The Tower's historical importance and its role in English and world history make it a fascinating subject of study.

Mont Saint-Michel

• Mont Saint-Michel is a famous abbey and monastery located off the coast of Normandy, France, constructed in the 1100s CE.
• The abbey played a significant role in world history, both in positive and negative ways.
• Positives: it influenced the spread of Christianity throughout Europe, became a major pilgrimage site and center of learning, preserved and spread knowledge during the Middle Ages, and was an important military stronghold.
• Negatives: it was involved in a power struggle between the king and the abbey's religious leaders that resulted in a long and bloody conflict known as the "War of the Breton Succession" and played a role in the persecution of the Knights Templar, a Catholic military order accused of heresy and witchcraft.
• Mont Saint-Michel remains an important site of historical and cultural significance and a popular tourist destination.
• Its architecture and history serve as a testament to the ingenuity and creativity of human beings throughout history, and its role in the preservation and spread of knowledge during the Middle Ages continues to inspire scholars and intellectuals to this day.
• Studying the abbey's history and impact can help us gain a better understanding of our shared cultural heritage and the forces that have shaped our world.

Notre-Dame Cathedral

• The Notre-Dame Cathedral was built from 1163 to 1345 CE and is located in Paris, France.
• Positives of the cathedral's history include its architectural design in the Gothic style, which has influenced many other buildings, and its cultural significance as a site for important religious ceremonies and a symbol of French pride and culture.
• Negatives of the cathedral's history include its use as a symbol of power and wealth during a period of social and economic inequality in France and the damage it has suffered over time, including a devastating fire in 2019.
• Despite its complex history, the Notre-Dame Cathedral remains an essential monument to study because it has had a significant impact on world history and continues to inspire artists and architects around the world.
• By studying the cathedral, we can better understand the history of France and the Gothic style of architecture, as well as the ways in which symbols of power and wealth have been used throughout history.

Krak des Chevaliers

• Positives:
• Krak des Chevaliers served as a military stronghold for the Knights Hospitaller during the Crusader era
• The castle's impressive fortifications made it nearly impregnable and it withstood multiple sieges
• Its architectural significance has influenced later military structures around the world
• The castle's impressive architecture and strategic location have made it a popular tourist attraction and a subject of study for architects, historians, and archaeologists
• Negatives:
• Krak des Chevaliers was part of the larger Crusader movement, resulting in centuries of violence, bloodshed, and persecution of religious minorities
• During the 1271 CE siege by Mamluk forces, defenders of the castle reportedly killed Muslim prisoners and civilians in an attempt to conserve resources
• Importance today:
• A testament to the ingenuity and skill of medieval engineers and architects
• Serves as a reminder of the violence and conflict that characterized the medieval period and the complex relationship between Christianity and Islam
• A symbol of medieval military and architectural prowess
• A warning of the dangers of religious conflict and the need for religious tolerance and understanding in the modern world.

Leaning Tower of Pisa

• Positives:
• Architectural and engineering excellence
• Cultural significance
• Symbol of Italy
• Popular tourist attraction
• Featured in art, literature, and pop culture
• Negatives:
• Danger posed to visitors and local community
• Association with war and conflict
• Used as an observation post during WWII
• Nearly destroyed by Allied bombing in 1944
• Required massive restoration project to stabilize
• Importance of studying:
• Insight into medieval architecture and engineering
• Highlight importance of careful planning and construction
• Understanding cultural significance of historical landmarks
• Reminder of the devastating impact of war on cultural heritage
• Lessons for present and future generations on preserving cultural heritage

Westminster Abbey

• Positives of Westminster Abbey:
• Symbol of British monarchy and Christianity
• Site of numerous coronations and royal weddings
• Final resting place for notable figures
• Significant place of pilgrimage for Christians worldwide
• Site of daily religious services and events
• Negatives of Westminster Abbey:
• Controversies surrounding its construction, including forced evictions
• Association with British imperialism and colonization
• Criticism for representing a narrow and exclusionary worldview
• Backlash over decisions to reject memorials for victims of historical events
• Importance of studying Westminster Abbey:
• Provides insight into the evolution of British monarchy, Christianity, and Gothic architecture
• Helps to understand the relationship between religion, power, and culture in shaping historical events
• Encourages critical examination of the past and present
• Recognizes the importance of diverse perspectives in shaping our understanding of history.

Alhambra

• The Alhambra was constructed during 1238-1358 CE in Granada, Spain and is a palace complex that served as the residence for the Nasrid dynasty, the last Muslim rulers in Spain.
• The Alhambra's architecture represents a fusion of Islamic, Spanish, and Moorish styles and features intricate carvings, geometric patterns, and archways that influenced art and architecture in the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, and the Middle East for centuries to come.
• The Alhambra played a vital role in Islamic culture and religion, serving as the site of the Great Mosque of Granada and patronizing scholars, poets, and artists who produced works celebrating Islamic culture and traditions.
• The complex was also home to lush gardens, fountains, and courtyards that embody the Islamic concept of paradise on earth.
• The Alhambra's political history was marked by continuous conflict with neighboring Christian kingdoms, with the complex serving as the site of numerous battles, sieges, and diplomatic negotiations that shaped the history of Spain.
• The Treaty of Granada, signed in 1491 between the Catholic Monarchs of Spain and the Nasrid dynasty, granted religious freedom to Muslims, Jews, and other non-Christian religions, paving the way for the eventual unification of Spain under the Catholic Monarchs and ensuring the protection of religious minorities in Spain.
• The Alhambra's significance lies in its unique architecture, cultural and religious importance, and political history, offering valuable insights into the complex interplay between religion, culture, and politics in medieval Europe.
• The Alhambra's legacy continues to influence art, architecture, and design to this day, making it an essential site for study.

Machu Picchu

• Impressive architecture and engineering, featuring over 200 structures, including palaces, temples, and residential buildings.
• Designed to be self-sufficient, with agricultural terraces and sophisticated water management systems.
• Inca people's knowledge of hydraulic engineering created a network of aqueducts and canals that provided water to the city's inhabitants.
• A testament to the Inca civilization's cultural and artistic achievements, with intricate stone carvings and designs on the walls and buildings.
• Location nestled in the Andes mountains speaks to the Inca's connection to nature and the spiritual significance they attached to the mountains.
• Negatives of Machu Picchu:
• Construction involved the forced labor of thousands of Inca people, likely relying heavily on compulsory labor called mita.
• Arrival of Europeans in the 16th century spelled disaster for the Inca civilization, including Machu Picchu, which was conquered and destroyed by Spanish conquistadors.
• Importance of Studying Machu Picchu:
• Offers valuable insight into the Inca civilization's engineering, architecture, and culture, showcasing the Inca people's ingenuity and their connection to nature.
• Provides a glimpse into the impact of European colonization on indigenous civilizations in the Americas, including the destruction and abandonment of Machu Picchu.
• Status as a UNESCO World Heritage site and one of the New Seven Wonders of the World highlights its cultural and historical significance.
• By studying Machu Picchu, we can gain a greater appreciation for the diverse cultures and achievements of our world's past.

WORK CITED

• National Geographic. 2022. "Machu Picchu." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/machu-picchu/.
• UNESCO. 2022. "Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/274/.
• History.com Editors. 2019. "Machu Picchu." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.history.com/topics/south-america/machu-picchu.
• Ancient History Encyclopedia. 2022. "Machu Picchu." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.ancient.eu/Machu_Picchu/.
• Bingham, Hiram. 1913. "In the Wonderland of Peru." National Geographic Magazine 24 (5): 447-570.
• UNESCO. "The Alhambra: A Fortress, a Palace, and a World Heritage Site." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/314/.
• National Geographic. "The Alhambra: An Architectural Marvel of the Nasrid Dynasty." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/the-alhambra-granada/.
• Smithsonian Magazine. "The Alhambra: A Palace-Fortress and a Legacy of Islamic Spain." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/alhambra-palace-fortress-legacy-islamic-spain-180976246/.

WORK CITED

• UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Leaning Tower of Pisa." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/395/.
• Pisa Museums. "Leaning Tower of Pisa - History." Accessed February 28, 2023. pisamusei.it/en/leaning-tower-pisa/history.
• Opera della Primaziale Pisana. "Leaning Tower of Pisa - Visit the Tower." Accessed February 28, 2023. opapisa.it/en/tower-of-pisa/visit-the-tower/.
• UNESCO. "Crac des Chevaliers and Qal'at Salah El-Din." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1229/.
• Kennedy, Hugh. 1994. Crusader Castles. Cambridge University Press.
• Nicholson, Helen J. 2001. The Knights Hospitaller. Boydell Press.
• Smith, Colin. 2017. "The History and Architecture of the Krak des Chevaliers." The Art Newspaper, October 6. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/review/history-architecture-krak-des-chevaliers.
• Tyerman, Christopher. 2006. God's War: A New History of the Crusades. Belknap Press.
• UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Notre-Dame Cathedral." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/600/
• The Louvre Museum. "Notre-Dame Cathedral: 800 Years of History." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.louvre.fr/en/notre-dame-cathedral-800-years-history.
• News. "Notre-Dame Cathedral: A Symbol of France and Its Resilience." Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-47942721.

WORK CITED

• UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Mont Saint Michel Abbey." Accessed February 28,
• "The Acropolis of Athens." UNESCO World Heritage Centre, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404/.
• "Acropolis of Athens." The British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/galleries/greece-and-rome/parthenon-sculptures.
• "The Acropolis of Athens." The Acropolis Museum, https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en.
• "The Great Wall." UNESCO World Heritage Centre, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/438/.
• "The Great Wall of China." China Highlights, https://www.chinahighlights.com/greatwall/.
• "The Great Wall of China." History.com, https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/great-wall-of-china.
• "Stonehenge." UNESCO World Heritage Centre, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/373/.

WORK CITED

• "Stonehenge." English Heritage, https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/.
• "Stonehenge." National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/stonehenge/.
• "The Roman Colosseum." UNESCO World Heritage Centre, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/72/.
• "The Colosseum." The Roman Guy, https://theromanguy.com/italy-travel-guide/colosseum/.
• "The Colosseum." History.com, https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/colosseum.
• "The Great Pyramid of Giza." UNESCO World Heritage Centre, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/86/.
• "The Great Pyramid of Giza." National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/the-great-pyramid-of-giza/.
• "The Great Pyramid of Giza." History.com, https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/pyramids.