Theory of Argumentation

Tu quoque

Strawman argumentation

Demagoguery

Logos, Pathos og Ethos

False syllogism

Godwin’s law

Ad hominem

Analogical argument

Slippery slope argument

What is fake news?

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How is fake news used as a method of ”argumentation”?

“John McCain (Republican) … commented that Trump's use of the phrase "fake news" is "being used by autocrats to silence reporters, undermine political opponents, stave off media scrutiny, and mislead citizens"

• There might be life on Europa because it has an atmosphere that contains oxygen just like the Earth.

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• The universe is a complex system like a watch. We wouldn't think that a watch can come about by accident. Something so complicated must have been created by someone. The universe is a lot more complicated, so it must have been created by a being who is a lot more intelligent.

Analogical argument

To give an analogy is to claim that two distinct things are alike or similar in some respect:

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• Capitalists are like vampires.

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• Like the Earth, Europa has an atmosphere containing oxygen.

The analogies above are not arguments. But analogies are often used in arguments. To argue by analogy is to argue that because two things are similar, what is true of one is also true of the other.

Premise 1: Everyone who has a record deal will some day make his/her last record.�

Premise 2: Kim Larsen has a record deal.�

Conclusion: One day Kim Larsen will make his last record.

Make a syllogism from the following:

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Because Lars has lived in France for many years, he can speak French.

Logical conclusion (syllogism)

False syllogism

Premise 1: Only talented songwriters (false premise) get a record deal.�

Premise 2: Hanne Hansen has gotten a record deal.�

Conclusion: Hanne Hansen is a talented songwriter.

False syllogism

Fox News: Trish Reagan on Denmark

Spot the analogical argument!

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Spot the false syllogism!

1.

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Claim: Everyone in Denmark is working for the government (and, paradoxically, noone wants to work!)

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P1: If you pay 56% taxes, you’re basically working for the government.

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P2: Danish people pay 56% taxes.

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2.

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Claim: Less than half of all Danes are working!

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Explanation: The receiver is driven to the wrong conclusion because Reagan includes the entire population (children, sick, elderly etc.).

4.

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Claim: No one finishes school!

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P1: If you get paid to take an education, you will have no reason to finish school.

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P2: Danish people are paid to take an education.

3.

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Claim: People don’t have higher ambitions than to create cup-cake factories!

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P1: With high taxes and everything provided by the government, you will have no motivation to do anything.

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P2: Danish people pay high taxes and get everything they need from the government.

Strawman: A strawman is a fallacious argument that distorts an opposing stance in order to make it easier to attack. Essentially, the person using the strawman pretends to attack their opponent’s stance, while in reality they are actually attacking a distorted version of that stance, which their opponent doesn’t necessarily support. 

S om EU-retsforbehold: ”Når vi skal stemme 3. december, stemmer vi samtidig om en fortsat politiindsats mod pædofile og andre børnemisbrugere” (2015)

Strawman

Demagoguery

Relates to pathos.

“Demagoguery is a manipulative approach — often associated with dictators and sleazy politicians — that appeals to the worst nature of people. Demagoguery isn't based on reason, issues, and doing the right thing; it's based on stirring up fear and hatred to control people” (https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/demagoguery)

Mike Godwin, 1990, regarding discussions on the Internet "As a … discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Nazis or Hitler approaches 1."

”Det er en parallel til Nazityskland. De, der indfører rygeforbud, vil jeg kalde sundheds-fascister. Det er ikke et forsvar for rygning. Det drejer sig om at forsvare friheden i det her land«, siger Kim Larsen i telefonen”

“Godwin has argued that overuse of the Nazi comparison should be avoided as it waters down the impact of any valid usage”

Kim Larsen regarding smoking prohibition (2008):

Godwin’s Law

Tu Quoque (appeal to hypocracy)

”But you did it too!”

Description: When a relatively insignificant first event is suggested to lead to a more significant event, which in turn leads to a more significant event, and so on, until some ultimate, significant event is reached, where the connection of each event is not only unwarranted but with each step it becomes more and more improbable.  Many events are usually present in this fallacy, but only two are actually required -- usually connected by “the next thing you know...”

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Logical Form: If A, then B, then C, ... then ultimately Z!

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https://www.logicallyfallacious.com/tools/lp/Bo/LogicalFallacies/162/Slippery-Slope

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Slippery Slope Argumentation

Example #1:

We cannot unlock our child from the closet because if we do, she will want to roam the house.  If we let her roam the house, she will want to roam the neighborhood.  If she roams the neighborhood, she will get picked up by a stranger in a van, who will sell her in a sex slavery ring in some other country.  Therefore, we should keep her locked up in the closet.

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Slippery Slope Argumentation

Explanation: 

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1. In this example, it starts out with reasonable effects to the causes.  For example, yes, if the child is allowed to go free in her room, she would most likely want to roam the house -- 95% probability estimate. 

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• Sure, if she roams the house, she will probably want the freedom of going outside, but not necessarily “roaming the neighborhood”, but let’s give that a probability of say 10%. 

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• Now we start to get very improbable.  The chances of her getting picked up by a stranger (.05%) in a van (35%) to sell her into sex slavery (.07%) in another country (40%) is next to nothing when you do all the math:

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95 x .10 x .0005 x .35 x .0007 x .4 = about 1 in 25,000,000.

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Morality and legality aside, is it really worth it to keep a child locked in a closet based on those odds?

Medical Marijuana

Conservation (efficient use of ressources)

Physician-Assisted suicide

Slippery Slope Guy!

A group of government-funded hippies has stormed your house and forced your infant to mainline a speedball (take drugs)!

Jack-booted (oppressive fascists) community thugs are forcing you to commute to work on a plankton powered moped!

Your perfectly healthy 13-year-old goes in for his … physical (examination) and the doctor snuffs his life out with a pillow!

Assignment:

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Spend 10 minutes on making 2 examples of slippery slope argumentation!

Ethos, Logos & Pathos

• Ethos is an appeal to ethics, and it is a means of convincing someone of the character or credibility of the persuader.

• Pathos is an appeal to emotion, and is a way of convincing an audience of an argument by creating an emotional response.

• Logos is an appeal to logic, and is a way of persuading an audience by reason.

Fit the text with the correct form of appeal!

• "You know me – I’ve taught Sunday School at your church for years, babysat your children, and served as a playground director for many summers."

• "There’s no price that can be placed on peace of mind. Our advanced security systems will protect the well-being of your family so that you can sleep soundly at night."

Ethos

Pathos

• "In 25 years of driving the same route, I haven’t seen a single deer.“

Logos

• "Research compiled by analysts from NASA, as well as organizations from five other nations with space programs, suggests that a moon colony is viable with international support."

Logos

• "They’ve worked against everything we’ve worked so hard to build, and they don’t care who gets hurt in the process. Make no mistake, they’re the enemy, and they won’t stop until we’re all destroyed."

Pathos

• "My three decades of experience in public service, my tireless commitment to the people of this community, and my willingness to reach across the aisle and cooperate with the opposition, make me the ideal candidate for your mayor."

Ethos

Discuss with each other

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Someone makes a summary of the discussion

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You analyze the discussion (what types of arguments have been used)?

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