Application Of �Biotechnology (GENE THERAPY)

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By:

Sumit Sharma

Assistant professor in Biotechnology

GENE THERAPY

• Gene therapy is a medical approach that treats or prevents disease by correcting the underlying genetic problem. Gene therapy techniques allow doctors to treat a disorder by altering a person’s genetic makeup instead of using drugs or surgery.
• The earliest method of gene therapy, often called gene transfer or gene addition, was developed to:
• Introduce a new gene into cells to help fight a disease.
• Introduce a non-faulty copy of a gene to stand in for the altered copy causing disease

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GENE COUNSELLING

• Interpretation of family and medical histories to assess the chance of disease occurrence or recurrence.�Education about the natural history of the condition, inheritance pattern, testing, management, prevention, support resources and research.�Counselling to promote informed choices in view of risk assessment, family goals, ethical and religious values.�Support to encourage the best possible adjustment to the disorder in an affected family member and/or to the risk of recurrence of that disorder.
• Interpretation of family and medical histories to assess the chance of disease occurrence or recurrence.
• Education about inheritance, testing, management, prevention, resources.
• Counseling to promote informed choices, adaptation to the risk or condition and support in reaching out to relatives that are also at risk.

GENE THERAPY : PROS AND CONS

MERITS

1. Provides options. Gene therapy can potentially cure someone of a disease, especially in instances where no other medications have worked.
2. Only has to be given one time. Existing gene therapies are given as a one-time dose. This is appealing compared to some other treatments that require multiple doses.
3. Long-lasting effects. Gene therapy has the potential to get rid of a person’s symptoms for life. Gene therapy can give many people a better quality of life.
4. Positive effects passed down through generations. If you remove a faulty gene from a parent, they won’t transfer this gene to their kids.
5. Rapidly-changing technology. Gene therapy is able to exist because of massive advances in technology over the past few decades. Since technology continues to advance, we can expect gene therapy to continue to improve. We can also expect more gene therapies to gain FDA approval. 

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DEMERITS

• Expensive. Gene therapy can be extremely pricey, making it inaccessible for some people. For example, Zolgensma, a gene therapy to treat spinal muscular atrophy, is the most expensive medication in the U.S. It costs $2.1 million for a course of treatment.
• Experimental. Gene therapy is relatively new and there’s still a lot about it that we don’t know. Right now, there are no guarantees. Exactly how successful gene therapy will be is still uncertain.
• Potentially dangerous. There’s some concern that if gene therapy reaches other cells in the body besides the faulty cell, it could have harmful effects. There’s also concern that reproductive cells could be changed without detection, and these could be passed on to people’s children.
• Ethical issues. Some people have ethical issues with gene therapy. For example, some wonder who will decide what “good” and “bad” uses of gene therapy are? And will gene therapy make us less accepting of people who are different?
• May cause infection. Some gene therapies use inactivated viruses to carry healthy genetic material into a faulty cell in the body. It’s possible that these viruses could infect the person receiving therapy.

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GENE COUSELLING : PROS AND CONS

MERITS

1. Increased understanding�Genetic screening tests can help calculate the likelihood that the fetus might be born with Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease or sickle cell anemia. Genetic counselors are there to effectively communicate this information and help couples understand any potential benefits of preventative measures to individuals and their family members.
2. Better peace of mind�For parents-to-be who are aware of a family history of a particular disease or condition, it can be cathartic to learn that they do not carry the gene.
3. Early intervention�In some cases, genetic testing can uncover a hidden gene mutation that puts you at risk of developing a deadly disease. Our counselors help you understand the cause of this condition and what you can do to prevent it from developing and/or spreading.
4. Appropriate testing�A genetic counselor can help couples determine what tests are most appropriate for your pregnancy. It can be especially important if any standard prenatal screening test yields an abnormal result.
5. Decision-making�Our counselors help you understand testing options, diagnosis and the underlying causes of the genetic disorders, as well as guide you through any decision-making regarding genetic testing or family planning.

DEMRITS

1. Testing may increase your stress and anxiety. Results in some cases may return inconclusive or uncertain. Negative impact on family and personal relationships. You might not be eligible if you do not fit certain criteria required for testing.
2. It also reviews critical issues facing genetic counseling today and for the future. Among these critical issues are nondirectiveness; informed consent; confidentiality; multiplex testing; recognizing social and cultural differences; and the need for a genetically literate public.

AGRICULTURE AND FOOD PRODUCTION

GENTICALLY ENGINEERED FOOD

• Genetically modified foods (GM foods), also known as genetically engineered foods (GE foods), or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering.
•  Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.

HOW GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD ARE OBTAINED?

• GM is a technology that involves inserting DNA into the genome of an organism. To produce a GM plant, new DNA is transferred into plant cells. Usually, the cells are then grown in tissue culture where they develop into plants. The seeds produced by these plants will inherit the new DNA.  
• The characteristics of all living organisms are determined by their genetic makeup and its interaction with the environment. The genetic makeup of an organism is its genome, which in all plants and animals is made of DNA. The genome contains genes, regions of DNA that usually carry the instructions for making proteins. It is these proteins that give the plant its characteristics. For example, the color of flowers is determined by genes that carry the instructions for making proteins involved in producing the pigments that color petals.
• Genetic modification of plants involves adding a specific stretch of DNA into the plant’s genome, giving it new or different characteristics. This could include changing the way the plant grows, or making it resistant to a particular disease. The new DNA becomes part of the GM plant’s genome which the seeds produced by these plants will contain.

ADVANTAGES OF GENTICALLY MODIFIED FOOD

GMOs may have fewer pesticides. Many GMO crops have been altered to be less vulnerable to insects and other pests. For example, Bt-corn is a GMO crop that has a gene added from Bacillus thuringiensis, a naturally occurring soil bacteria. This gene causes the corn to produce a protein that kills many pests and insects, helping to protect the corn from damage

The use of fewer pesticides in crops may lead to fewer health risks for people eating them and less damage to the environment.

GMOs are usually cheaper. GMO crops are bred to grow efficiently – this means that farmers can produce the same amount of food using less land, less water, and fewer pesticides than conventional crops. Because they can save on resources, food producers can also charge lower prices for GMO foods. In some cases, the costs of foods like corn, beets, and soybeans may be cut by 15% to 30%.

GMOs may have more nutrients. Certain GMO crops are designed to provide more nutrients like vitamins or minerals. For example, researchers have been able to create a modified form of African corn that contains: 

1. 2 times as much folate when compared to traditional crops.
2. 6 times as much vitamin C when compared to traditional crops.
3. 169 times more beta-carotene than traditional crops. 
4. This may be especially helpful in regions where people suffer from nutritional deficiencies.

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DISADVANTAGES OF GENTICALLY MODIFIED FOOD

GMO crops can offer many advantages in costs and nutrition, but some experts worry that they carry health risks, as well.

GMOs may cause allergic reactions. Because GMO foods contain DNA from other organisms, it's possible that the new DNA can trigger allergies in people who wouldn't normally be allergic to the food. However, GMO foods go through extensive allergen testing, so they shouldn't necessarily be riskier than conventional crops.

GMOs may increase antibiotic resistance. When GMO scientists insert new DNA into plant cells, they will often add in an additional gene that makes the modified cells resistant to antibiotics. They can then use an antibiotic to kill off any plant cells that didn't successfully take in the new DNA.

However, researchers are finding that these antibiotic-resistant genes don't always go away once you digest GMO foods, but can actually be passed through your feces into sewage systems. Some experts worry that these genes may be absorbed into harmful bacteria found in sewers or your gut that can cause serious illnesses like staph infections. This means that the usual antibiotic treatments would be powerless against these new super-bacteria.

Not all experts agree on this concern, however – some scientists argue that this type of gene transfer is very unlikely and there is little risk to humans.

SEED BANKS

• A seed bank is a place where seeds are stored to preserve genetic diversity for the future. They are usually flood, bomb and radiation-proof vaults holding jars of seeds from different plant species.
• The seeds are typically kept at low humidity and in cold conditions - around -20°C. This helps to preserve the seeds, ensuring they can still grow when they are needed later.
• More than 1,000 seed banks exist around the world, varying in type, size and focus. The largest in the world is the Millennium Seed Bank in Sussex, managed and coordinated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It opened in 2000 and holds seeds from almost 40,000 species around the world, including nearly all the UK’s native trees and plants.

IMPORATANT SEED BANKS

IN INDIA

1. Navdanya is a leading NGO advocating for biodiversity conservation through a large network of seed keepers and organic producers.
2. Annadana Seed and Soil Savers led by Sangita Sharma works toward conserving food plant diversity and support sustainable natural farming.
3. Green Foundation is a community based organization started in 1996, which works on conserving local seed diversity and promoting biodiversity-based ecological agriculture.
4. Deccan Development Society is another NGO involved in conserving agro-biodiversity, which works with voluntary associations to help women and agricultural laborers in Andhra Pradesh.
5. Sahaja Samrudha is an organic farmers’ collective that works for preserving India’s traditional farming practices and the rich biodiversity of its indigenous crop varieties. 

IN WORLD

1. The Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSBP) is located at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom. Its goal is to eventually store and protect more than 24,000 global species of plants.
2. The Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry was established in 1894 in St. Petersburg, Russia, and is the oldest seed bank in the world. Nikolai Vavilov, for whom the institute is named, was a Russian biologist and plant breeder.
3. Berry Botanic Garden (Portland, Ore.): Seeds from endangered plants of the Pacific Northwest
4. International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (Coli, Colombia): Cassava, forages, beans
5. International Potato Center (Lima, Peru): Potatoes
6. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (Ibadan, Nigeria): Groundnut, cowpea, soybean, yam
7. International Rice Research Institute (Los Banos, Philippines): Rice

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ADVANTAGES OF SEED BANKS

• 1. Preservation of Crop Diversity�This is the most important reason for the storage of seeds. Just as human beings and animals are adapted to different conditions for survival, so are crops. Different types of the same species exist due to this adaptive nature. Therefore, it is of critical necessity that such diversity is preserved.
• 2. Protection from Climate Change�For a couple of decades now, the world has witnessed radical climatic change that has been accelerated by increased industrial pollution. Crop extinction is inevitable with such extreme changes. If seeds are stored in seed banks, the danger of total elimination of certain species of crops is eliminated.
• 3. Protection from Natural Disasters�Natural disasters are unforeseen events that could lead to complete annihilation of crops from the face of the earth. The foresight of keeping seeds in a seed bank could save such a situation. Malaysian rice paddies, for example, were wiped out during the 2004 tsunami  and international seed banks provided farmers with seeds that helped them start over.
• 4. Disease Resistance�Crop diseases are highly contagious and very deadly to plants. A serious breakout could completely eliminate crops. Where diseases have ravaged crops and left no traces that farmers could start on, seed banks can intervene and provide them with seeds that will enable them start on a clean slate.
• 5. Provide seed material for research�Seeds that are stored in seed banks can be made easily available to scientists and researchers who wish to study these seeds especially if such research could lead to improvement of crop production.
• 6. Preservation from Man-made Disasters�Man-made disasters such as war and oil spills could lead to the annihilation of crops. Counties that are engaged in war make it difficult for farmers to continue farming and it’s easy for crops to disappear. Once peace is restored, seeds can be retrieved from seed banks and replanted.

DISADVANTAGES OF SEED BANKS

• 1. The periodic evaluation of the viability of the seed and its multiplication has to be done.
• 2. The power failure results in the loss of germplasm.
• 3. Seeds of recalcitrant species are not stored seed banks.
• 4. The genetic variability is lost.

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REFERENCES

• David P. Clark and Nanette J. Pazdernik – Biotechnology – Applying the Genetic Revolution.
• B.D. Singh, Biotechnology The Expanding Horizons.
• Wikipedia.org
• SlideShare.in
• ReaserchesGate.in
• Conserve-energy-future.com
• Insiders.com
• Pharmacy.temple.edu

THANK YOU