ECG222 Child Growth & Development
CHAPTER 9: Family Influence
Chapter Overview
Learning Objectives
Sections
9.1 The Family & Nurturing Children
9.2 Parenting Styles
9.3 Specific Behaviours Influencing Children
9.4 Socioeconomic Status
9.5 Influence of Siblings
9.6 Divorce
9.7 Single-Parent Families
9.8 Blended Families
9.9 Maltreatment of Children
9.1 The Family and Nurturing Children
What is a family, and how does it shape child development?
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.1 The Family — Definition & Role
Definition: The family consists of people related by blood, marriage, or choice — a basic social unit of one or more adults together with the children they care for, regardless of whether they dwell together.
Family Diversity
Single parent + child
Two parents + children
Extended family
(grandparents, relatives)
Blended families
Common Goal: Nurturing children and helping them become full-fledged adult members of their culture.
Social Issues Attributed to Family
School Bullying
Teenage Pregnancy
Childhood Obesity
Academic Performance
9.1 Four Ways Families Positively Nurture Children
1. Social & Cultural Exposure
Parents providing enriching cultural and social experiences during preschool & early elementary school produce children who:
• Perform better on achievement tests
• Are rated more task-oriented by teachers
Recommended: Libraries, museums, zoos, historical sites
2. Providing Stimulation to Learn
Availability of appropriate play materials in the home throughout infancy and toddlerhood positively affects achievement in early elementary school — especially reading.
Key: Manipulatives that develop fine & gross motor skills and sensory experiences
3. Problem-Solving Strategies
Parents who expose preschoolers to problem-solving strategies are more likely to have children who use them.
Mothers using open-ended questions during tasks produce children with greater independent problem-solving performance.
4. Literacy & Language Development
High-achieving children have parents who:
• Read to them frequently
• Help attain phonemic awareness
• Encourage family discussions
Early exposure to story structures, syntax & vocabulary prepares children for classroom learning.
9.2 Parenting Styles
Diana Baumrind's research into how parents impact child development
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.2 Baumrind's Research on Parenting
Background: In the early 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind studied over 100 preschool-age children using naturalistic observation, parental interviews, and other research methods.
4 Key Dimensions of Parenting Identified
Disciplinary
Strategies
Warmth &
Nurturance
Communication
Styles
Expectations of
Maturity & Control
Based on these dimensions, Baumrind (1967) identified 3 parenting styles. A 4th was later added by Maccoby & Martin (1983).
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Uninvolved
Parenting Style 1 — Authoritarian
"Because I said so." — High demands, low responsiveness
Rules & Punishment
Children must follow strict rules. Failure results in punishment. No explanations given.
Obedience-Oriented
Parents expect orders obeyed without question. Status and obedience are top priorities.
Low Responsiveness
High demands but not responsive to children's needs, feelings, or questions.
Communication
One-directional — parents issue directives. Children are not invited to question or discuss.
IMPACT: Children tend to be obedient and proficient, but rank lower in happiness, social competence, and self-esteem.
Parenting Style 2 — Authoritative
Democratic, warm, and firm. — The most effective parenting style
Clear Standards
Sets clear rules and expectations but explains the reasoning behind them.
Responsive & Nurturing
Listens to children's questions. Nurturing and forgiving when expectations aren't met.
Assertive, Not Restrictive
Supportive rather than punitive disciplinary methods. Encourages self-regulation.
Balanced Goals
Wants children to be assertive AND socially responsible, self-regulated AND cooperative.
IMPACT: Children tend to be happy, capable, and successful (Maccoby, 1992).
Parenting Style 3 — Permissive
"You are the boss." — Also called indulgent parenting
Low Demands
Very few demands made of children. Low expectations of maturity and self-control.
Rarely Disciplines
Non-traditional and lenient. Avoids confrontation. Allows considerable self-regulation.
Friend, Not Parent
Often nurturing and communicative, but takes on the role of a friend more than a parent.
No Guidelines
Does not require mature behaviour. Highly responsive but not demanding.
IMPACT: Children rank low in happiness and self-regulation. More likely to have problems with authority and perform poorly in school.
Parenting Style 4 — Uninvolved
Detached and disengaged. — Few demands, low responsiveness, little communication
Few Demands
Sets very few expectations. Little to no structure or guidance provided to children.
Detached
Fulfils basic physical needs but is generally detached from the child's emotional life.
Neglectful (Extreme)
In extreme cases, parents may reject or neglect even the basic needs of their children.
Little Communication
Minimal interaction, engagement, or responsiveness to children's needs.
IMPACT: Ranks lowest across ALL life domains. These children lack self-control, have low self-esteem, and are less competent than their peers.
Parenting Styles — Comparison Summary
Style
Demands
Responsiveness
Communication
Outcome
Authoritarian
High
Low
One-directional
Obedient but unhappy
Authoritative
High
High
Two-directional
Happy, capable, successful
Permissive
Low
High
Two-directional
Low self-regulation
Uninvolved
Low
Low
Minimal
Lowest outcomes
Why Not All Parents Use Authoritative Style? Factors include: culture, personality, family size, parental background, socioeconomic status, education level, and religion.
9.3 Specific Behaviours of Parents
How parental behaviour directly influences children's development
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.3 Three Key Parental Behaviours
01
Direct Instruction
Telling children WHAT to do, WHEN, and most importantly WHY.
❌ 'You should not break Zak's pencil!'
✅ 'Zak is sad because you broke her pencil.'
Explaining consequences builds empathy and understanding of cause-and-effect.
02
Learning by Observing
Children are like mirrors — they reflect both good AND bad behaviours from parents.
Research suggests children begin lying at an early age partly because they are copying their parents.
Parental modelling shapes character.
03
Feedback
Parents signal whether a behaviour should continue or stop.
• Reinforcement (praise, rewards): Increases likelihood of behaviour continuing
• Punishment: Discourages occurrence of a behaviour
Consistent feedback shapes children's conduct.
9.4 Socioeconomic Status & Family
How family income, education, and occupation shape child development
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.4 Socioeconomic Status (SES) — Overview
SES is based on: Family income, parental education level, parental occupation, and social status in the community (group associations, community perception).
LOW SES Families
HIGH SES Families
Often lack financial, social, and educational supports
Limited access to community resources for development
Tend to marry and have children earlier
Tend to have more children
Emphasise external traits: obedience, politeness, neatness
More directive: 'Do that because I told you to'
Physically punish children more often
Spend less time talking with children
Children often arrive at school inadequately prepared
Greater financial, social, and educational supports
Better access to enrichment resources
Tend to have children later in life
Tend to have fewer children
Emphasise psychological traits: curiosity, happiness, self-direction
Talk, read, and provide verbal stimulation
Children develop abstract and subjective thinking
More involved in homework and academic preparation
Children arrive at school better prepared
9.4 The Downside of Affluence
Despite advanced education and greater material wealth, affluent parents often fail to engage in family interaction.
Findings from Luthar & Latendresse (2005) and Luthar & Becker (2002):
Emotional Distance
Children are not emotionally close to their parents despite living in the same home.
Parental Absence
Parents are physically and emotionally unavailable due to demanding work schedules.
Achievement Pressure
Parents make excessive demands for achievement, causing stress and anxiety in children.
Adolescent Risk Behaviour
Adolescents tend to engage in alcohol and drug abuse during secondary school years.
9.5 Influence of Siblings
How brothers and sisters shape children's social and behavioural development
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.5 Sibling Relationships
Positive Sibling Influences
Role models for informal behaviours (school, social settings, peers)
Closer to children's social environments than parents
Support during caretaking when mother is briefly absent
First-borns engage in leadership and teaching roles
Second-borns benefit from learning from older siblings
Sources of emotional support during stressful family situations
Negative Sibling Influences
Exposure to smoking, drinking and delinquent acts from older siblings
Antisocial behaviours modelled by siblings' friend groups
Female teens at higher risk for pregnancy if older sister was sexually active
Sibling conflict associated with poorer adjustment later in life
Childhood sibling conflict related to violent tendencies as adults
Unfair differential treatment by parents worsens sibling relations
9.5 Sibling Conflict & Parental Intervention
Sibling conflicts are frequent, poorly resolved, and can be highly aggressive, violent, or even abusive (Dunn & Munn, 1986).
If Parents DON'T Intervene
• Children may develop their own conflict resolution strategies�• BUT conflicts may become more intense and harmful
When Parents DO Intervene
• Conflicts become less intense�• More constructive resolutions achieved
Best Approach: Mediate and encourage negotiation — but leave the final resolution in the hands of the children.
Birth Order Effects
First-Born
Leadership & teaching roles. Benefits from being oldest but lacks older sibling model.
Second-Born
Imitates and learns. Benefits from having an older sibling model — sometimes leading to precocious development.
9.6 Divorce
Impact of divorce on children's development and well-being
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.6 Divorce Rates & Overview
Divorces are on the rise in most countries. The first year following a divorce is often the most traumatic.
Divorce Rates per 100 Marriages
Malaysia
13%
Germany
44%
Australia
46%
United States
51%
Effects on children: Poor academic performance • Stress • Emotional insecurity • Not universal — children are at greater RISK, not doomed.
9.6 Divorce Rates & Overview
44%
46%
51%
Malaysia Divorce Facts
16,013 divorces in 2002 → 32,776 in 2009 (105% increase)
13% divorce rate (lower than Western nations)
40% of Malaysians divorced within the FIRST 5 YEARS of marriage
26.5% divorced after 6-10 years of marriage
9.6 Causes of Stress for Children of Divorce
Change
Adjusting to new schedules, routines, household responsibilities. May lose contact with friends, extended family (grandparents, cousins).
Loss of Attachment
Uncertainty about contact with parents, siblings, and even pets. Moving away from familiar possessions and home creates distress.
Fear of Abandonment
Fear that having lost one parent, they may lose the other. Self-blame, feeling unlovable, worry about who will care for them.
Parental Hostility
Arguments and tension between parents cause guilt, anger, and confusion. Forcing children to 'take sides' creates loyalty conflicts.
9.6 Why Are Some Children More Affected by Divorce?
Certain factors make some children more at risk for maladjustment following divorce:
Gender
Boys are more at risk than girls. Mothers are awarded custody more often. Absence of the male role-model makes adjustment harder for boys.
Age
Younger children: risk short-term (confusion, loss). Preadolescents & adolescents: higher long-term risk as peer alignment masks feelings initially.
Socioeconomic Status
Standard of living often drops dramatically after divorce. Reduced income means children's needs may go unmet.
Degree of Marital Conflict
The more involved the child is in parental conflict, the more confusion, frustration, anger, and loyalty conflicts experienced.
Pre-divorce Parent Relationship
Positive pre-divorce relationships reduce post-divorce risk. Pre-existing relationship problems likely worsen after divorce.
Parental Co-operation
Parents who can peaceably make decisions about children's welfare greatly reduce adjustment difficulties for their children.
9.7 Single-Parent Families
Challenges, risks, and characteristics of successful single parenting
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.7 Single-Parent Families — Challenges & Research
Following divorce, most children begin living in a single-parent household. Research shows mixed outcomes depending on various factors.
Risks for Children
3× more likely to drop out of high school
Less homework help (parent has less time)
Less consistent discipline
Less parental control
Lower academic achievement
Key Finding
When income levels of single-parent and two-parent families are EQUAL, there is little difference in the academic performance of children.
→ Income is a major factor, not family structure alone.
Because single parents are the primary financial support, they have less time, less consistency, and less parental control.
9.7 Characteristics of Successful Single Parents
1. Acceptance of Responsibility
Accept challenges without minimising or exaggerating. Acknowledge difficulties without self-pity or bitterness.
2. Commitment to Family
Make family the highest priority. Put the child's needs first. Use consistent, non-punitive discipline.
3. Open Communication
Encourage clear, honest expression of thoughts and feelings. Foster individuality within a supportive family unit.
4. Successful Home Management
Well-organised and dependable. Coordinate schedules effectively. Take pride in financial provision despite struggles.
5. Care of Self
Recognise self-care as essential. Stay connected to support networks. Physical, spiritual, emotional, and social wellness.
6. Maintain Traditions
Keep bedtime rituals, special family times, holiday celebrations. Traditions provide stability after family disruption.
7. Positive Outlook
See positive aspects in stressful situations. Maintain confidence and resilience despite many challenges and doubts.
9.8 Blended Families
Navigating step-parents, step-siblings, and new family dynamics
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.8 Blended Families — Definition & Dynamics
Definition: A family where parents who were married to different spouses bring children from their earlier marriages to live or 'blend' together in their present setup.
Simple Blended
Only ONE member of the couple has prior children. The other partner has no children from a previous relationship.
Complex Blended
BOTH members have pre-existing children from previous relationships. Any new children together become half-siblings.
Key Challenges & Strategies
Boys benefit from a warm, involved stepfather's presence.
Preadolescent girls struggle with mother's remarriage — disrupts intimate bond.
Adolescents challenge stepfather's authority more than younger children.
Preferential treatment of biological over stepchildren causes conflict.
Stepfathers: be interested but avoid encroaching on established relationships.
Realistic expectations from both parents AND children are essential.
9.9 Maltreatment of Children
Consequences, causes, and protective factors in child abuse and neglect
Chapter 9: Family Influence
9.9 Maltreatment — Types & Overview
In 2008, 2,780 cases of child abuse were reported in Malaysia — an average of SEVEN children abused every day.
Physical Abuse
Assault that leads to physical injuries. Includes hitting, beating, shaking, burning, or any deliberate bodily harm.
Sexual Abuse
Fondling, intercourse, sodomy, or any sexual behaviour involving a child. A severe violation of trust and safety.
Neglect
Failing to provide children with adequate food, clothing, shelter, or medical care. The most common form of maltreatment.
Resilience & Protective Factors
Some children emerge relatively unscathed due to protective factors:
Optimism & self-esteem
Intelligence & creativity
Sense of humour & independence
Access to social support
A caring adult in the child's life
Stable, safe community
9.9 Consequences of Maltreatment
Psychological
Low self-esteem, depression, relationship difficulties
80% of abused young adults meet criteria for psychiatric disorder at age 21
Anxiety, eating disorders, suicide attempts
PTSD, ADHD, dissociative disorders, reactive attachment disorder
Cognitive difficulties — lower scores on academic and language measures
Social difficulties — insecure attachments, peer relationship problems
Behavioural
25% more likely to experience delinquency, teen pregnancy, low academic achievement
Drug use and mental health problems in adolescence
Higher risk of arrest as a juvenile
30% increased likelihood of adult criminal behaviour and violent crime
Increased cigarette smoking, alcohol abuse, illicit drug use
Approx. 1/3 of abused children may eventually abuse their own children
Physical
Bruises, cuts, broken bones, haemorrhage, or death
Shaken baby syndrome: concussion, seizures, blindness, paralysis
Impaired brain development — key regions fail to form properly
Hyperarousal: hyperactivity, sleep disturbances, anxiety
Increased vulnerability to PTSD and ADHD
Learning and memory difficulties
9.9 Causes of Child Maltreatment — 4 Domains
Child maltreatment arises from the interaction of multiple risk factors across four domains:
1. Parent Domain
• Personality: low self-esteem, poor impulse control, depression
• Parental history of abuse/neglect
• Substance abuse (1-2 thirds of cases)
• Negative attitudes & unrealistic expectations
• Young parental age
2. Family Domain
• Single parenthood & poverty
• Marital conflict & domestic violence (30-60% co-occurrence)
• High stress, unemployment, financial pressure
• Social isolation from support networks
• Large household size
3. Child Domain
• Highest risk: children aged 0-3 years
• Disabilities: 1.7× more likely to be maltreated
• Children unable to recognize or escape abuse
• Small physical size = more vulnerable
• Cannot seek help independently
4. Environmental Domain
• Poverty & unemployment (especially with neglect)
• Unsafe or crowded housing
• Social isolation from community
• Limited access to quality childcare
• High-risk neighbourhood conditions
Chapter 9 — Key Takeaways
Family
The family nurtures children through social exposure, stimulation, problem-solving, and literacy.
Parenting Styles
Authoritative parenting yields the best outcomes. Authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved styles carry risks.
Parental Behaviour
Direct instruction, observational learning, and feedback all directly shape children's development.
SES
Socioeconomic status significantly affects parenting values, practices, and children's school readiness.
Siblings
Siblings influence social learning, both positively and negatively. Conflict management is key.
Divorce
Divorce is distressing but adjustable. Co-operation between parents greatly reduces harm to children.
Single Parents
Successful single parenting relies on commitment, open communication, and self-care.
Maltreatment
Child maltreatment stems from parent, family, child, and environmental risk factors — resilience is possible.