THE TWENTIETH CENTURY IN WORLD HISTORY
PART VI
Summary
During the newest stage of world history, 1914 to the present, great Western empires declined and were replaced by regional groups and multinational corporations. There are several triggers for this dramatic shift. The first is the collapse of European imperial dominance and subsequent decolonization. Another trigger was massive technological innovation in military capacity and communications. The final reason for this shift in world history was an explosion in population growth. These triggers created political innovation and a renewed globalization. But even with these changes many societies resisted changes to traditional worldviews. These key developments in the 20th and 21st centuries effected people’s emotions and behaviors by decreasing birth rates and increasing consumerism.
Descent into the Abyss: World War I and the Crisis of the European Global Order
CHAPTER 28
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The First World War—”The Great War” —was one of several key turning points of the 20th century. A combination of imperialism, arms races, industrial might, and nationalism pushed the Great Powers of Europe into a regional conflict that quickly exploded into a global war of unprecedented devastation. Among the many results were a loss of global power for Europe, the rise of the United States and Japan, Bolshevism in Russia, increased nationalism among European colonies around the world, and political and social power shifts in several nations.
The Coming of the Great War
By 1914, diplomatic tensions, colonial rivalries, and arms races among the Great Powers of Europe—England, France, Germany, and Russia—led to the creation of two opposing groups, each dedicated to out-maneuvering the other.
The Long March to War
Fear of Germany’s growing power drove Russia, England, and France into an alliance, the Triple Entente. German Kaiser Wilhelm II formed the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. These two rival groups maneuvered for advantages globally through their colonial holdings, as well as regionally through building arms and nationalism. However, these diplomatic and military competitions combined with social unrest—especially labor—at home to produce a tense atmosphere among the Great Powers by 1914.
The Outbreak of War
The focal point of political tensions in Europe in 1914 resided in the Balkans, where internal and external forces of nationalism triggered a crucial event in starting World War I: the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. A series of military and diplomatic moves by Europe’s two principal alliances led to mobilization of their armies. Quickly, war developed on two fronts in Europe, with Germany its nexus.
A World at War
Europe’s leaders expected the war to be brief and decisive, a war that would break the knot of tensions that had built up over decades. The Allies, principally England, France, and new colleague Italy, fought the Central Powers, mainly Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. Contrary to their expectations, the war quickly bogged down into one of long stalemate and unprecedented death.
The War in Europe
The war was fought on two major fronts. In the West, the Germans fought the French and British in France; in the East, Germany and Austria-Hungary fought the Russians. On the Western Front, advancements in weaponry combined with the mass production techniques of the Industrial Revolution to create enormous casualties and defensive tactics, most infamously trench warfare. After early gains, the Germans were stymied by the Allies. Both sides settled into wholesale slaughter of their men.
The War in the East and in Italy
In eastern Europe, most of the fighting was in western Russia and in the Balkans. The result was as devastating there as on the Western Front. Russia’s early and successful offensive was stopped by Germany. Russian leadership, tactics, and weaponry were little match for the Germans, but a superior number of soldiers kept the tsar’s forces from capitulating to the Central Powers. In northern Italy, the story was similar. Italian gains were quickly nullified by the Austrians. Support from England and France shored up weak Italian resistance, but not before hundreds of thousands were dead. The brutal realities of the war plunged both Russia and Italy into social and political turmoil.
The Homefronts in Europe
Each of the powers was able to mobilize large numbers of soldiers through the course of the war, despite food shortages and privations at home. Governments increased in power. Many industrial sectors of these nations were co-opted by the state. Government-run propaganda departments encouraged their citizens to keep the war effort going and drummed up support from neutral nations. Labor unrest became a worrisome matter, especially in Germany and Russia. In the latter, the tsar was overthrown and replaced first by a provisional government and later by a socialist-led revolution. As women replaced men in the workplace, calls for political and social equality increased. As a result, in Britain, Germany, and the United States, women gained the vote after the war.
The War Outside Europe
The presence of the West in all world regions spread the conflict. The British dominions supported Britain by sending soldiers to many fronts, most notably in Africa and at Gallipoli. Japan joined the Allied cause and attacked German holdings in the Pacific. The United States, at first neutral, also entered the war on the Allied side. U.S. assistance in manpower and materiel turned the balance to the Allies. On the seas, the principal combatants were Britain and Germany.
Endgame: The Return of Offensive Warfare
Late in the war, the United States introduced hundreds of thousands of men into battle against the Germans, who had little with which to counter. In desperation, Germany launched a final offensive on the Western Front after knocking Russia out of the war. When it failed, German commanders facing rebellion at home and on the battlefield agreed to an armistice brokered by the United States. The physical, economic, social, and psychological results of the war included the Great Depression and the rise of totalitarianism in the two decades that followed.
Failed Peace
The Treaty of Versailles left its signers dissatisfied. The English and French pushed the Americans into an agreement that punished the Germans while establishing the League of Nations. Japan and Italy’s hoped-for gains were largely ignored. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed as political entities. The new communist government in Russia was not allowed to participate in the peace conference. Ultimately, the Treaty of Versailles failed to bring a lasting peace, for it angered the people of a defeated and humiliated Germany.
The Nationalist Assault on the European Colonial Order
Four years of war disrupted European colonial domination and encouraged nationalist movements that began before World War I. To shore up power in the colonies, the British and French made promises of increased self-determination to local elites but then engendered resentment by reneging on them after the war.
India: The Makings of the Nationalist Challenge to the British Raj
The Indian nationalist movement set the pattern of challenge to colonial authorities in Asia and Africa. Key themes emerged, such as leadership by Western-educated elites and charismatic figures and nonviolent forms of protest. The Indian Congress Party led its country’s move toward independence.
Social Foundations of a Mass Movement
By the beginning of the 20th century, resistance to over a hundred years of British rule mounted in India. Charges of British racism and detrimental economic policy grew steadily. The British countered that their policies provided efficient government, but nationalists replied the price paid was too high.
The Rise of Militant Nationalism
Indian leaders, such as B. G. Tilak, demanded full and immediate independence and threatened violence. His rhetoric appealed to many Hindus, but frightened others, especially moderate Hindus and Muslims. Secret societies sprang up that promoted and carried out violence, but British crackdowns limited their effectiveness.
The Emergence of Gandhi and the Spread of the Nationalist Struggle
Unlike Tilak, Mohandas Gandhi appealed to both the masses and the Western-educated nationalist politicians. His emphasis on nonviolent but persistent protest weakened British control of India. His political savvy and dogged determination made him a formidable opponent to British authorities who consistently underestimated his abilities and appeal. Under his leadership, nationalist protest surged in India during the 1920s and 1930s.
Egypt and the Rise of Nationalism in the Middle East
Egypt’s nationalist movement was unique in Afro-Asia because it preceded European domination. Britain responded to Egyptian nationalist agitation against the Ottoman Empire with occupation. At the end of the 19th century, Arabic newspapers in Egypt promoted independence from both English and Turkish rule. By the early 20th century, decades of ill will between the British and the population led to violence on both sides. In 1913, a constitution was granted. The outbreak of World War I saw a temporary diminution of hostilities in Egypt.
War and Nationalist Movements in the Middle East
A Turkish republic was formed on the basis of a Western model. Meanwhile, England and France divided the defeated Ottoman Empire’s Arab holdings into mandates. They quickly faced Arab nationalist resistance to European occupation and the establishment of a League of Nations–approved Jewish homeland in Palestine. The latter was created through Britain’s support of yet another form of nationalism, Zionism. These conflicting movements led to great tension in the Middle East.
Revolt in Egypt, 1919
By the end of the World War I, Egypt was ripe for revolt. Students and, significantly, women, led large demonstrations against colonial rule. British withdrawal began in 1922. Once in power, Egyptian leaders did little in the way of reform. Nasser led a military coup in 1952, promising sweeping social and political change.
In Depth: Women in Asian and African Nationalist Movements
Education provided to Asian and African elite women by European colonizers created a nucleus of remarkable leaders in 20th-century nationalist movements. Western-educated Indian women marched in mass demonstrations for national independence and social reform. In Egypt, both veiled and Westernized women participated in similar protests. In Algeria and Kenya, women participated in guerilla tactics against colonial forces. In many of these places, the reforms women sought in the first half of the 20th century have yet to be fulfilled.
The Beginnings of the Liberation Struggle in Africa
As in India and the Arab Middle East, most Western-educated Africans supported their British and French occupiers in World War I, most significantly by supplying soldiers induced by promises of nationhood after the war. When those promises went unfulfilled, protests ensued. Attempts to encourage pan-African unity alarmed the European powers and encouraged anti colonial sentiments. By the 1920s, pan-Africanism faded, replaced by the brand of nationalism seen in other colonies. The great age of African independence came after World War II.
Global Connections: World War and Global Upheavals
World War I set many templates for the 20th century. The decline of European hegemony, the emergence of the United States and Japan on the global stage, and communist rule in Russia were results of the war, as were nationalist surges in European colonies and increased political power of labor organizations and women.