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Background

Figure 2

Australia, Victoria.

Láscar, J. (2014, July 11). Victoria (18764709574) [Photograph]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Victoria_(18764709574).jpg

Figure 1

Victoria University St Albans campus.

Victoria University. (n.d.). St Albans campus. https://www.vu.edu.au/campuses/st-albans

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Lịch sử của hệ thống cấp cứu y tế

Sự phát triển của hệ thống cấp cứu y tế. Nó bắt đầu như thế nào? Có những thay đổi gì? Khi nào?

Figure 3�Inside a Scranton, Pennsylvania ambulance in 1970

Note. The interior of a Scranton, Penn., ambulance in 1970. Photo by A. J. Heightman. From Birth of EMS: The history of the paramedic, by D. Edgerly, 2013, JEMS. https://www.jems.com/ems-management/birth-ems-history-paramedic/

Figure 4�NSW Ambulance trialling new stroke care technology

Note. From NSW Ambulance first in the world to trial new stroke care technology, by Hunter Medical Research Institute, 2024, https://hmri.org.au/news-and-stories/nsw-ambulance-first-world-trial-new-stroke-care-technology/. Copyright 2024 by Hunter Medical Research Institute.

Transition to History

To understand the paramedic’s role today, it is useful to briefly consider how the profession has evolved.

Paramedicine, as we know it today, has its roots in ancient civilizations, where basic care was provided to wounded soldiers on the battlefield. The foundations of modern emergency medical services began to emerge in the 18th and 19th centuries, largely driven by the need to transport and treat the injured during times of war. Early ambulance services—often horse-drawn and minimally equipped—marked the first step toward organized pre-hospital care.

Following World War II, particularly in the 1960s, growing concerns in the United States about the quality of pre-hospital care led to major reforms. In 1966, the first standardized EMT training programs were introduced, laying the groundwork for a more structured EMS system.

A significant turning point came in the 1970s with the development of formal Advanced Life Support programs, expanding the paramedic role beyond basic first aid to include advanced clinical skills. Over time, regulations, certification standards, and education pathways further professionalized the field shifting the public views on paramedics being just a transportation service.

Today, they are highly trained healthcare professionals delivering critical care at the earliest point of contact.

With that background, I’ll now move on to the role of paramedics.

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Định nghĩa về Nhân viên Cấp cứu (Paramedic)

‘A paramedic works autonomously as a generalist clinician across a range of healthcare settings, usually in emergency, primary or urgent care. They may also specialize in clinical practice, education, leadership or research.’
—College of Paramedics (2019)

Autonomy, generalist, clinicians?

Figure 5

New paramedic recruits on the road as winter demand rises

Note. From New paramedic recruits on road as winter demand rises, by Ambulance Victoria, 2025, https://www.ambulance.vic.gov.au/new-paramedic-recruits-road-winter-demand-rises. Copyright 2025 by Ambulance Victoria.

Definition of an ALS Paramedic

‘A paramedic works autonomously as a generalist clinician across a range of healthcare settings, usually in emergency, primary or urgent care. They may also specialize in clinical practice, education, leadership or research

‘A paramedic works autonomously as a generalist clinician across a range of healthcare settings, usually in emergency, primary or urgent care. They may also specialize in clinical practice, education, leadership or research.’

Let’s focus on the different factors here is on autonomy.

In systems such as Australia’s one of the few countries that allows Paramedics, paramedics frequently operate independently, outside the structured environment of hospitals. This requires making time-critical clinical decisions in settings where access to diagnostic tools and specialist support is limited.

Next is Clinician

Paramedics are often perceived as protocol-driven technicians, EMT/BLS. A technician undergoes usually vocational studies and their scope of practices are usually less than those of ALS. While technical proficiency is essential, this characterization is incomplete. Technicians can be taught how to follow guidelines, what medications to give and how to manage basic medical conditions

Whereas,

ALS Paramedics function as clinicians. �They apply clinical reasoning to interpret presentations, adapt guidelines, and make decisions based on the specific context of each patient. Its important to know how to follow these guidelines but its equally if not more important that paramedics knows when to apply these managements and when to withhold or consults.

This includes understanding not only what intervention to perform, but why it is indicated, what outcome is expected, when it may be inappropriate and the ability to reason each interventions they provide.

Clinical decision-making in the pre-hospital environment is therefore dynamic, situational, and reliant on professional judgment.

Generalization

There is a common perception that paramedic practice is dominated by high-acuity emergencies.

However, evidence suggests otherwise.

Eaton. (2023) states less than 10% of cases require advanced life support interventions, and only an 8% of patients are classified as life-threatening emergencies.

The majority of presentations are non-emergencies, encompassing a wide spectrum of medical, social, and psychological conditions across all age groups.

This reality demands that paramedics function not only as emergency responders, but as adaptable clinicians capable of assessment, risk stratification, management, and appropriate referral for other non-emergency conditions.

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Vai trò trong hệ thống y tế

Nhân viên cấp cứu đóng vai trò như thế nào trong khuôn khổ chăm sóc cấp cứu trước viện?

Điểm tiếp xúc đầu tiên &Kết nối dịch vụ y tế
Nhân viên cấp cứu cộng đồng, ghiên cứu/giáo dục, etc.

Figure 6�WHO emergency care system framework

Note. From Emergency care system framework infographic, by World Health Organization, n.d., https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/emergencies-trauma-care/emergency-infographics-banner_90bd239b-91c3-4aaf-a2bc-19d6635360b7.pdf.

Where Paramedics Fit

Now onto the second half of the definition: Paramedics usually work in emergency, primary, urgent care. Specialize in….

Paramedics occupy a critical interface within the healthcare system. Traditionally positioned as emergency responders, their role now extends beyond transport.

Yes, paramedics serve as a point of first clinical contact that calls the emergency contact line outside of hospitals with the goal of delivering immediate/early assessments, interventions, and stabilization in the community setting,

In this sense, paramedics act as a mobile extension of the healthcare system, bringing care directly to the patient and facilitating/bridging and removing healthcare limitations on being just inside hospitals to all different environments.

This represents the reactive arm of healthcare—responding to acute presentations in real time.

At the same time as, modern healthcare now looks at a more proactive health care model, looking to prevent health complications. This will not be expanding on much today as we mainly will focus on paramedics in emergencies. The profession is expanding into broader domains including community care, education, leadership, and research—reflecting an ongoing shift in how paramedicine contributes to healthcare systems globally it continues to grow alongside medicine.

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Phạm vi thực hành của nhân viên cấp cứu

Bộ kỹ năng ALS nâng cao:�Bhardwaj và cộng sự (2023) cho rằng bộ kỹ năng của nhân viên cấp cứu bao gồm:
Quản lý đường thở và tim mạch nâng cao
Trị liệu đường tĩnh mạch (IV Therapy)
Đánh giá nâng cao
Cấp phát thuốc
Ambulance Victoria guidelines có hết phạm vi thực hành của một paramedic bên úc, + thêm các hướng dẫn cho các chủ đề bên trên và về sản khoa, chấn thương, sức khỏe tâm thần và độc học.
Các nhân viên y tế có phạm vi chuyên môn rộng, làm việc trong môi trường khó lường và hạn chế nguồn lực

Figure 7

Clinical practice guidelines

Ambulance Victoria. (n.d.). Clinical practice guidelines [Figure]. https://cpg.ambulance.vic.gov.au/#/tabs/tab-0/list

Scopes ALS Paramedics

Advanced Life Support paramedics operate with an extended clinical scope beyond basic life support providers.

Their capabilities include:

Advanced airway management and ventilatory support
Cardiac monitoring and intervention for cardiac conditions, including defibrillation
Administration of a wide range of medications via multiple different routes
Performance of invasive procedures such as intravenous access and needle decompression

Ambulance Victoria has guidelines regarding to all of this alongside.

The management of not only the medical side of paramedicine but also how to treat minor and major trauma patients.

Importantly, paramedics must also be prepared for low-frequency, high-risk events, such as obstetric emergencies, where timely and competent intervention is critical.

Beyond acute care, their role extends to mental health presentations, toxicology, and aspects of the new developing community paramedicine that implements the proactive health care model: visiting homes of patients to manage their chronic management and other forms of providing healthcare to prevent health complications.

Overall, ALS paramedics are best understood as broad-scope clinicians operating in unpredictable, resource-limited environments. Often in emergencies serving as the first point of contact however, not limited to it.

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Tiếp tục: Phạm vi thực hành của nhân viên cấp cứu

Figure 8

Clinical Practice Guidelines Maternity

Ambulance Victoria. (n.d.). Clinical practice guidelines [Figure]. https://cpg.ambulance.vic.gov.au/#/tabs/tab-0/list

Figure 9

Clinical Practice Guidelines Trauma

Ambulance Victoria. (n.d.). Clinical practice guidelines [Figure]. https://cpg.ambulance.vic.gov.au/#/tabs/tab-0/list

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Tác động của EMS và nhân viên cấp cứu đối với sức khỏe:

Table 1

Summary of key studies on paramedic impact (2016–2025)

Note. From The impact of paramedic practice on patient outcomes: A comprehensive review of evidence from prehospital and emergency settings, by F. A. Alrashdi et al., 2025, The Review of Diabetic Studies, 23. https://www.diabeticstudies.org

Table 2�Characteristics of included studies

Note. From Transforming emergency medical response: A systematic review of paramedics’ role in pre-hospital care, by H. H. H. Alkleeb et al., 2025, The Review of Diabetic Studies. https://www.diabeticstudies.org

Table 3�Paramedic interventions and patient outcomes

Impacts of Paramedics.

Now, let’s look at the impact of EMS and paramedics on patient outcomes.

Vietnam Hoang et al. (2021).

Public only use 10% of EMS.
115 line was called only in 22.6% of cases.
Arrest-to-CPR: 13–28 minutes.
arrest-to-ED: 48 minutes by ambulance

DO SN (2021)

Only 8.6% of arrests were taken to hospital by ambulances with 32.2% receiving defibrillation by emergency medical services with sources from Hoang et al.(2021). even stating no defibrillation was given for arrests pre-hospital wise, of those 24.2% survived to hospital admission with only 14.1% surviving till discharge with some sources like Hoang states as low as 3.8%.

Other Asian countries: ~99% of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests were transported by ambulance, showing the relative underdevelopment of Vietnam’s EMS system.

Accounting for other health factors By Ambulance Victoria by including HCPR: Accounting for other health factors arrest attended by those in ambulance Victoria: survival rate of 36.6% till hospital and 34.9% survival till hospital discharged

The tables here present to you that all the information regarding paramedic impact

Mostly stronger and more positive health outcomes for patients by those with ALS interventions. Showing improving survival rate, here 2-3x higher survival rate with CPR and defibrillation, improve ROSCS, and neurological outcome, TXA lowers mortality, earlier thrombolysis.
Improving quality of life seen by: decreasing admission of chronic diseases, reduce stress and increase comforts.

Evidences on the tables here consistently it is not only those with arrest that benefits but all those with other emergency conditions, there are better survival outcomes (improve rosc, lower mortality with TXA, faster thrombolysis), , quality of life (neurological outcome, comfort, reduce stress, reduce chronic admission).
What is the education/training behind the course structure?
As courses are similar and all need to meet the standard for APHRA accreditation. I will be using my experiences alongside course description to discuss about the course content. There are 3 elements to paramedicine studies. Core scientific fundamentals, clinical competencies and training. Lastly, integrations.

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Các chương trình giáo dục và đào tạo nền tảng cho cấu trúc khóa học là gì?

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Chương trình đào tạo đứng sau bằng cấp

Hội đồng Nhân viên Cấp cứu Úc liệt kê cách trở thành nhân viên cấp cứu:
Trình độ?
Thời gian học?
Các trường đại học?
Cấu trúc khóa học?

Table 4

List of accredited paramedicine programs�Note. From Accredited programs of study, by Paramedicine Board of Australia, 2025, https://www.paramedicineboard.gov.au/Accreditation/Accredited-programs.aspx

The Educations to be a Paramedic?

We will now focus on the educational pathway and how to become a paramedic in Australia, including across New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia, Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory, and the Northern Territory.

Drawing on Barriers to paramedic professionalization: a qualitative enquiry across the UK, Canada, Australia, USA and the Republic of Ireland by Fiona Feerick et al. (2025), the establishment of the Paramedicine Board of Australia under the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency has played a key role in standardizing paramedic education nationwide.

This standardization ensures that all education and training programs across states and territories meet consistent accreditation requirements. As a result, the Board mandates that individuals must complete an accredited program and be registered in order to use the protected title “paramedic” and practice in Australia.

The Paramedicine Board of Australia provides a list of accredited programs that meet these national standards. The image shown highlights examples of such programs from institutions across the country, demonstrating both geographic diversity and consistency in educational quality.

Most of these programs are three-year bachelor’s degrees, although alternative pathways exist, such as conversion programs for registered nurses transitioning into paramedicine.

Some well-known universities offering accredited paramedicine programs include Monash University, Victoria University, Flinders University, and Western Sydney University, among others.

By completing these programs registered graduates now are officially ALS Registered Paramedic under APHRA. They are now able to apply for state service jobs or other countries that like UK, Canada, US.

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Giới thiệu về ngành Nhân viên Cấp cứu (Paramedicine)

Đại học Victoria. (n.d) nêu:
Giải phẫu và Sinh lý học
Dược lý học
Luật cơ bản, đạo đức và chuyên nghiệp
Lớp thực hành lâm sàng ban đầu

Figure 10�Bachelor of Paramedicine course delivery plan

Introduction to paramedicine

Anatomy and physiology:

Students develop a foundational understanding of the structure and function of the human body, focusing on major systems such as cardiovascular, respiratory, and musculoskeletal. This knowledge is essential for recognizing normal physiological processes and forms the basis for identifying abnormalities in clinical settings.

• Pharmacology:�Students are introduced to key pharmacological principles, including how medications are absorbed, distributed, and act within the body. They learn about common drugs used in paramedic practice, their therapeutic effects, potential side effects, and the importance of safe and appropriate administration.

Ethics, laws, professionalism: To maintain professionalism, following code of conducts and the laws of healthcare’s. These helps to maintain safe practices, as well as providing best patient centered care.

• Early Clinical Practice Class:�Students begin applying theoretical knowledge in practical settings, learning fundamental skills such as taking vital signs, conducting patient assessments, and effective communication. They are also introduced to basic clinical equipment and participate in simulated scenarios to build confidence and clinical reasoning.

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Phát triển năng lực lâm sàng

Cấp cứu y tế: Tim mạch, Hô hấp, Sản khoa, Sức khỏe tâm thần
Bệnh nhân chấn thương
Trường hợp không khẩn cấp
Các sự cố lớn

Figure 11

XMARCH approach for trauma assessment

Note. From MARCH: The Superior Trauma Assessment Framework for First Responders, by TacMed Australia, 2025, https://tacmedaustralia.com.au/blogs/tacmed/stop-the-bleed-first-the-march-approach.

Clinical Competencies and Training

Medical emergencies: Cardiac, Respiratory, Obstetrics, others
Trauma Emergencies
Non- emergencies
Mental Health Emergencies
Major incidents

Building from what is learnt

 Medical Emergencies:�This unit covers all medical emergencies that are within a paramedic scopes and others that may come across. Building from fundamentals anatomy and physiology units, students learns the pathophysiology of cardiac, respiratory, obstetrics, mental health conditions, how to assess and learning the reasoning behind managements.

 Trauma Emergencies:�Paramedics don’t come across only medical emergencies. In this class trauma management goes beyond just simple bandages and focus on advanced trauma managements.

 Non-Emergencies:�As the majorities of triple 000 call are not emergencies. Paramedics in these addresses patient presentations that do not require urgent intervention but still need assessment, monitoring, and referral, including chronic and co-morbid conditions.

 Major Incidents:�Prepares students for managing large-scale emergencies such as natural disasters, mass casualty events triaging procedures, chemical or biological incidents, emphasizing command structures like ICS, gold-silver-bronze models, communication protocols.

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Sự tích hợp

Thực tập lâm sàng:
Ambulance Victoria

- Royal Flying Doctors Service

-Wongtonkam & Brewster (2017)

Đánh giá lâm sàng:

- OSCEs – Kỹ năng lâm sàng nâng cao

- Betson et al. (2025)

Table 5

Preceptors’ perceptions of student competencies during four-week placement

Note. From Effects of clinical placements on paramedic students’ learning outcomes, by N. Wongtongkam and L. Brewster, 2017, Asia Pacific Journal of Health Management, 12(3), 24–31. https://doi.org/10.24083/apjhm.v12i3.55

Integration

Clinical Placements:�Paramedicine students undertake multiple clinical placements throughout their training, starting with non-emergency settings such as hospital wards or non-emergency ambulance services. A study by (Wongtongkam & Brewster, 2017) shows students were introduced to placements presents with positive improvements in all aspects as Students improve skills, confidence, and professional behavior from week 2 to week 4 of placements.

These early placements provide foundational patient interaction experience, including vital signs assessment, documentation, and use of basic equipment. In later years, students’ progress to emergency ambulance placements, working alongside experienced paramedics in real-world settings. These placements expose students to a range of emergencies, allowing them to apply theoretical knowledge in practice, develop communication skills, and participate in patient care under supervision. By the final year, students are expected to function nearly as graduate paramedics, leading patient assessments and management decisions under guidance.

Clinical assessments:

Advanced skills: In conjunctions with OSCES and building from foundations of pathophysiology and basic skills. Students learn- advanced managements, and skills such as: To prepare for integration of textbook studying, to managements.

Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCEs):�OSCES are practical, simulated assessments designed to evaluate students’ clinical competence and decision-making skills. Students face timed scenarios involving patients with various medical, trauma, or mental health emergencies. They must perform assessments, interpret clinical data (like ECGs and vital signs), and provide appropriate management, all while demonstrating professionalism and safety. A study by Betson 2025 et al shows that by Repeating simulated high-acuity OSCEs helps students reduce stress, build confidence, improve decision-making, and achieve better clinical outcomes. Practice OSCEs in simulated conditions are strongly recommended before formal assessments. OSCEs test integration of theoretical knowledge with practical skills, ensuring students are prepared for real-world paramedic responsibilities.

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Phát triển nghề nghiệp liên tục và nâng cao kỹ năng chuyên môn

Cử nhân Nhân viên Cấp cứu (hạng danh dự – Honours)
Chứng chỉ Sau đại học về Nhân viên Cấp cứu Cộng đồng
Thạc sĩ Nhân viên Cấp cứu Chăm sóc Quan trọng
Duy trì đăng ký hành nghề
Thời gian thực hành gần đây
Phát triển chuyên môn liên tục (CPD)

Figure 12�New AHPRA registration standard overview

Ongoing Professional Developments

Being an ALS registered isn’t the only option. There are many different options always available for paramedics that looks to upskill. In order to upskills.

Bachelor of Paramedicine (Honours): For those that look into a more research/academic side of paramedicine.
Graduate Certificate in Community Paramedicine: For those that look into going to a new/unique job that involves implementing the proactive healthcare model to patients at their home.
Master of Critical Care Paramedicine: requiring 2 years of on road experience. This degree will qualify for paramedics to positions like becoming a MICA paramedic. flight paramedic.

A degree isn’t the only thing allow paramedics to keep their registrations.

Paramedics need to complete 30 hours of continuing professional developments including work-based learning, examining journal articles, practice observations or more.
Paramedics need to maintain their recency of practice: that according to the paramedicine board of Australia. 150 hours of practice in the previous year, or 450 hours of practice in the previous 3 years, or 750 hours of practice in the previous 5 years with no continuous absence from practice of greater than 2 years.

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Kết luận

Định nghĩa về nhân viên cấp cứu, vai trò và phạm vi công việc của họ trong chăm sóc cấp cứu trước viện.

�Các bộ kỹ năng của nhân viên cấp cứu và tác động của việc triển khai nhân viên cấp cứu ALS.

�Chương trình đào tạo đứng sau các bằng cấp Paramedicine, các nghiên cứu tại đại học và phát triển chuyên môn liên tục.

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Tài liệu tham khảo

Alosaimi, M. M. S., Alotaibi, K. N. B., Alazzmi, S. H., Alotaibi, F. N. Z., Al-Dosari, A. A. A., Alotaibi, T. J. Z., Alotaibi, M. T. J., Alhuntushi, K. A. M., & Alotaibi, F. M. J. (n.d.). The evolving role of paramedics in modern healthcare: From emergency responders to integrated care providers. The Review of Diabetic Studies, 131.
Ambulance Victoria. (n.d.). Clinical practice guidelines. https://cpg.ambulance.vic.gov.au/#/tabs/tab-0/list
Australian Catholic University. (n.d.). Bachelor of Paramedicine (Honours). https://www.acu.edu.au/course/bachelor-of-paramedicine-honours
Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency. (n.d.). Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency. https://www.ahpra.gov.au/
Bhardwaj, P., Singh, D., Dutta, P., Nania, G., & Rai, P. (2023). The evolution of paramedicine: A historical perspective. Tuijin Jishu/Journal of Propulsion Technology, 44(2), 1298.
Betson, J., Fein, E. C., Long, D., & Horrocks, P. (2025). Effect of repeating simulated high-stress scenario assessments on paramedicine student performance and psychophysiological response. Interactive Learning Environments, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2025.2529447
Eaton, G. (2019). Paramedic: Noun. British Paramedic Journal, 4(2), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.29045/14784726.2019.09.4.2.1
Eaton, G. (2023). Addressing the challenges facing the paramedic profession in the United Kingdom. British Medical Bulletin, 148(1), 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldad024
Hoang, H. B., Do, S., Vu, D. H., Do, P. G., Dao, X. D., Nguyen, H. H., Luu, Q. T., Le, V. C., Nguyen, H. T., Dinh, M., & Nakahara, S. (2021). Outcomes for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest transported to emergency departments in Hanoi, Vietnam: A multi-centre observational study. Emergency Medicine Australasia, 33(3). https://doi.org/10.1111/1742-6723.13750
Monash University. (n.d.). Master of Critical Care Paramedicine. https://www.monash.edu/medicine/spahc/paramedicine/our-courses/master-of-critical-care-paramedicine
Morton, J., Kloepping, K., Buick, J. E., Todd, J., & Batt, A. (2015). The evolution of the paramedic. Prehospital Research Support Site.
Open Universities Australia. (n.d.). Graduate Certificate of Community Paramedicine (Edith Cowan University). https://www.open.edu.au/degrees/graduate-certificate-of-community-paramedicine-edith-cowan-university-ecu-ecp-gce

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Tài liệu tham khảo

Paramedicine Board of Australia. (n.d.-a). Accredited programs of study. https://www.paramedicineboard.gov.au/Accreditation/Accredited-programs.aspx
Paramedicine Board of Australia. (n.d.-b). Paramedicine Board of Australia. https://www.paramedicineboard.gov.au/
Paramedicine Board of Australia. (n.d.-c). Registration. https://www.paramedicineboard.gov.au/Registration.aspx
Alrashdi, F. A., Alrashdi, M. B., Al-Mutairi, E. E., Alrashidi, A. A., Al-Mutairi, M. F., Alharbi, H. M., Almutairi, A. S. A., & Alharbi, S. S. (2025). The impact of paramedic practice on patient outcomes: A comprehensive review of evidence from prehospital and emergency settings. Vol. 21(S1). https://doi.org/10.70082/7e0x7z51
Feerick, F., Coughlan, E., Knox, S., Murphy, A., Grady, I. O., & Deasy, C. (2025). Barriers to paramedic professionalisation: A qualitative enquiry across the UK, Canada, Australia, USA and the Republic of Ireland. BMC Health Services Research, 25(1), 993. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-025-13196-5
Victoria University. (n.d.-a). Anatomy and Physiology 1 (Unit HBM1001) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-b). Anatomy and Physiology 2 (Unit HBM1202) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-c). Clinical Placement 1 (Unit HFB2001) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-d). Clinical Placement 2 (Unit HFB3002) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-e). Clinical Practice 3 (Unit HFB2117) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-f). Clinical Practice 4 (Unit HFB2223) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-g). Evidence and Research (Unit HRE1000) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-h). Health Across the Lifespan (Unit HFB3003) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure

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Tài liệu tham khảo

Paramedicine Board of Australia. (n.d.-a). Accredited programs of study. https://www.paramedicineboard.gov.au/Accreditation/Accredited-programs.aspx
Paramedicine Board of Australia. (n.d.-b). Paramedicine Board of Australia. https://www.paramedicineboard.gov.au/
Paramedicine Board of Australia. (n.d.-c). Registration. https://www.paramedicineboard.gov.au/Registration.aspx
Alrashdi, F. A., Alrashdi, M. B., Al-Mutairi, E. E., Alrashidi, A. A., Al-Mutairi, M. F., Alharbi, H. M., Almutairi, A. S. A., & Alharbi, S. S. (2025). The impact of paramedic practice on patient outcomes: A comprehensive review of evidence from prehospital and emergency settings. Vol. 21(S1). https://doi.org/10.70082/7e0x7z51
Feerick, F., Coughlan, E., Knox, S., Murphy, A., Grady, I. O., & Deasy, C. (2025). Barriers to paramedic professionalisation: A qualitative enquiry across the UK, Canada, Australia, USA and the Republic of Ireland. BMC Health Services Research, 25(1), 993. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-025-13196-5
Victoria University. (n.d.-a). Anatomy and Physiology 1 (Unit HBM1001) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-b). Anatomy and Physiology 2 (Unit HBM1202) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-c). Clinical Placement 1 (Unit HFB2001) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-d). Clinical Placement 2 (Unit HFB3002) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-e). Clinical Practice 3 (Unit HFB2117) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-f). Clinical Practice 4 (Unit HFB2223) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-g). Evidence and Research (Unit HRE1000) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-h). Health Across the Lifespan (Unit HFB3003) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure

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Tài liệu tham khảo

Victoria University. (n.d.-i). Introduction to Pharmacology (Unit HFB1002) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-j). Major Incidents (Unit HFB3226) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-k). Medical Emergencies 1 (Unit HFB2002) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-l). Medical Emergencies 2 (Unit HFB2003) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-m). Medical Emergencies 3 (Unit HFB2004) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-n). Paramedic Clinical Practice 1 (Unit HFB1112) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-o). Paramedic Clinical Practice 2 (Unit HFB1213) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-p). Paramedic Clinical Practice 5 (Unit HFB3134) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-q). Paramedic Clinical Practice 6 (Unit HFB3001) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-r). Paramedic Health and Wellbeing (Unit HFB3202) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-s). Paramedic Law, Ethics and Professionalism (Unit HFB1003) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-t). Cultural Safety (Unit HFB1001) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-u). Social Epidemiology (Unit HHB2000) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-v). Mental Health and Illness (Unit HFB3004) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-w). Paramedic Management of Trauma (Unit HFB2005) [Bachelor of Paramedicine unit]. https://www.vu.edu.au/courses/bachelor-of-paramedicine-hbpd/course-structure
Victoria University. (n.d.-x). Medical Placement Units and other courses… [multiple units].
Wongtongkam, N., & Brewster, L. (2017). Effects of clinical placements on paramedic students’ learning outcomes. Asia Pacific Journal of Health Management, 12(3), 24–31. https://doi.org/10.24083/apjhm.v12i3.55