ECG222 Child Growth & Development

Topic 5: Moral Development | Topic 6: Emotional Development

Child Development Series

Topic 5: Moral Development

Understanding how children develop moral reasoning

5.1 Moral, Morality & Born Moral

What is Moral?

• Pertains to principles or rules of right conduct
• Distinction between right and wrong
• Being upright, honest, virtuous, honourable and having integrity

What is Morality?

• The ability to learn the difference between right or wrong
• Understanding how to make the right choices
• Influenced by: experiences at home, environment, cognitive level, social skills & age
• Children ~5 years old: rules are unchangeable and must be obeyed absolutely
• As children grow: they understand they have a choice between right and wrong (self-control)

Are Humans Born Moral?

• Prominent philosophers & religions argue humans have intellectual powers to curb natural impulses → only humans can be moral
• Morality is seen as a restraint on natural behaviour and a system of rules for suppression of bad behaviour
• Some scientists speculate that moral/prosocial behaviour originated millions of years ago in small hunting-and-gathering groups
• Humans are biased toward helping family members, BUT also capable of sacrificing for non-relatives (charities, emergencies)
• Key concept: Children develop the ability to 'delay gratification' — a new moral ability cultivated through positive discipline
• Adults should highlight a child's 'good choices' vs 'bad choices' WITHOUT labelling the child as 'bad' or 'good'

5.2 Moral Reasoning — Lawrence Kohlberg

• Most well-known theory of moral development proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg (1968)
• Born 1927, New York — doctoral degree from University of Chicago; died 1987
• Method: Clinical interview — presented subjects with SHORT STORIES showing a dilemma between two moral values
• Kohlberg was NOT interested in whether subjects said YES or NO — but WHY they reasoned that way
• Famous dilemma: 'Heinz Dilemma' — a man steals a drug to save his dying wife (druggist charging 10× cost)
• Study comprised 72 boys (ages 10, 13, 16) from Chicago; later expanded across countries and ages
• Kohlberg proposed 3 LEVELS × 2 STAGES each = 6 total stages of moral development

The Heinz Dilemma

The Heinz Dilemma

In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. A druggist discovered a drug that might save her, but charged $2,000 — 10× what it cost to make. Her husband Heinz could only raise $1,000. The druggist refused to sell cheaper or defer payment. Heinz broke into the store and stole the drug to save his wife.

Should the husband have done that? WHY? (Kohlberg focuses on the REASONING, not the YES/NO answer)

Kohlberg's key insight: The same action can reflect very different levels of moral development depending on the reasoning behind it.

5.3 Kohlberg's Three Levels of Moral Reasoning

Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality (Stage 1 & 2)

Stage 1 — Punishment-Obedience

• Children obey powerful authorities unquestioningly
• Morality is EXTERNAL — rules are handed down by 'big people'
• Wrongness = getting punished
• Heinz: 'It's wrong to steal because it's against the law and you'll get punished'
• OR: 'He can steal — he asked first and won't get punished'
• The concern: what authorities PERMIT and PUNISH

Stage 2 — Market Exchange

• Children recognise there is NOT just one right view
• Different individuals have different viewpoints
• Notion of FAIR EXCHANGE: 'If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours'
• Heinz: 'Heinz has the right; the druggist has no right — he was ripping Heinz off'
• Punishment is a risk to avoid — not inherently tied to wrongness
• Still speaking as ISOLATED INDIVIDUALS, not as members of society

Level 2: Conventional Morality (Stage 3 & 4)

Stage 3 — Interpersonal Harmony

• Usually entering teens (~13 years old)
• People should live up to expectations of FAMILY & COMMUNITY
• Good behaviour = good motives + interpersonal feelings: love, empathy, trust, concern
• Heinz: 'He was a good man for wanting to save her — his intentions were good'
• 'I don't think any husband should sit back and watch his wife die'
• Key: loyalty, gaining approval of family, peers & teachers

Stage 4 — Law and Order

• More broadly concerned with SOCIETY AS A WHOLE
• Emphasis on obeying laws, respecting authority, performing duties to maintain social order
• Heinz: 'What would happen if we all started breaking laws whenever we felt we had a good reason? The result would be chaos'
• Stage 4 vs Stage 1: Both oppose stealing, BUT Stage 4 understands function of laws for society
• Thinks from a 'full-fledged member of society' perspective

Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality (Stage 5 & 6)

Stage 5 — Social Contract & Individual Rights

• Subjects want to keep society functioning, but question: 'What makes a GOOD society?'
• Think about society in a theoretical way, take a 'prior-to-society' perspective
• Believe all rational people would agree: (1) protect basic rights (liberty, life); (2) need democratic processes for unfair laws
• Heinz: 'The law wasn't meant to violate a person's right to life — laws are social contracts to uphold until changed democratically'
• Morality and rights SHOULD take priority over particular laws

Stage 6 — Universal Principles

• HIGHEST stage — focus on JUSTICE
• Principles of justice: treat all parties impartially, respect basic dignity of all people
• Universal — applies to ALL human beings
• Heinz: 'It doesn't make sense to put property above respect for life. Respect for human life and personality is absolute'
• VS Stage 5: Stage 6 focuses more clearly on broader universal principles (justice & individual rights)
• Example: Martin Luther King — laws are only valid insofar as grounded in justice; committed to disobey unjust laws

5.4 Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory

• 1. Does moral REASONING necessarily lead to moral BEHAVIOUR? There is a big difference between knowing what one ought to do versus actual actions
• 2. Is JUSTICE the only aspect of moral reasoning? Critics argue Kohlberg overemphasises justice — factors such as COMPASSION, CARING, and interpersonal feelings may play equally important roles
• 3. Kohlberg's theory overemphasises WESTERN thought: Individualistic cultures emphasise personal rights; collectivist cultures stress importance of society and community
• 4. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account for
• 5. The theory was originally based on a study of BOYS ONLY — does it fully apply to girls and women?

5.5 Prosocial Behaviour

What is Prosocial Behaviour?

• Behaviour that BENEFITS OTHERS
• Examples: sharing, empathy, altruism, helping
• E.g. lending a seat to a pregnant woman or elderly person on public transport
• Children learning to empathise/sympathise and evaluating their own behaviour as 'good' or 'bad'

Factors Contributing to Prosocial Behaviour

• Perspective taking: Ability to see things from another's point of view (older children more capable)
• Empathy: Ability to experience another person's emotions (fear, sorrow, loneliness)
• Feelings of responsibility: More likely to help siblings/friends than strangers
• Feelings of competence: Will help only if they feel they have the skills to do so
• Mood: Positive mood increases prosocial tendencies

5.6 Self-Control

• Definition: The ability to control one's behaviour and inhibit impulsive responding to temptations
• Self-control is one of the FIRST STEPS toward moral behaviour — children must learn they cannot constantly do whatever tempts them
• Self-control emerges in INFANCY and gradually improves during preschool years (Grining, 2007)
• By ~1st birthday, infants are aware that adults impose demands and they must act accordingly (e.g. 'Don't touch! It's hot')

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• RESEARCH FINDINGS:
• Kochanska et al. (2000): 3-year-olds waited longer than 2-year-olds before touching a forbidden gift
• Lemmon & Moore (2007): Delay of gratification increases with age — 1/3 of 6-8 yr olds waited; 1/2 of 9-11 yr olds; nearly ALL 12-15 yr olds waited one day for a bigger reward
• Shoda, Mischel & Peake (1990): Preschoolers with greatest self-control later had higher SAT scores, better education, higher self-esteem, less drug/alcohol use as adolescents

5.7–5.8 Aggression — Definition & Types

What is Aggression?

Behaviour intended to harm others — physical or verbal — carried out without regard for the rights of others. Distinguished from assertive behaviour (goal-directed but not harmful).

Instrumental Aggression

A child uses aggression to achieve an explicit goal.

Example: Grabbing a toy away from another child.

Hostile Aggression

Unprovoked aggression to intimidate, harass or humiliate.

Example: Saying 'You're stupid' and then kicking another child.

Reactive Aggression

Child's aggression in reaction to another's provocation.

Example: Punching the child who won a game.

Onset

Children begin showing aggressive behaviour by age 1 to 2 years. Early intervention is critical.

Key Distinction

Assertive ≠ Aggressive. An 'aggressive businessman' is actually ASSERTIVE — their behaviour does not hurt others.

5.9 Roots of Aggressive Behaviour

• A. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS: Temperament (difficult, emotional, inattentive children more prone to aggression); Testosterone (higher levels linked to irritability & aggression); Lack of neurotransmitters that inhibit aggression — BUT these do NOT CAUSE aggression, they make it more likely
• B. FAMILY: Harsh physical punishment teaches children that force controls others; Unresponsive, uninvolved parents who do not monitor their children → more aggression
• C. PEERS: Aggressive children befriend other aggressive children; Aggressive adolescents join gangs → more frequent anti-social behaviour
• D. FAILURE IN SCHOOL: Academic frustration → aggression; 'Self-fulfilling prophecy' in grouped underachievers; OR aggressive children are uninterested in school and disruptive
• E. POVERTY: Aggressive behaviour more common among children in poverty; Parents under stress are harsh disciplinarians; Crowded homes push adolescents to streets with less supervision; High crime neighbourhoods model violence
• F. TV & COMPUTER GAMES: Exposure to hundreds of violent acts weekly; Longitudinal studies suggest media violence exposure leads to more aggressive adult behaviour (though still debated)

Topic 6: Emotional Development

Emotions, Temperament, and Attachment

6.1 What is an Emotion?

Basic Emotions

• Experienced by people WORLDWIDE
• Three elements:
• 1. Subjective feeling (varies with individuals)
• 2. Physiological changes (increased heartbeat, breathing)
• 3. Overt behaviour (crying, shaking)
• Examples: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust
• Universal — same facial expressions across ALL cultures and regions

Complex Emotions

• Feelings of SUCCESS (expectations met) or FAILURE (expectations not met)
• Emerge around 1½ to 2 years of age when children develop understanding of SELF
• Require self-awareness to experience
• Examples: Pride, Guilt, Embarrassment, Regret, Relief, Shame
• Example: Child feels GUILTY after breaking a toy ('You told me to be careful, but I was not')
• Example: Child feels PRIDE after completing a challenging task for the first time

6.2 What is Emotional Development?

• Emotional development is the process of developing feelings and learning how to handle them appropriately
• It refers to children's growing ability to:
• → Understand their OWN feelings
• → Understand the feelings of OTHERS
• → MANAGE their feelings appropriately
• → Develop EMPATHY
• → Establish good relationships with family, friends & others
• From birth, children quickly develop the ability to express different basic emotions and cope with them
• Children need the help of PARENTS and other ADULTS to cope and manage different feelings
• Every child has emotional needs — meeting those needs is one of the most important responsibilities of parents and caregivers

6.3 Function of Emotions — Why Do We Have Emotions?

• Emotions are ADAPTIVE — they help us adapt to the environment and survive
• FEAR: Walking alone at night through a dark neighbourhood → you become more alert, more conscious of surroundings, walk quickly to safety → fear organises behaviour around important goals (avoiding danger)
• HAPPINESS: When people are happy, they smile → causes others to feel happy too → better interpersonal relationships ('Smile and the whole world smiles with you')
• DISGUST: When you put spoilt food in your mouth, you immediately spit it out → protects health
• Without emotions: you would not feel pleasure from food, love, or human connection
• Researchers argue emotions are essential for the CONTINUITY OF HUMAN SPECIES
• Reference: Kail (2008) — emotions enable humans to adapt to different situations throughout life

6.4 Expression of Emotions — Developmental Timeline

6.4 Expression of Emotions — Developmental Timeline

6.5 Children Having Fear of School (School Phobia)

What is School Refusal?

• Recognised since the 1960s (Blagg, 1990)
• Equally common in BOYS and GIRLS
• Most likely to occur between ages 5–11
• Highest incidence when schools reopen
• Definition (Sharma, 1996): Behaviour of resisting or refusing to attend a specific class or stay in school for an entire day
• These children are generally WELL-BEHAVED and academically SMART — unlike truants, they stay home WITH parents' knowledge
• Symptoms: Stomach pain, headache, nausea; Crying; Frequent nurse visits; Temper tantrums; Anxiety/sadness

Why Children Refuse School

• Overly anxious; specific fears about teachers, peers, or school setting
• Separation anxiety — afraid to be away from home / parents
• Anxiety at school OR home requiring gradual exposure
• Feeling others see them negatively — avoiding social situations (social anxiety)
• Negative peer relationships — teasing or bullying

6.5 What Parents Can Do — School Refusal Strategies

Talk to Your Child

Discuss school multiple times in advance. Listen, be interested, share YOUR own initial school fears and positive experiences. Acknowledge feelings without dismissing them.

Read a Children's Book

Read books about going to school together. This helps the child feel understood and less afraid of the unknown.

Draw a Story Together

Create pictures/stories describing what happens at school — walking to class, hugging goodbye, making friends, classroom activities, pickup time.

Visit the School Early

Visit a few days before school starts. Most schools offer pre-school days. Let the child explore the playground, meet their teacher in a safe context.

Expect Physical Complaints

'My stomach hurts' is normal. Check their temperature; these comforting behaviours are reassuring to the child. Take it seriously without panic.

Don't Reward Staying Home

Don't make home more attractive than school. Reduce incentives for staying home; instead, reward going to school and staying the full day.

6.6 Recognising Others' Emotions & Regulating Emotions

• Recognising another person's emotions and adapting your behaviour accordingly is a key social skill
• Babies as early as 4 months (definitely by 6 months) can distinguish facial expressions associated with different emotions
• When mothers smile and speak pleasantly → babies express happiness; when mothers are angry or sad → infants become distressed (Montague & Walker-Andrews, 2001)
• Ages 2–5: Children gradually learn to MANAGE their feelings — a toddler having a tantrum when a toy is taken gradually learns to express anger in other ways
• Young children also begin to develop MORAL EMOTIONS (ashamed or guilty when they do something wrong)
• Young children get FRUSTRATED when there is a gap between what they want to do and what they can do → tantrums
• By school age: Children are better able to LINK thoughts and feelings, use words to describe feelings, and tolerate frustration, delay gratification, and calm themselves down
• Feelings and behaviour are closely linked — when feelings are not managed, ability to think is impaired

6.7 Temperament — Definition & Nine Traits (Thomas & Chess)

• Definition: Abilities children are BORN WITH that enable them to interact with and react to people, places and things
• New York Longitudinal Study (Thomas, Chess et al.): Tracked 141 individuals from infancy through adulthood in the late 1960s
• Nine temperament traits (PRESENT AT BIRTH, influence development throughout life):
• 1. Activity — level of physical activity (active vs. relaxed)
• 2. Rhythmicity — regularity of eating/sleeping habits
• 3. Approach/Withdrawal — how child responds to new people or things
• 4. Adaptability — ability to adjust to changes in routines
• 5. Intensity — strength of emotional reactions (strong vs. calm)
• 6. Mood — generally positive vs. negative outlook; even-tempered vs. frequent shifts
• 7. Persistence & Attention Span — stays with tasks vs. gives up easily
• 8. Distractibility — easily distracted vs. able to shut out external stimulation
• 9. Sensory Threshold — bothered by loud noises/bright lights/textures vs. ignores them

6.7 Three Basic Temperament Types (Thomas & Chess)

Easy / Flexible (40%)

Generally calm, happy, regular in sleeping & eating habits, adaptable, not easily upset.

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Strategy: Set aside special times to talk — they won't demand it. Intentional communication strengthens the relationship.

Difficult / Feisty (10%)

Often fussy, irregular feeding/sleeping, fearful of new people, easily upset by noise, intense reactions.

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Strategy: Provide vigorous play areas; prepare for transitions; use redirection when changing activities.

Slow to Warm Up / Cautious (15%)

Relatively inactive and fussy, withdraw or react negatively to new situations, but gradually become more positive with repeated exposure.

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Strategy: Stick to routine; allow ample time to build relationships; let independence unfold slowly.

Mixed (35%)

Combination of the above patterns. No child fits exactly into one category.

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Behaviours classified as 'easy' or 'difficult' can vary based on parental and cultural values.

Tips for Adults

• Respect the child's uniqueness — don't compare

• Be aware of YOUR OWN temperament

• Communicate, explain decisions

• Set firm limits; be a good role model

• Encourage teamwork on finding solutions

Goodness of Fit

The MATCH between a child's temperament and their environment (family, school, childcare) greatly improves relationships. Understanding temperament makes parenting more effective and enjoyable.

6.7 Temperament Types According to Rothbart (2004)

Three Temperament Dimensions

• 1. SURGENCY / EXTRAVERSION: Extent to which a child is generally happy, active, vocal, and seeks interesting stimulation
• 2. NEGATIVE AFFECT: Extent to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy, and not easily soothed
• 3. EFFORTFUL CONTROL: Extent to which a child can focus attention, is NOT readily distracted, and can inhibit responses

Key Findings & Implications

• These temperament types are evident in INFANCY through CHILDHOOD and play a role in determining adolescent and adult personality
• Cannot classify individuals as strictly one type — dimensions overlap
• Example: Children HIGH in Effortful Control tend to be HIGH in Surgency/Extraversion and LOW in Negative Affect
• SCHOOL IMPACT: Achievement related to TASK ORIENTATION (activity level + distractibility + persistence)
• Teachers find students with positive temperaments easier to teach and give more time to
• Teacher-child temperament FIT matters greatly for classroom success

6.8 Attachment — What is Attachment?

• The most important property of humankind is the capacity to form and maintain RELATIONSHIPS
• Relationships are absolutely necessary for survival, learning, work, love and procreation
• Within intimate relationships, we are bonded with 'EMOTIONAL GLUE' — bonded with love (Perry, 2011)
• Newborn humans cannot survive without a caregiver providing food and protection
• In their first year, babies' brains DOUBLE in volume — experiences become hardwired as a foundation for life
• The DEEP BOND which children form with their primary caregiver is called ATTACHMENT
• Attachment is an emotional bond to another person — found in all mammals, especially primates
• John Bowlby (1969): First attachment theorist — described attachment as 'a lasting psychological connectedness between human beings'
• Key elements of an attachment bond: (1) Enduring emotional relationship with a specific person; (2) Brings safety, comfort & pleasure; (3) Loss or threat of loss evokes intense distress

6.8 Bowlby's Four Phases of Attachment Growth

6.8 Four Types of Attachment (Ainsworth's Strange Situation)

6.8 Why Attachment Quality Matters

Securely Attached Children

• Explore their environment more freely and learn with CONFIDENCE
• More POPULAR with peers; exhibit more positive social interactions
• More EMOTIONALLY STABLE; able to express and manage feelings well
• Better at handling STRESS and helping others handle stress

Insecurely Attached Children

• More likely to STRUGGLE with confidence and learning
• More at risk for HOSTILE, anti-social or difficult peer relationships
• More likely to be EMOTIONALLY UNSTABLE; difficulty expressing/managing feelings
• More likely to struggle when stressed, act out in unhealthy ways, and be insensitive to others under stress

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• Behaviours that PROMOTE attachment: smiling, eye contact, vocalising, following, clinging, physical touch/hugging, exploring together, feeding interactions, crying, playing

6.9 Supporting Children's Emotional Development

• Keep the emotional climate of the HOME calm, warm and predictable
• Accept and ACKNOWLEDGE your child's emotions (do not dismiss or minimise them)
• Read stories and TALK ABOUT the feelings of characters — this helps children understand their own feelings
• Help your child PUT FEELINGS INTO WORDS: 'It seems like you are feeling disappointed at the moment'
• Encourage children to talk about situations that make them feel excited, happy, angry or worried
• PRAISE children for not losing control and staying calm
• Help children separate FEELINGS from BEHAVIOUR: 'I know you are feeling angry but it is not OK to hit'
• Help children understand OTHERS' feelings: 'I know you feel frustrated but what you're doing is making your sister feel sad'
• Children's emotional development is greatly influenced by the QUALITY OF RELATIONSHIPS with parents
• Children learn to manage emotions by WATCHING how family members express and manage their own emotions — parents are critical role models

Summary: Topic 5 — Moral Development

• MORAL: Principles or rules of right conduct — being upright, honest, virtuous and having integrity
• MORALITY: The ability to learn the difference between right and wrong and make right choices
• KOHLBERG'S 3 LEVELS: (1) Pre-Conventional — obedience & self-interest; (2) Conventional — social norms & rules; (3) Post-Conventional — universal principles & justice
• Kohlberg focuses on REASONING (WHY), not the YES/NO answer to a dilemma
• CRITICISMS: Moral reasoning ≠ moral behaviour; overemphasises justice; Western-centric; male-centric
• PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR: Behaviour that benefits others — driven by empathy, perspective-taking, responsibility, competence, mood
• SELF-CONTROL: Ability to resist temptation — emerges in infancy, improves with age; linked to better life outcomes
• AGGRESSION: Behaviour meant to harm others — types: instrumental, hostile, reactive; roots: biology, family, peers, school failure, poverty, media

Summary: Topic 6 — Emotional Development

• EMOTION: Conscious feelings (joy, sorrow, fear, hate) — Basic emotions (universal) + Complex emotions (self-aware, emerge ~1½–2 yrs)
• EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: Growing ability to understand, manage, and express feelings; develop empathy; build relationships
• FUNCTION OF EMOTIONS: Adaptive — help us survive and respond appropriately to the environment
• FACIAL EXPRESSIONS: Universal across all cultures and regions; present from birth; left frontal cortex more active during happiness
• SCHOOL PHOBIA: Common ages 5–11; equally in boys & girls; deal with it through communication, gradual exposure, routine, not rewarding avoidance
• RECOGNISING EMOTIONS: Babies recognise facial expressions by 4–6 months; emotional regulation improves through childhood
• TEMPERAMENT: Inborn traits (9 by Thomas & Chess; 3 dimensions by Rothbart) — Easy (40%), Difficult (10%), Slow-to-Warm-Up (15%), Mixed (35%)
• ATTACHMENT: Deep emotional bond with primary caregiver (Bowlby's 4 phases); 4 types (Ainsworth) — Secure attachment leads to better outcomes in ALL areas of development

Key Takeaways

Moral Development:

Children progress through identifiable stages of moral reasoning — from self-interest to universal principles of justice

Emotional Development:

Emotions are adaptive; children develop emotional understanding and regulation progressively from birth

Temperament:

Each child is born with unique temperamental traits — understanding them helps parents and teachers respond effectively

Attachment:

Secure attachment is the foundation for confident exploration, healthy relationships, and emotional wellbeing throughout life

Child Development Series — Topics 5 & 6