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America’s Musical Landscape�8th edition

Part 4:

Vernacular Musics Since Rock and Roll

Chapter 15: Jazz Since 1960

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Jazz Since 1960

New styles emerged without replacing established jazz trends

Jazz increased in complexity and sophistication
Not in popularity, however

Since bebop, jazz has been likened to classical as well as popular music

Jazz is sometimes called “America’s classical music” (Billy Taylor)

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Jazz in the 1960s

Jazz musicians explored the relationship between classical and popular music

Less emphasis was placed on outstanding solo performances

More emphasis on collective improvisation by several, or even by all, ensemble members at the same time

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Free Jazz

During the 1960s, jazz musicians explored new approaches to improvisation

Improvisation remained at the core of the concept of jazz
Some believed that jazz was not primarily about individual solos, but best expressed by collective improvisation, or the simultaneous improvisation of some or all members of a jazz combo

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Free Jazz: Characteristics, 1

No standard chord changes

Usually no references to popular songs or blues

No steady beat

Each musician improvised independently, but were aware of others

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Free Jazz: Characteristics, 2

Initial phrases of a piece were often played together by soloists yet not necessarily in unison

Released musicians from the strictures of tonality, recurring rhythmic patterns, fixed pulse, and predetermined themes

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Free Jazz: Characteristics, 3

Short melodic motives—riffs—were often used in the improvisation

Free jazz evoked the freedom African-Americans were trying to achieve in many areas of life, both sociopolitcally and culturally

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Free Jazz and its Relationship to Non-Western Music, 1

Having no chord changes meant that free jazz sometimes did not include piano

The keyboard is limited to the tones of the black and white keys
Musicians to explore non-Western scales
Musicians were able to include instruments from other cultures

Also played Western instruments in nontraditional ways

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Free Jazz and its Relationship to Non-Western Music, 2

Multiinstrumentalist Ornette Coleman’s free jazz performances used:

Microtones (lying between the tones of a piano keyboard)
Rhythmic techniques from the music of India

Heightened emotions; intellectually challenging

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Listening Example 58

A Love Supreme, Part I

“Acknowledgment” (excerpt)

By John Coltrane

Performed by the

John Coltrane Quartet

(Coltrane on tenor sax, plus piano, bass, drums)

Listening Guide page 262

Meter: An improvised introduction, then quadruple meter that is free and flexible, changing as the piece progresses, with skillful polyrhythms.
After the brief opening passage, bass introduces the four-note main theme, based on the words “a love supreme.”

Produced in 1964, the very spiritual and emotional album A Love Supreme seems to identify with rebellious youth of the 1960s seeking new cultural

and spiritual identities based on non-Western traditions. Combining religious ecstasy with tranquility and meditation, this hypnotic mixture of music and chanting became one of the best-selling jazz albums of all time.

Acknowledgement is the first of four sections, which make up a suite. The other three parts are Resolution, Pursuance, and Psalm.

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Third Stream

Third stream music combines jazz and classical music in a manner that—unlike the blending of classical and jazz effects in symphonic, cool, and progressive jazz—allows each style to retain its characteristic qualities

John Lewis of the Modern Jazz Quartet was a pioneer of this style

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Third Stream:�John Lewis (1920-2001)

Classically trained, this African-American pianist was interested in Renaissance and Baroque European art music

Founded the Modern Jazz Quartet

Wrote jazz pieces for the MJQ using classical forms of earlier periods

Some pieces were performed with the MJQ ; others with symphony orchestras or other classical ensembles

MJQ improvised, while the classical ensemble read and played the notes
Both ensembles remained true to their respective musical traditions

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Third Stream:�Gunther Schuller (b. 1925)

Introduced the term “third stream”

Believed that jazz and classical music should be treated as separate but complementary entities

Derivation of the term

Classical music: “first stream” of music
Jazz: “second stream”
“Third steam” allowed each to retain its characteristic qualities

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Third Stream remained in vogue for only a short time

Its influence persists

Example: Ornette Coleman’s 1960s piece Skies of America (album released 1972) for symphony orchestra and solo jazz improvisers

The conductor chooses between an array of notated inserts to be cued to the orchestra by hand signals

Coleman’s piece was challenging for symphonic players

New York Philharmonic musicians balked in 1997 when Coleman suggested to play notes other than notes he had written

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The 1970s and Prior Decades, 1

No one style reigned exclusively

All jazz styles existed concurrently with other important kinds

Yet each decade is associated with its own particular jazz innovations

It is possible to pinpoint a dichotomy between classically cool and romantically emotional music in every decade

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The 1970s and Prior Decades, 2

It is possible to define a dominant style for each decade

1920s: The jazz age; emotionally intense
1930s: The swing era; soothing big band music
1940s: Bebop’s beginnings
1950s: Cool jazz
1960s: Exploring relationships between jazz and classical music

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The 1970s, 1

Several important movements coexisted and influenced later jazz

A comeback of swing

European chamber music-style combos appealed to many musicians and listeners

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The 1970s, 2

Bebop made a powerful and lasting return

Two other movements vied for attention

World music
Fusion

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The 1970s: Fusion (Jazz-Rock)

Jazz and rock

Arose from the same roots (blues, gospel, work songs)
Faced a crisis as the 1970s began

Jazz seemed to be losing its identity

Foundering somewhere between classical and foreign ethnic musical styles

Rock, mourning the deaths of some of the greatest stars

Struggled to ways to address the tragic social and political events of the day

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Fusion (Jazz-Rock)

Jazz musicians began incorporating rock elements into their music in the 1960s

Example: Miles Davis’ 1969 recording Bitches Brew

Davis produced On the Corner in 1972, including sitar and shocking rock and funk drumbeats

Detractors called it “antijazz”

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Fusion Defined, 1

Jazz-rock, fusion, or jazz-rock-fusion

Melds rock rhythms and electronic instruments with:

Collective improvisation
Extreme volumes
Rapid shifts in meter, tempo, mood; uncharacteristic of rock

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Fusion Defined, 2

Largely an instrumental music
Bass guitar or electric bass instead of stand-up bass

Allows for faster playing
Sound was sometimes altered with electronic effects

Snare drums and bass drums dominated the rhythms

Rhythm section took on unprecedented dominance

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Fusion: Mid-1970s

Some jazz ensembles used electronic organs, other keyboards, synthesizers

Electroacoustic instruments: sound is mechanically generated, then electronically amplified and altered

Sound engineers became both artists and technicians

Manipulated sounds to help shape the music

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Weather Report: A Fusion Band of the 1970s and 1980s

One of the earliest and most influential jazz-rock groups; active for over fifteen years

Formed by keyboardist Joe Zawinul and saxophonist Wayne Shorter; both had worked with Miles Davis

This band stunningly highlights the virtuosity and rhythmic complexity of jazz-rock fusion

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Fusion: Two Influential Jazz Pianists, 1

Herbie Hancock (b. 1940)

Also initially worked with Miles Davis
Huge success with electronic instruments
His album Headhunters (1973)

The first jazz album to be certified gold
One of the best-selling jazz albums of all times
Electric bass, keyboards, synthesizers infused the music with a funk element (see chapter 13)

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Fusion: Two Influential Jazz Pianists, 2

Chick Corea (b. 1941)

Return to Forever was his influential fusion group
Corea played a wide variety of electronic keyboard instruments
Incorporated Latin American rhythms into his music

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The 1970s: �Integration of Foreign Sounds, 1

Fusion implies a bringing-together, yet caused serious schisms within the jazz world

Musicians faced choices

Between acoustic and electronic instruments
Between flexible free jazz rhythms and soul or gospel-influenced steady meters

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The 1970s: �Integration of Foreign Sounds, 2

Between different styles from foreign cultures

India, Brazil, Arabia, Bali, Japan, China, African cultures
European concert music was also integrated

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Integration of Foreign Sounds in the 1970s: Don Cherry (1936-1995), 1

Worked with Ornette Coleman, John Coltrane; performed and recorded in Europe and New York beginning in the 1960s

Following extensive travel in Asia and Africa, settled in Sweden

Became active there in music education and performance

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Integration of Foreign Sounds in the 1970s: Don Cherry (1936-1995), 2

Calling himself a “world musician,” Cherry mainly played trumpet

Also, various instruments from Tibet, China, India, Bali, other countries

1978: Cherry formed a trio, Codona, with a Brazilian percussionist and an American sitarist

Performed and recorded in various ethnic musical styles for children and adults

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The 1980s, 1

A fragmented period of enormous diversity, exploration, and discovery

New information about other music traditions
Sophisticated new technology

World music remained a dominant influence

Electronic techniques expanded

Often, musicians experiment with a number of kinds of jazz; players had more flexible musical identities

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The 1980s, 2

Often, musicians experiment with a number of kinds of jazz; players had more flexible musical identities

Two fields of interest were characteristic

Crossover jazz
Revival of interest in traditional styles

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The 1980s: Crossover Music, 1

Crossover music: blending of jazz and various other musical styles

Forefather: John Lewis and the Modern Jazz Quartet

Seen as a black response to the intellectualism of the Dave Brubeck Quartet

New York’s answer to West Coast cool jazz

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The 1980s: Crossover Music, 2

Fusion was another form of crossover

Remained strong in the 1980s; not as popular as in the 1970s
Herbie Hancock’s album Future Shock (1983) was an example

Included the piece “Rockit”

A combination of jazz, funk, electronics
A massive hit, inspired a popular music video on MTV

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1980s Crossover Music:�Pat Metheny (b. 1954), 1

Jazz guitarist who remains popular today

Often worked in a rock band format

Produced albums of melodious jazz-rock

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1980s Crossover Music:�Pat Metheny (b. 1954), 2

1985: composed the score for the movie The Falcon and the Snowman

Led to his recording “This is Not America”—a Top 40 hit—with David Bowie

Having explored the musical possibilities of the 12-string guitar and a digital sampling synthesizer called the synclavier, Metheny moved between pure jazz and pop jazz

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The 1980s: Traditionalism

Other musicians resisted blending jazz, rock, folk, pop, foreign sounds

They returned to earlier styles, updated to modern tastes
New Orleans, Chicago, and Dixieland jazz became popular
Bebop and so-called post-bop offered traditionalists a structured yet progressive sound; daring but not too new
The updated traditional styles incorporated freely flowing, flexible rhythms and meters derived from African music

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The 1990s and Beyond, 1

The 1990s became the first decade in jazz history to have no defining movement

Relationships to rock, soul, funk, world music, and classical music continued to strengthen

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The 1990s and Beyond, 2

A new subgenre of fusion called jazz-rap emerged

Fusion became more complex as musicians explored and expanded new styles, techniques, and technology

British jazz group Us3 released their album Cantaloop 2004, with “jazz influenced urban sounds leaning heavily on a Latino R&B vibe”

The recording samples Herbie Hancock’s “Cantaloupe Island”

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The 1990s and Beyond: No Wave or Noise

No-wave used “noise” as a dominant element (including musician and scholar John Zorn)

Pieces in this style are extremely brief, very fast, loud
Often collages of very short, isolated sound events

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The 1990s and Beyond: Musicians

John Zorn is among an impressive number of contemporary jazz musicians who:

Following Duke Ellington’s lead by finding ways to integrate composition and improvisation
Masterful improvisers, interested in experimenting with all the stylistic and technological resources available to them

Musicians are often also academic scholars

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The 1990s and Beyond�Henry Threadgill (b. 1944), 1

Saxophonist and flutist; toured with gospel musicians and blues bands

1960s: became associated with the Association for the Advancement of Creative Music (A A C M)

The group helped Chicago musicians present new, commercially unacceptable, jazz-influenced music

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The 1990s and Beyond�Henry Threadgill (b. 1944), 2

1970s: formed the trio Air

explored African music, ragtime, assorted traditional music styles

Since 1980: Formed groups with unusual instrumentation

Very Very Circus

Trombone, two tubas, two guitars, drums
Fuses avant-garde jazz, funk, salsa, European marches

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The 1990s and Beyond:�Anthony Braxton (b. 1945), 1

A former A A C M member, Braxton recorded an innovative double album of solo alto saxophone music For Alto, released in 1971

Other alto sax players soon made their own records
A master improviser

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The 1990s and Beyond:�Anthony Braxton (b. 1945), 2

An intellectual composer who devised systems for composing; some based on mathematical relationships, diagrams, or formulas

a means of generating improvisation within the framework of an orchestral composition
In some pieces, parts can be played by different instruments
Some of his compositions can be played simultaneously

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The 1990s and Beyond:�Anthony Davis (b. 1951)

Sometimes referred to as a crossover musician

Blends jazz and classical styles

Uses Eastern musical styles

Pianist and improviser

Writes out most of his music

Considers improvisation just one compositional tool

Episteme, his avant-garde jazz ensemble, has collaborated on third stream-style performances with classical performers

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Anthony Davis: �Classical Compositions, 1

The Life and Times of Malcolm X

Davis’s first opera; an early example of an American opera based on a more contemporary political subject

Amistad: his fourth opera, a story of a slave uprising on a ship, and the subsequent trial

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Anthony Davis: �Classical Compositions, 2

a Broadway composer

1993: Composed music for Tony Kushner’s prizewinning Angels in America

Davis’s symphonic, choral, and chamber works incorporate jazz and classical elements

Improvisatory passages, jazz undertones

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Wynton Marsalis (b. 1961)

A classicist who believes that bebop is the foundation of modern jazz

Defends, updates, and modernizes�early jazz styles

Juilliard-trained trumpet virtuoso�with extremely beautiful tone

Educator, composer, and artistic director of Jazz at Lincoln Center in New York City

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Wynton Marsalis, 1

Voices concern with restoring “respect and seriousness” to jazz

Believes the future of jazz is based more around composition than soloing

Writes music intended to endure through time

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Wynton Marsalis, 2

Author of Sweet Swing Blues on the Road, 1994

1998 Pulitzer Prize winner for his extended composition “Blood on the Fields”

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Jazz Today and Tomorrow

Continues to evolve

Tradition and innovation inspire today’s jazz musicians and fans

The blues was the subject of a celebration in 2003, declared by Congressional Proclamation, the Year of the Blues

In remembrance of W.C. Handy hearing, in 1903, a man playing slide guitar with a knife and singing a plaintive blues

He later published commercial blues, which established a relationship between blues and the music business

Today blues is considered a musical structure, a feeling, an attitude, an exacting discipline, and an enduring and malleable type of American music

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Jazz Today and tomorrow: Collectives, 1

Important to the jazz business today are numerous collectives organized to support jazz musicians

Collective organizations help musicians:

Make a living
Create jobs (called gigs)
Create new compositions (starting in the 1960s)

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Jazz Today and tomorrow: Collectives, 2

Collectives now play a stronger role than ever

Seek grant money for commissioning compositions and recordings
Sponsor concerts
Build audiences for new jazz music

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Jazz Today and Tomorrow: Instrumentation

Jazz instrumentation continues to evolve

Musicians explore new technology and world sounds
The organ and its evolution in jazz

1920s: Thomas (Fats) Waller played on a giant pipe organ
1940s and 1950s: Jazz organ trios with electric organ, guitar, drums, at times tenor sax imitated an orchestra
Today: Synthesizers and portable digital organs

Commercial success of sampling of organ-heavy soul jazz recordings from the 1960s has created a new audience for the Hammond (electric) organ
(Wild) Bill Davis: creator of the modern jazz organ

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Jazz Today and Tomorrow: Performances

The impulse toward arrangement largely dropped out of jazz performance from the 1960s through the 1980s

Returned thanks to Wynton Marsalis and other jazz musicians

The trend is towards less emphasis on virtuosic solos

The bandleader controls the ensemble, in a collective endeavor shifting focus from one musician to another
Today’s performances often seem to be more about rhythm and interplay than about solos or even melodies

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Jazz Today and Tomorrow: �Conclusion

Some classical string quartets play in popular contemporary American styles

Bluegrass, swing, bebop, funk, rhythm and blues, hip-hop, salsa, others—plus classical Indian music

Innumerable jazz festivals around the nation and worldwide celebrate local and international talent

It has become increasingly unrealistic to confine jazz to narrow definitions

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