INTERNATIONAL STEM RESEARCH
JOURNAL
sites.google.com/view/isrjournal I S S U E 4 : DECEMBER 2 0 2 4
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These section features short blog posts about topics and issues that our editors are interested in. Ranging from self-driving cars to gene editing, each blog reflects our team's interests in cutting-edge science research.
EDITORIALS
Prospective, multi-site study of patient outcomes after implementation of the TREWS machine learning-based early warning system for sepsis
Tailoring silk-based covering material with matched mechanical properties for vascular tissue engineering
The first face transplant to include an eye shows no rejection a year later
CRISPR-based engineering of RNA viruses
New research on plant stem cells shines light on how plants grow stronger
2-billion-year-old rock home to living microbes
First results from BREAD experiment demonstrate a new approach to searching for dark matter
Gene Therapy Shows Long-Term Benefits for Patients With a Rare Pediatric Brain Disease
An mRNA vaccine protected mice against deadly intestinal C. difficile bacteria
Leading scientists redefine 'sustainability' to save the ocean and feed a hungry and warming planet
Growing Brains, Nurturing Minds—Neuroscience as an Educational Tool to Support Students’ Development as Life-Long Learners
After injury, these comb jellies can fuse to become one
Urban growth and the emergent statistics of cities
Scientists cut harmful pollution from hydrogen engines
Neuroscience breakthrough: Entire brain of adult fruit fly mapped
To make children better fact-checkers, expose them to more misinformation -- with oversight
Tiny Antibodies to Fight the Dangerous Effects of Opioids
Asymmetric placebo effect in response to spicy food
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FEATURED ARTICLES
Our Featured Articles are written by high school students then reviewed by high school students! The review process allows both the reviewers and the writers to learn something about the scientific writing process, which is one of the main goals of our journal.
BLOG ARTICLES
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FEATURED ARTICLES
Our Featured Articles are written by high school students then reviewed by high school students! The review process allows both the reviewers and the writers to learn something about the scientific writing process, which is one of the main goals of our journal.
REVIEWS
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This month, we have two outstanding students we want to highlight by sharing their science fair projects! We encourage all our readers to participate in science fairs and feel free to submit your projects for the chance to be featured in our next issue!
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A NOTE ABOUT OUR COVER
by Alice Park
Lise Meitner was a physicist that first coined the phrase “nuclear fission”, and discovered the element protactinium, making groundbreaking contributions to physics and chemistry. As a Jewish woman, she continued to chase her scientific endeavors even when met with barriers.
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“ do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.”
Photo source: Rosalind Franklin University
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“There is a single light of science, and to brighten it anywhere is to brighten it everywhere.”
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OUR STORY
We are a group of high school students passionate about all things science. This is a peer-reviewed journal written, reviewed, and published by high school students.
TOPICS
We publish articles on Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Computer Science, Environmental Science, Engineering, Physics, Psychology, and Technology.
OUR MISSION
Our Mission is to provide high school students the opportunity to write and give feedback on our scientific writing, then share this writing with the world. We feel that by engaging regularly in science and scientific writing, we are becoming tomorrow’s scientists, today.
A Note About Submissions: Our featured articles underwent blind peer-review, therefore the authors and editors were kept completely anonymous during the editing and revising process to prevent bias. If you would like to submit to our journal, please visit our website: LINK.
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SENIOR EDITORS
ALICE SEOYOUNG PARK, NORTHWOOD HIGH SCHOOL
AIDEN JOOWON PARK, NORTH HOLLYWOOD HIGH SCHOOL
CLAIRE JIN, CREAN LUTHERAN HIGH SCHOOL
DAVID CHANG, CREAN LUTHERAN HIGH SCHOOL
HYEONMIN SEO, BRANHAM HIGH SCHOOL
HYUNJUNG OH, DIAMOND BAR HIGH SCHOOL
ISABELLA CHOI, CHAMINADE HIGH SCHOOL
JOSHUA KIM, BUCKINGHAM COLLEGIATE CHARTER ACADEMY
MINHA OH, SAGE HILL SCHOOL
ONEAL WANG, SAGE HILL SCHOOL
RUBI LEE, ORANGE COUNTY SCHOOL OF THE ARTS
RYAN YOO, ORANGE COUNTY SCHOOL OF THE ARTS
YIDAM PARK, BRANHAM HIGH SCHOOL
Our Editors are all high school students who are passionate about STEM and have helped provide critical constructive feedback on the articles published in this issue.
JUNIOR EDITORS
CADEN CHOI, BISHOP MONTGOMERY HIGH SCHOOL
ISAAC JANG, CALVARY CHAPEL CHRISTIAN SCHOOL
SOL HWANG, NORTHWOOD HIGH SCHOOL
VERA YANG, SAGE HILL HIGH SCHOOL
YEOWON YOON, TROY HIGH SCHOOL
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MEDIA TEAM
Our Media Team are all high school students who have helped create and maintain our website and assist with the final layout of our published issues.
HYEONMIN SEO, BRANHAM HIGH SCHOOL
IRENE SOK, CREAN LUTHERAN HIGH SCHOOL
ISABELLA CHOI, CHAMINADE HIGH SCHOOL
CLAIRE JIN, CREAN LUTHERAN HIGH SCHOOL�CHANBIN PARK, PALM DESERT HIGH SCHOOL
AIDEN PARK, NORTH HOLLYWOOD HIGH SCHOOL
RYAN YOO, ORANGE COUNTY SCHOOL OF THE ARTS
LAYOUT TEAM
Our Layout Team are all high school students who manage the format of each page of the issue, making the the page layout appealing and easy for the reader.
ALICE SEO-YOUNG PARK, NORTHWOOD HIGH SCHOOL
DAVID CHANG,CREAN LUTHERAN HIGH SCHOOL
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such as poor material compliance and biological inactivity in commercial options can lead to complications after implantation. Silk fibroin (SF) is a promising biomaterial known for its excellent hemocompatibility and tissue compatibility. In this research, a silk film for covered stents using a layer-by-layer self-assembly
EDITOR’S PICKS
Our Editors have written summaries of recent research they read and enjoyed. Find out what has grabbed their attention by checking out the articles below!
to see if the early detection of sepsis would be impactful in reducing mortality and shortening hospital stays, especially in higher risk populations. Their project turned out to be successful, as they found that prompt response to alerts from TREWS did reduce mortality. This mechanism could one day extend to more than just sepsis detection, allowing for increased survivability and patient outcomes among hospitals; sepsis is already one of the leading causes of death in hospitals.
By Vera Wang
Prospective, multi-site study of patient outcomes after implementation of the TREWS machine learning-based early warning system for sepsis, Nature Medicine
The study on TREWS (targeted real-time early warning system) was to detect sepsis early in patients was conducted by researchers at Johns Hopkins University. The researchers wanted
Tailoring silk-based covering material with matched mechanical properties for vascular tissue engineering
This study was done by Soochow University, Suzhou. Vascular covered stents are crucial for treating cardiovascular diseases, but issues
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EDITORS’ PICKS
technique with regenerated SF applied to silk braiding fabric was created. The results showed that there was a significant relationship between these factors and both the compliance and mechanical strength. This research is significant because it explores the use of silk fibroin in stents, potentially improving patient safety and outcomes through enhanced biocompatibility and reduced complications. By investigating the mechanical properties of silk films, it paves the way for innovative and customizable stent designs that could revolutionize cardiovascular treatments.
By Minha Oh
The first face transplant to include an eye shows no rejection a year later, New York University Langone Health
This facial transplant study was done by New York University Langone Health. They were trying to figure out whether it was possible to restore someone’s vision through a partial face transplant after severe facial injuries. A partial face transplant including the eye was performed on Aaron James, who suffered a electrical injury that damaged his face. A year after the medical procedure, there were no signs of rejection and there was blood flow to the donated eye. Although Aaron James isn’t able to see through the donated eye, this may be a potential solution for those with blindness. This study is interesting because it shows an advancement in transplant medicine and raises questions such as the possibility of restoring sight through transplants. It shows the capabilities of our modern society and the emerging techniques in surgical procedures.
By Claire Lee
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ineffectiveness of CRISPR when editing RNA without a DNA intermediary. Although Cas13 was developed to tackle this issue, it lacks in capabilities. In their experiment, they developed and improved a system called the type III CRISPR system. This system, while chemically remaining the same compared to other types (type II, V, VI) of a single polypeptide, only requires a complementary base pairing between the RNA guide and the RNA target. This method is still being developed and is only used in a limited amount of scenarios. CRISPR shows us the possibilities of gene editing in the future, and will play a major role in preventing life-debilitating diseases and conditions. It has also proven to create vaccines in record times, serving itself as one of humanity's greatest protectors.
By David Wong
EDITORS’ PICKS
New research on plant stem cells shines light on how plants grow stronger, University of Connecticut
gene, which controls cell division in vascular stem cells, with plants with one, then two copies of overexpressed HVA genes. They found that the more overexpressed HVA genes there were, the more vascular bundles the plants had. Wang’s findings have positive implications on agriculture, specifically the possibility of making taller crops more resilient to wind. I thought this article was interesting because animal stem cells are used in the medical industry, but finding more uses for plant stem cells could open up much more opportunities.
By Sol Hwang
Huanzhong Wang, a professor of plant molecular biology at the University of Connecticut, led the study. They wanted to bring attention to the fact that plants have stem cells, as well as what they could be used for. They compared plants with no overexpression of the HVA
CRISPR-based engineering of RNA viruses, Montana State University
This study was conducted by faculty members of the Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology located at Montana State University. The problem identified by these researchers was the inadequacy and
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EDITORS’ PICKS
2-billion-year-old rock home to living microbes, sciencedaily
inhospitable conditions? By using cutting edge imaging techniques, they found resilient microbes hidden in cracks of rock from South Africa’s Bushveld Igneous Complex, proving these tiny organisms have been alive for eons without contamination. This discovery blows the door wide open on understanding early life on Earth and fuels the thrilling hunt for life on Mars. If life can survive in rocks this ancient, who knows what secrets might be hiding beneath the surface of other planets?
By David Chang
Researchers from the University of Tokyo have uncovered something incredible: living microbes trapped inside a 2-billion-year-old rock! (as pictured to the left) They set out to answer a mind-boggling question. Could life have survived in such ancient,
First results from BREAD experiment demonstrate a new approach to searching for dark matter
The study was conducted by the University of Chicago and Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. The Broadband Reflector Experiment for Axion Detection or BREAD, hoped to find the answer to
these questions: What is Dark Matter? In order to answer this question, they built a BREAD detector, a metal tube with a curved surface that is very small to the size of one’s arm. This detector could collect datas about the dark matter at a wide range, which is more efficient than looking for high quality data from only a specific spot. The team ran for test run at UChicago and the result was very promising. So, the BREAD was relocated to Argonne National Laboratory to collect more data. This was very interesting to me because their new approach to collecting data – focusing more on the quantity than quality – was very interesting. This should be interesting to the readers as well because not only the new approach is interesting, but also the dark matter itself is as well.
Yuna Sun
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/04/240402192614.htm
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study on cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy (CALD), a rare genetic disorder in boys characterized by rapid neurological decline and death. They evaluated the long-term outcomes of elivaldogene autotemcel (eli-cel), the first gene therapy approved for CALD. Six years after the treatment 94% of the patients experienced no neurological decline, with over 80% avoiding major disability. However, some patients developed blood cancers, likely triggered by the gene therapy used. This study is interesting to me because it highlights the potential of gene therapy to treat life-threatening diseases while also revealing the risks involved. This study is important because it demonstrates significant advances in treating CALD while exposing the risks associated with gene therapy. It offers a path forward in treating a devastating disease while focusing on the urgent need for ongoing research to improve safety.
By Jocelyn Kim
EDITORS’ PICKS
An mRNA vaccine protected mice against deadly intestinal C. difficile bacteria
illness and kills 30,000 people in the US each year. The problem they aimed to solve was the lack of effective treatments and approved vaccines for C. difficile, which often infects people after antibiotic treatments. Using mRNA technology, the researchers designed a vaccine targeting multiple proteins that contribute to the bacteria’s toxicity. In their experiments, vaccinated mice survived lethal doses of the pathogen and experienced mild symptoms, while unvaccinated mice died. The study shows potential for mRNA vaccine to succeed where traditional vaccines have failed, and this is particularly interesting because it opens up new avenues for treating antibiotic-resistant infections, a significant public health challenge.
By Yidam Park
A research team in Pennsylvania developed an mRNA vaccine aimed at combating Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile), a harmful intestinal bacteria that causes severe
Gene Therapy Shows Long-Term Benefits for Patients With a Rare Pediatric Brain Disease, Mass General Brigham
Researchers from Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston’s Children Hospital and collaborators conducted a
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Researchers studied how neural pathways adapted to different levels of balance and support of a students’ learning and built their study on Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development describes the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with help. The research findings led to the conclusion that educational environments that encourage challenge while providing emotional and social safety foster the best learning environment and is especially beneficial for neurodivergent learners, who tend to feel more validated and encouraged with this kind of educational
contributor to ocean destruction, a group of professors and researchers from the University of Exeter, Miami, and British Columbia are calling policymakers, retailers, and fishery managers to act now. Climate change, the loss of marine biodiversity, and regeneration of depleted marine ecosystems are some of the problems the researchers hope to engender solutions for. Specifically, they point to supermarkets as a key player in this transition to more sustainable ocean practices; they are “responsible for nearly two thirds of European seafood sales” and can influence what consumers buy with which products they decide to label as sustainable or not. As a Korean, seafood is a major part of Korean cuisine, and my family is fearful of how much longer we will be able to enjoy the delicacies of the ocean. And as a culinary enthusiast, I believe I speak on behalf of people on all seven continents of this Earth that the removal of seafood from our cuisines would be a devastating loss in not just cuisine, but culture.
By Ryan Yoo
Leading scientists redefine 'sustainability' to save the ocean and feed a hungry and warming planet
With fishing being globally recognized as the greatest
Growing Brains, Nurturing Minds—Neuroscience as an Educational Tool to Support Students’ Development as Life-Long Learners
This study on the students’ brain, led by various researchers, focuses on the integration of neuroplasticity and educational design to enhance student learning.
EDITORS’ PICKS
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environment. These insights emphasize the importance of tailored educational strategies that leverage brain plasticity for long-term success.
By Hailey Kim
After injury, these comb jellies can fuse to become one
Researchers from the University of Exeter, UK, and National Institutes of Natural Sciences in Okazaki, Japan found that the comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi can fuse with another individual after an injury, effectively becoming one organism. The researchers initially discovered a comb jelly with two backends and two sensory structures, leading them to question if it was a consequence of the Mnemiopsis leidyi lacking a system for allorecognition (the ability to distinguish between self and others). To find an explanation for this unusual occurrence, they conducted an experiment by removing partial lobes from comb jelly individuals and placing them in pairs to see if they would fuse, and observed that 9 out of 10 times they did in
EDITORS’ PICKS
Urban growth and the emergent statistics of cities
The study was conducted by Luis M. A. Bettencourt of the University of Chicago. The primary focus of this study was on building a general statistical model to scale and display urban growth in cities through differential equations and various other mathematical and statistical practices. The study established and illustrated the
just hours. The combined comb jelly was able to react to stimuli together, with synchronized muscle contractions and merged digestive and nervous systems. This study sheds light on a completely new biological process that could have major implications for fields like regenerative research, tissue engineering, and immunology.
By Ahrhan Lee
efficient parameterization that scaling analysis provides in displaying urban city growth, and developed multiple mathematical equations and proofs that can be used
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they often still produce harmful greenhouse gases, most notably NOx, or nitrogen oxides. The researchers were able to fix this problem through the use of platinum and Y zeolites in order to enhance the reactions between these NOx and hydrogen into harmless nitrogen gas and water. This now effectively cuts most emissions from these hydrogen engines and this may prove to be an essential development in our fight against climate change.
By Aiden Park
Scientists cut harmful pollution from hydrogen engines
Researchers at UC Riverside have developed a low-cost version of a hydrogen-fueled engine to help reduce the pollution caused from them. Hydrogen-power has long been thought of as a superior form of energy for fuel cells as they often are very powerful and cause very little pollution compared to other sources of energy. However,
EDITORS’ PICKS
to model and measure these phenomenons. This study was interesting to me as it showed how complicated and advanced mathematical analysis is used in modeling urban growth and other intersecting factors in cities—which is an issue that concerns so many people across the planet from all kinds of cities and locations; providing a more accurate and factual basis for urban studies.
By Alice Park
Neuroscience breakthrough: Entire brain of adult fruit fly mapped
With around 140,000 neurons and 50 million synapses, the adult fruit fly’s brain is the most complex brain connectome of any animal studied to date. Led by Princeton’s Mala Murthy and
Sebastian Seung, the FlyWire Consortium developed a map of the fruit fly brain
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EDITORS’ PICKS
To make children better fact-checkers, expose them to more misinformation -- with oversight
skeptical of information they encounter, instead of being guided away from them. These students conducted two experiments, the first being exposing kids to, and asking for the validity of, true and false statements about commonly known animals like a zebra. Then, children were asked to evaluate the validity of claims about an unknown alien species having three eyes, which could only be checked by manually tapping on the given pictures of those aliens and removing their sunglasses to reveal their eyes. The study found that the children who fact-checked the claims about aliens were also the ones who identified more false claims in the first experiment with common animals. Additionally, a computer simulation showed that being in unreliable environments encourage children to disprove potential misinformation. Identifying new methods like this to help children make informed choices is crucial in a world full of misinformation, and overall promotes a more healthy, well educated society.
By Irene Oh
Psychology students from UC Berkeley recognized that the problem with the internet’s misinformation may be approached in a way that trains young kids to be
with a combination of 21 million images. The entire project involved 287 researchers worldwide and utilized Artificial Intelligence to create a detailed neural map. This map was openly shared with the scientific community, as it helps future researchers to understand potential neural connections and links to behaviors. The research builds on prior maps of other organisms and serves as potential to study more complex species. In addition, due to the high correlation of fruit fly and human DNA, much can be gained from this map.
By Isabella Choi
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hedonic expectations, basically how the brain reacts to things, specifically spicy food, when you have a positive or negative expectation of what is going to come. They wanted to study how these hedonic expectations can influence how the brain perceives and responds to spicy stimuli or just experiences in general. They hooked up 47 participants of the study to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) when the contestants tasted hot sauce, while giving clues about the hot sauce to the participants. This made sure to isolate the effects of the placebo effect. They discovered that positive expectations increased things like dopamine and pleasure brain areas while negative hedonic expectations increased pain receptors. I found this article interesting because it shows the extent of the placebo effect, for not
quite large. To solve this problem, UNIGE collaborated with Professor Steven Ballet to synthesize even smaller molecules with similar binding properties as NbE, potentially offering more effective alternatives to current treatments for opioid overdoses, such as naloxone. This study is impactful because it offers a significant approach to reducing the deleterious side effects of opioids. I personally found this article interesting because these findings address one of the global health crises and are crucial for future antibody developments.
By Haeun Nam
Tiny Antibodies to Fight the Dangerous Effects of Opioids
Researchers from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) conducted a study to tackle the harmful effects of opioids. They discovered a nanobody, NbE, that binds tightly to specific opioid receptors, preventing opioids from attaching to these receptors and blocking their activity. However, while smaller than other antibodies, nanobodies remained
Asymmetric placebo effect in response to spicy food
This study was conducted by Yi Lou from East China Normal University and Kenneth Kishida at Wake Forest School of Medicine alongside their colleagues. They wanted to research on
EDITORS’ PICKS
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EDITORS’ PICKS
only spicy food but in things in general. The more excited you are for something, the more correlated it is that you will enjoy said experience.
By Isaac Jang
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FEATURED ARTICLES
Our Featured Articles are written by high school students then reviewed by high school students! The review process allows both the reviewers and the writers to learn something about the scientific writing process, which is one of the main goals of our journal.
BLOG ARTICLES
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FEATURED ARTICLES
Our Featured Articles are written by high school students then reviewed by high school students! The review process allows both the reviewers and the writers to learn something about the scientific writing process, which is one of the main goals of our journal.
REVIEWS
Capturing Water From Thin Air
INTRODUCTION
Water makes up 60-75% of human body weight. A loss of just 4% of total body water leads to dehydration, and a loss of 15% can be fatal (1). Not only humans but all living organisms rely on water. Although 71% of our Earth is covered by water, only 3% is freshwater, which is not enough to sustain all living organisms on Earth (2). As temperatures increase from global warming, the lack of drinkable water can cause serious worldwide issues. Over the years, scientists have tried countless methods to salvage the water such as reverse osmosis, UV purification, and biofiltration.
Yet this devastating issue has been linked to greater problems including an increase in the number and severity of wildfires, the loss of plant growth, and local species extinctions in our ecosystem. People have been recycling and filtering water as a temporary solution, however, it is not widely adopted, nor adequate to cover water waste as our annual average household
waste of water is estimated to total 94,000 gallons of water according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (3). Furthermore, some areas that lack water treatment technology have been dealing with the issue for centuries. Around 2 billion people continuously do not have access to clean water according to the World Health Organization (4).
Engineered Hydrogel Technology Produces Water from Thin Air
All hope is not lost, though, as we have more technologies and resources at our disposal than ever before. The researchers at the University of Texas at Austin recently molecularly engineered hydrogels that can create clean water using energy from sunlight (5). The engineered hydrogel can capture water from the air - working like a sponge. Then when the water is captured by the hydrogel and placed under a transparent collector/cover, sunlight will then act to draw the water out (through evaporation) of the hydrogel so it can collect against the water collector (Figure 1).
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FEATURES
BY JASON PARK, TESORO HIGH SCHOOL
In addition, microgels, hydrogel transformed into micro-sized particles, can speed up the process of capturing water, allowing them to collect visible amounts of water out of air. Depending on humidity, the device can produce between 3.5 and 7 kilograms of water per kilogram of hydrogel. The micro-sized gels accelerate water capture by vastly increasing the surface area in contact with the air, allowing more efficient absorption of moisture. This higher surface area means that even in lower
humidity, the microgels can extract visible amounts of water quickly, enhancing the overall productivity of the hydrogel device. In addition, the adaptability of hydrogels that can turn into micro-particles called “Microgels”, can significantly speed up the process of capturing water. Microgels will provide a highly efficient type of sorbents that will enhance the water production by “multiple daily cycling”. Compared to traditional sorbents, microgels enable significantly higher water production due to their rapid absorption and release cycles. While conventional sorbents may yield only about 1–2 kg of water per kilogram of material per day, microgels can achieve up to 3.5 - 7 kg under similar humidity conditions, making them 2-3 times more efficient in water yield through multiple daily cycles.
Researchers are still working on transforming the invention into a commercial product and focusing on optimizing the “Microgels” to further improve their efficiency. In addition, they are working to commercialize their work to benefit the worldwide population as a “low-cost, portable method” of producing water out of thin air. Because the device only requires energy from sunlight, places with extreme heat and little to no access
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FEATURES
Figure 1. A device that produces water from the air depending on the humidity (5). The engineered hydrogel acts like a sponge, capturing water from the air. When placed under a transparent cover, sunlight evaporates the water from the hydrogel, allowing it to condense on the cover for collection.
to clean water can create water, potentially saving billions of lives around the world.
CONCLUSION
The war against the water crisis we have been fighting for centuries is finally coming to an end. With scientific creations such as hydrogels that UT Austin is working on, 8 billion of the worldwide population will have access to clean water at any moment (6). Not only will it provide for humans, it will have an immense impact on agriculture, industries, and electricity. Such an approach where science is utilized to create a long-term solution, rather than providing a short-term solution to the problem is beneficial to our community as a whole. Hydrogels are being actively explored to address water scarcity and agricultural challenges in arid regions. For instance, researchers have developed solar-powered hydrogel systems capable of harvesting clean water from desert air, providing a sustainable solution for communities facing water shortages. (7) In agriculture, hydrogels are utilized as soil amendments to enhance water retention, thereby improving crop resilience during drought conditions. Studies have demonstrated that incorporating hydrogels into soil can
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FEATURES
significantly increase water use efficiency and support plant growth in semi-arid environments (8). These applications highlight the potential of hydrogels to mitigate water scarcity and bolster agricultural productivity in challenging climates. This can be the beginning of a society with much fewer issues and more time to refine our humanity.
REFERENCES
Arid Desert Air."LINK.
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FEATURES
The interplay of genetics and environment in Alzheimer’s Disease
Many people believe that human diseases result only from genetic causes. However, this is a misconception since a lot of human diseases actually result from both genetic factors and environmental factors. Various examples demonstrate this idea, but none can more effectively prove this point than Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s disease is a type of dementia that can damage thinking and memory skills. Alzheimer’s disease is commonly mistaken for dementia, but there are differences between them. Dementia is a common term used to define any disease or condition that involves memory loss and thinking ability while Alzheimer’s disease is a specific type of dementia characterized by the accumulation of harmful amyloid protein in the brain that leads to progressive memory loss and cognitive decline (1). According to the Alzheimer's Association, more than 6 million Americans have Alzheimer’s
disease and about 10.7% of people aged 65 and older have Alzheimer’s disease (2). This statistic shows that Alzheimer’s disease is tragically a common disease in America that can happen to anyone however the specific causes of Alzheimer’s disease are still not well understood.
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors can influence the development of Alzheimer’s disease in many ways. One example of an environmental factor that leads to Alzheimer’s disease is diet. The importance of a healthy diet is well known, however, people don’t know that it can be helpful to prevent Alzheimer’s disease. Both a healthy diet can be beneficial in preventing Alzheimer’s disease, and eating an unhealthy diet can lead to Alzheimer’s disease. According to the National Institute on Aging, eating certain foods can have a huge impact on biological mechanisms like inflammation and oxidative stress which are significant
FEATURES
BY DANIEL JUNSEO LEE, TROY HIGH SCHOOL
causes of Alzheimer’s disease (3). In fact, eating an anti-inflammatory diet instead of an inflammatory diet can lower the risk of dementia by 31% (10). Certain foods like fried foods can cause inflammation that may be linked to Alzheimer’s disease. (Figure 1). Fried foods contain trans fats which can contribute to inflammation. Scientific research has established that dietary habits can increase the risk of Alzheimer’s disease by developing cardiovascular and metabolic diseases (4).
suggests that a diet which is high in fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, fish, and healthy oils can reduce levels of inflammation (5).
Another example of an environmental factor that leads to Alzheimer’s disease is air pollution. Air pollution is a common environmental factor for many diseases, and Alzheimer’s disease is not an exception. According to the Alzheimer’s Society, exposure to a high level of air pollution can increase one’s risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (6). Although it’s hard to say how exposure to air pollution leads to Alzheimer’s disease, a correlative link has been found between exposure to fine particulate matter, which is a type of air pollution, and risk for Alzheimer’s disease recently (6). Specially, research shows that fine particulates from the air can circulate in the blood and affect the brain causing direct damage and increasing the development of Alzheimer’s disease (7).
Genetic Factors
Genetics also plays an important role in developing Alzheimer’s disease. According to the Alzheimer’s Association, two types of genetic factors affect a person’s risk of
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FEATURES
Figure 1. Foods that Fight Inflammation. Harvard Health Publishing
Social Media and Mental Health
developing Alzheimer’s disease: risk genes and deterministic genes. APOE-e4 is a type of risk gene that was first discovered and still has the strongest impact on the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (8). APOE-e4 is one of the few forms (or alleles) of the APOE (apolipoprotein E) gene. APOE3 is the most common and is not associated with Alzheimer’s risk, while APOE2 may even provide some protection against Alzheimer’s disease (9). Copies of APOE-e4 however, which can be inherited from ones’ parents, carry the strongest risk for Alzheimer’s where about 25% of people carry one copy of APOE4, and 2-3% carry two copies(8, 9). About 40-65% of people with Alzheimer’s disease have this risk gene which shows that genetics is an important factor that contributes to the development of Alzheimer’s disease but is not the only factor (8) In addition, although this gene plays a significant role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease, having one or more copies of the APOE-e4 gene doesn’t always lead to the development of Alzheimer’s disease (8).
CONCLUSION
It’s important to be aware that both genetic and environmental effects can
shape human health. Although this paper focuses on AD, many more diseases could be caused by both genetics and environmental impacts other than Alzheimer’s disease. Further studies should be conducted in the field of environmental factors on AD so that physicians can be better equipped with how to reduce risk in their patients and advise on how people can maintain better health conditions. Specifically, since diet is something most people can adjust to, making the public more aware of the risks of inflammatory diets could be hugely beneficial to ones overall health and in reducing the risk for diseases like AD. On that note, Alzheimer’s disease is a great example that shows how complex diseases may require both genetics and environmental intervention to fully treat or prevent diseases. Ultimately, understanding the impact of genetic and environmental factors on disease pathology like AD, will aid clinicians in finding better treatments for these diseases and globally improve human health.
REFERENCES
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FEATURES
difference? Mayo Clinic. LINK
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FEATURES
The Discovery of the World's Thinnest Gold Leaf and Its Future Potential
Borophene has been famous for its properties similar to graphene, and it has even been suggested that borophene is more conductive, more flexible, and stronger than graphene (4). However, 2D materials thus far have largely been made of non-metals or mixed compounds (5).
In 2024, the challenge of making the first one atom thick material that is purely metal was finally achieved. Researchers from Linköping University in Sweden made a groundbreaking discovery by creating the world's thinnest 2D gold sheet, known as goldene, which is just one atom thick (6), made purely of the metal gold. The team used a 100-year-old Japanese technique known as Murakami's reagent (6) to isolate single layers of gold and published their findings in the journal Nature Synthesis on 16 April. This paper dives into the methods used to prepare goldene and the distinct advantages it has over other 2D materials that demonstrate its potential for future applications.
Preparation of Goldene
The field of two-dimensional materials has encountered several significant challenges
INTRODUCTION
In 2004, the discovery of graphene (1) was a pivotal moment in materials science, opening up new possibilities for 2D materials. Graphene's extraordinary properties, such as high electrical conductivity and mechanical strength, inspired scientists to explore other 2D materials. Because of its astonishing properties, graphene is used in many industries such as transportation, medicine, electronics, and energy. It has been so useful that Andre Geim and Kostya Novoselov, the main contributors to the discovery of graphene, received a Nobel Prize for their work (2). Furthermore, graphene inspired research into other two-dimensional materials. As a result, tens of other two-dimensional materials like silicene, which is a topological insulator, meaning that only its surface behaves as an electrical conductor while its interior does not (3). Another two-dimensional material, borophene, first synthesized in 2015, is just an atom-thick and made from boron (4).
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BY SANHA KIM, BEVERLY HILLS HIGH SCHOOL
particularly when attempting to synthesize 2D materials composed solely of metals. Metals tend to bond strongly with themselves, causing them to clump together rather than form stable, single-atom-thick layers. This phenomenon is known as agglomeration and has been a major obstacle in the development of 2D metallic materials (6). Additionally, isolating pure metal monolayers without the support of a substrate has proven difficult, as these layers tend to clump together, or lose their structure when the supporting structure is removed. The researchers at Linköping University were able to overcome this challenge in a unique way to synthesize
goldene, a single-atom-thick gold sheet (6). They solved these problems by embedding gold between layers of titanium silicon carbide to create a goldene sheet within a solid structure (Figure 1).
The researchers then replaced the silicon in the titanium silicon carbide layers by exposing the components to high temperatures, creating titanium gold carbide, through a process called intercalation (6). Then, developed a process to remove the titanium carbide layers and leave the goldene untouched. First, they tried to do this by using Murakami's reagent, an alkaline potassium ferricyanide etching solution
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Figure 1. Synthesis of single-layer goldene from titanium silicon carbide. Outline of the process of creating goldene. Yellow, blue, black, and green balls represent Au, Ti, C and Silicon atoms, respectively. The blue ball and stick structures on the left represent the initial process where silicon (Si) is between layers of titanium and carbide, resulting in titanium silicon carbide (Ti3SiC2). In a process called “Au exchange intercalation”, the silicon (Si) is replaced with gold (Au), creating Ti3AuC2, shown in the second image. The titanium and carbide of the Ti3AuC2 is then etched away with the Murakami's reagent, which releases pure goldene, represented as the third image from the left. (Image credit: 7)
used by Japanese smiths, to corrode carbon residue. The Murakami's reagent had to be adjusted; therefore, the scientists tried different concentrations of Murakami’s reagent and different incubation times to find the optimal procedure for etching. They also found that the reagent only worked in darkness without light. Finally, the scientists added surfactants to stop the gold from curling and lumping together and ultimately reaching success (Figure 2).
Properties of Goldene
Once created, the team examined the gold sheet and found that goldene is a semiconductor (6). This is surprising because although bulk gold is a great conductor, it cannot be a semiconductor. The difference between a semiconductor and a conductor is that a semiconductor has the ability to efficiently carry electric
current while conductors have the ability
to control and amplify electrical signals (9). Goldene being a semiconductor is due to the fact that the gold has two free bonds when two-dimensional. This happens because there are only six neighboring atoms next to each atom in a 2D structure. There are more advantages with goldene being a 2D material. It has a much higher surface area than bulk gold, making their catalytic properties more effective (11), and they also have high transparency and unique interactions with light (12).
Thanks to these amazing properties of goldene, there are many applications that goldene can be used in. Important examples of possible future uses of goldene could be in environmental technology. It is thought that goldene could play a major role in improving
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Figure 2. Molecular Structures of Regular Gold and Goldene. This figure compares regular gold (left) with goldene (right). The regular gold shows a dense, bulky 3D structure. In contrast, goldene shows a single-layer 2D structure, where the gold is more spread out. (Image credit: 8)
carbon capture and utilization, which is a process where carbon dioxide could be converted into useful fuels, like ethanol. Another environmental use of goldene’s catalytic properties could be making hydrogen generation through water splitting more efficient. These two processes are very important because they are used to produce less harmful fuels, like hydrogen and ethanol, and get rid of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (11). Another possible use is with biosensors. As stated above, 2D materials like graphene and goldene have high transparency and unique interactions with light. This could enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of biosensors and be used to detect biomolecules like DNA, proteins, and glucose (12). Moreover, using this technique, the amount of gold used in applications today such as electronics, like computers, laptops, and smartphones, and various sensors can be much reduced, making these processes more affordable to consumers and making extremely thin devices with the reduced amount of gold (10).
Graphene, another 2D material with similar structure, has similar functions, but is also used differently than goldene. Graphene is used for its high electrical conductivity and its mechanical strength (13). Goldene, on the other hand, is more
used for its great semiconductivity that graphene does not have and its catalysis properties, while it is not used for its
mechanical strength (7). Because of these reasons, goldene could be used for biosensing and electronics that need high electrical conductivity and stability, while graphene is used for electronics that need flexibility and composites.
CONCLUSION
The discovery of goldene is the first free-standing two-dimensional metal material, which was made by replacing silicon with gold in titanium silicon carbide and then carefully removing the titanium carbide surrounding the gold. This achievement demonstrates the potential to create stable 2D metallic materials. Goldene might be crucial in future applications to increase the efficiency of technology like hydrogen generation, carbon capture and utilization, and in biosensors. The formation of the synthesis of goldene also opens a pathway to other 2D metals, like silver and platinum. Scientists should test if 2D materials of other metals are possible and also research and identify the unique properties of each of the metals. Future testing of 2D material properties ultimately will be significantly useful to the world and have the potential to create boundless
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advances to benefit society.
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Parenting Effects on Social Development, Self Concept & Misbehaviors
INTRODUCTION
Newborn babies can’t do much by themselves other than sleep and cry. In fact, they will continue to not be able to do much if it weren’t for parental nurturing. Parents guide their children taking “baby steps,” teaching them to walk, talk, and eat by themselves, and later to solve algebra problems. Some children advance through the first stages of their development more quickly, and while some may be born as geniuses, environmental factors cannot be denied to have an effect. Being in an environment in which the child is exposed to lots of new things to be perceived and situations that challenge the child’s previous beliefs/understandings of the world allow them to ask questions and learn new things. Parents are responsible for giving children such an environment, and also for teaching new things, answering questions, and overall supporting their learning journey instead of shutting them out and neglecting them. Corresponding to these responsibilities, parents have an imperative influence on children’s social development, self concept, and misbehavior.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The first social category that children learn is gender, and while some parents can give helpful guidance in this learning, their categorization may affect children’s gender development (1). Particularly, differentiating activities with comments like “playing soccer is for boys!” or “playing with dolls and makeup is for girls!” assign genders to activities. Another social development affected by parents is language. When parents had negative emotionality, children were found to struggle with early expressive vocabulary while surgency helped children’s early pre-literacy skills (2). And while genetic propensities for negative emotionality had impacts on language development, the environment that the children grew up in was shown to potentially compensate for them (2). Conversations about emotions with parents were also studied to be important in social development, particularly emotion knowledge (3), and this is an important role as a parent because emotional development affects children’s interactions with themselves and others.
SELF CONCEPT
Parental Differential Treatment
On top of providing the ideal environment
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BY IRENE OH, DIAMOND BAR HIGH SCHOOL
for kids to develop social skills, parents need to be aware of how differently they are treating each of their children, also known as parental differential treatment. A meta-analysis data involving over 26,000 participants in the age range of about 3 to 19 revealed that children who are treated differently than their siblings are found to show internalizing and externalizing behavior (Jensen & Thomsen, 2024). Areas of difference included overall favoritism, affection, negativity (such as conflict and harsh discipline), control/autonomy granting (such as overprotecting and monitoring), and resources (such as homework help and money) (Jensen & Thomsen, 2024). Inequity is seen to be the cause of most tension and conflict in work settings and within families, according to the equity theory and theory of individual psychology.
Comparisons
According to the social comparison theory, people naturally compare themselves with others in order to form self-concept, and being treated differently by parents affects children’s well-being and self-concept (Jensen & Thomsen, 2024). Better-treated children form downward comparisons and poorly-treated children form upward comparisons with their siblings (Jensen & Thomsen, 2024). In another study, 61
11-13-year-olds were interviewed and only a third of them perceived parental differential treatment, and surprisingly, only a quarter of them thought it was unfair (Kowal & Kramer, 2006). This was because the rest of the children thought that the differences were justified by the differences between themselves and their siblings, such as age, gender, needs, and behaviors. If these differences are not apparent in two very similar siblings, children end up finding the reason within themselves, which is what affects their self-concept. The meta-analysis found that this leads to internalizing behavior, which includes depression, anxiety, psychological distress, and even suicide ideation, as well as externalizing behavior, which includes aggression, disobedience, and risky behaviors like substance use. Of course, parental differential treatment does not always stem from loving one child over the other, but unconscious favoritism can have adverse effects.
Misbehaviors
When a child acts a certain way, oftentimes it has causes rooted in the parenting method that accepted or encouraged that behavior. For example, the newly termed “Sephora kids”—young kids who buy overly expensive skincare
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products for problems they don’t even face, such as aging and pores—are actually not essentially different from the rest of us. Being constantly exposed to idealized beauty standards on social
media, these “Sephora kids” feel the need to fit in and belong, “a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation” (Baumeister & Leary, 2007). More prominently though, children naturally adopt behaviors from their parents and want to do what they do because of the impact of observational learning. For example, in Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment, two groups of preschoolers watched a video of an adult and a doll called Bobo (Mcleod, 2024). One group saw an adult violently beat the doll and when those children were put in a room with the Bobo doll, they similarly beat the doll. Meanwhile, the other group watched the adult play with it in a friendly manner, and when put in the room with the same doll, they mimicked the friendly behavior of the adult from the video. Through observational learning, children’s behaviors reflect those of parents. There’s a reason many toys for children are imitations of adult activities—cooking sets, fake phones and makeup, and small cars. This means that “Sephora kids” are acting normally and the problem lies within poor parenting and the inability to
tell kids “no.”
CONCLUSION
Children may not be born as white pieces of paper, being painted by environmental factors only. They may come with inborn tendencies to be greedy or timid, and some babies cry more than others, eat more than others, or move more than others. Still, their inborn personalities do not define them, and all children go through developing stages that shape them. So much of such development depends on parenting: children’s understanding of gender, language, and emotions; formation of self-concept and various forms of internalizing or externalizing behaviors; and adaptation of parents’ and other adults’ actions. So, parents have the responsibilities to supervise children through social development, prevent them from getting a false self-concept through comparison with siblings, and correct misbehaviors before they become fixed.
REFERENCES
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82-97. LINK
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Gene Editing: Life-Changing or Ethically Threatening?
INTRODUCTION
CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing
Advances in gene technology can allow us to edit genomes with unprecedented ease and accuracy. Researchers are exploring how this can improve everything from food security to public health. But can the virtues of this technology compete with the ethical implications?
CRISPR-Cas9 is a groundbreaking gene-editing technology that allows scientists to modify an organism's DNA with high precision and efficiency. The technology is derived from a natural defense mechanism found in bacteria, which use it to protect themselves from viral infections. In this system, segments of DNA from viruses that have previously attacked the bacteria are stored in the form of "spacers" within the bacterial genome. When the virus attacks again, the bacteria transcribe these spacers into RNA, which guides the
Cas9 protein to the matching viral DNA sequence, allowing it to cut the viral DNA and neutralize the threat (1). In 2012, researchers Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier published a seminal paper demonstrating that this bacterial immune system could be repurposed for precise gene editing in other organisms, marking the birth of CRISPR-Cas9 as a transformative tool in genetics. The system has since become popular due to its simplicity, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness compared to previous gene-editing methods (2).
CRISPR-Cas9 represents a groundbreaking advancement in genetic engineering, with the potential to revolutionize medicine, agriculture, and biological research, while also necessitating careful consideration of its ethical implications. Specifically, while CRISPR-Cas9 offers significant benefits, it also raises ethical concerns regarding gene editing, especially in humans. The potential for unintended consequences
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BY JIWON KIM, PORTOLA HIGH SCHOOL
this technology, the food shortage would be mitigated as crops can survive climate change and other conditions. According to the article, In 2019, scientists discovered a link between the gut microbiome and risk of the condition, and the project aims to modify the asthma-causing genes in the microbiome without disturbing its beneficial functions. This would point the way for treating a whole host of other microbiome-related conditions (4). However, the piece addresses the ethical implications of gene editing, particularly concerning human enhancement and the potential for unintended consequences. Also in terms of agriculture-It takes little imagination to conjure up scenarios in which insect modifications lead to the deliberate ruin of crops or spread of disease-potentially using region-specific targeting to wreak havoc on a certain area.
In the article CRISPR and the Future of Gene Editing by HSBC, it informs readers about the significance of CRISPR and its far-reaching implications while promoting HSBC’s engagement in supporting advancements in biotech innovation. The technique exploits the adaptive immune system found in bacteria that helps them
and the moral implications of altering the human germline are critical discussions within the scientific community and society. The Nuffield report, for example, asserts that germline editing cannot be ethically acceptable without weighing its use against two important principles: (1) protecting the welfare of future persons, and (2) upholding social justice and solidarity.10 Germline editing will affect future generations, creating an impact on public health as well as individual welfare, thereby extending the moral duty of protection to people not yet born (3).
CURRENT METHODS/RESEARCH
To include aspects of current research in this area, the article from Wired, supported by a defense and security technology company can be one example. It aims to inform readers about current advancements in gene editing. It organizes the trends shaping the future of biotechnology, and the importance of navigating ethical challenges as these technologies evolve. The article highlights how CRISPR technology is revolutionizing gene editing, making it more accessible and efficient. It also outlines the potential uses of gene editing in treating genetic diseases and improving agricultural yield. If the agricultural yield can be improved with
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precision and effectiveness of gene therapies. The researchers developed a new approach that allows for more targeted gene editing, reducing off-target effects. Eventually, they concluded that this method could lead to advancements in treating genetic disorders, cancers, and other diseases through more effective gene therapies. They used the technology to knock out the Avpr1a receptor in hamsters, and thus effectively eliminating vasopressin's action on it, dramatically altering the expression of social behavior, and the hamsters without the receptor showed much higher levels of social communication behavior than did their counterparts with intact receptors (6). Just like this research discovered, experiments with CRISPR technology proved that it can significantly contribute to figuring out social behavior differing on genetic edit. It is especially possible that the more global effects of the Avpr1a receptor are inhibitory, meaning this technology can impact global scale of discovery and be impactful. It is asserted to prove that it is worth fostering the usage of genetic editing technology.
On the other hand, the article “CRISPR-Cas9: Even good gene edits can go bad” by Rice University reveals
recognize and fight viral infections. This immune system works by using enzymes to cleave and capture small pieces of the virus’ DNA, which the bacteria then store. The bacterium uses this record to create proteins that can identify the virus if it returns and snip its DNA accordingly to destroy it. CRISPR gene editing hacks this snipping process by asking it to cut DNA to order.
The current trend of supporting CRISPR is significantly increasing as between 2019 and 2022, gene editing companies raised more than $5 billion in the investment (5). Because this technique is quick and cheap, there is a high possibility that it could spread widely and be innovative in various fields such as curing genetic diseases, improving crop resilience, and combating climate change. Connecting with the previous research, this can lead to significant improvement in food security.
One specific research that also shows the benefit of this technology is the article titled "CRISPR-based approach could lead to more effective gene therapies”. It is published on Science Daily, summarizing research from the University of California, San Diego. It discusses a novel CRISPR-based method that enhances the
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potential threats to the efficacy of CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, even when it appears to be working as planned. Their research reveals that large deletions can disrupt the expression of target and nearby genes, potentially resulting in truncated or misfolded proteins, which could lead to abnormal cell functions or cell death. To address this, the Bao lab developed LongAmp-seq, a method that uses single-molecule, real-time (SMRT) sequencing with unique molecular identifiers (UMIs) to accurately quantify both small insertions/deletions and large deletions. In experiments using CRISPR to edit genes related to sickle cell disease in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, the team observed significant large deletions at high frequencies (7). This study overall claims that while off-target DNA edits from CRISPR-Cas9 have been a focus of concern, it is equally important to recognize and quantify unintended changes that occur alongside on-target edits, particularly large deletions. This significantly counters advocating the usage of CRISPR.
However other article "Using CRISPR, researchers identify key genes involved in the development of the human heart", published on Science Daily, summarizes research from the
University of California, San Francisco. It informs readers about important breakthroughs in cardiac research, highlighting the potential of CRISPR technology in understanding and treating heart-related conditions. Researchers employed CRISPR gene editing to manipulate specific genes in human stem cells, allowing them to observe the effects on heart cell differentiation and development. The study eventually identified several key genes that play significant roles in heart formation, providing insights into congenital heart defects and potential therapeutic targets. It was proved that one can use CRISPR/Cas9 to generate variants in key crop genes and get the same leaps as we would in traditional plant breeding approaches. And these can make large changes in just a handful of years to help plants grow more efficiently or adapt to climate change (8). This could lead to better comprehension of heart diseases, underscoring the significance of genetics within CRISPR/Cas9 in cardiovascular health.
CONCLUSION
To sum up, advancements in gene editing technology, particularly CRISPR-Cas9, present unprecedented opportunities for
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improving various sectors, from agriculture to public health. This technology offers the potential to edit genomes with remarkable precision and efficiency, leading to significant improvements in food security, disease treatment, and biological research. However, the ethical implications surrounding gene editing, especially in humans, present a critical challenge that must be carefully navigated. The capacity to alter genetic material raises important questions about the long-term consequences for future generations and the moral responsibilities of scientists.
Recent research highlights the transformative potential of CRISPR-Cas9. For instance, advancements in understanding the gut microbiome and its connection to asthma may enable targeted gene modifications without disrupting beneficial functions, paving the way for novel treatments. Additionally, investments in gene editing companies surged significantly from 2019 to 2022, emphasizing the technology’s growing relevance in biotechnology. Studies have also demonstrated the effectiveness of CRISPR in identifying crucial genes involved in heart development.
However, challenges persist. Research from the Bao lab at Rice University indicates that CRISPR-Cas9 can inadvertently cause large deletions that disrupt gene expression and potentially lead to harmful outcomes. This underscores the necessity of rigorous evaluation and quantification of unintended genetic changes to ensure the safety and efficacy of gene editing applications.
Future experiments could focus on enhancing the precision of CRISPR technology, possibly through the development of next-generation gene-editing methods that further reduce off-target effects. Additionally, investigations into the long-term effects of gene edits in vivo, especially concerning germline modifications, will be essential for assessing the broader implications of these technologies.
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Should Aesthetic Treatments and Weight-Loss Medications be Covered by Insurance?
INTRODUCTION
Aesthetic treatments, such as botox and fillers, and weight-loss medications have been around since the early twentieth century and they are heavily popularized today. Since 1997, there has been a 444% increase in cosmetic procedures, with surgical procedures increasing by 119% and non-surgical procedures increasing by 726% (1). Plastic surgery, which falls under the aesthetic treatment category, was first developed as a medical specialty during World War I when war veterans were coming home disfigured from weapon injuries (2). Procedures were then popularized as “reconstructive surgeries'' for veterans and helped veterans regain their confidence, self-image, and function. Since the end of World War 1, plastic surgery and other aesthetic treatments have grown in popularity, and procedures such as botox and fillers are very common as they take up 30% of all non-surgical procedures (3).
The questions arise, however, on whether these services should be covered by health insurance or the National Health Service (UK), or be paid for out-of-pocket by the patient.
Here research is presented to support the stance that strict limits should be established by health insurance companies and free health services when it comes to aesthetic treatments, only allowing for necessary repair rather than personal treatments. This stance is primarily due to the fact that dangerous side effects (both physical and on one’s mental health) have been documented which will be explored below. Therefore if aesthetic and weight-loss treatments were to be covered, they should be for those who have a medical condition or injury that harms their current health state or bodily function. Treatments for a patient’s personal preference should not be funded. The NHS provided to UK citizens, strives to improve people’s health and well-being and they aim to
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BY HAILEY KIM, PORTOLA HIGH SCHOOL
low cost (Murdock 2024). Aesthetic treatments and weight-loss medications are received in rather short intervals and this can contribute to a decline in a patient’s physical and mental health.
Just in 2018, it was reported that Americans spent over 16.5 Billion dollars on cosmetic surgery (10). This highlights the extreme lengths people will go to in order to enhance their appearance. Most of these costs continue to increase year after year and often don’t include hidden fees such as “anesthesia, operating room facilities or other related expenses” (10).
Side Effects of Aesthetic Procedures
Many receive aesthetic treatments without giving a second thought to the side effects that could follow the procedure. This often leads to unnecessary cosmetic procedures and misuse of the available treatments. People may believe that they won’t be the ones who suffer side effects of their respective procedures, but side effects in aesthetic procedures are much more common than many think. In a pool of 447 plastic surgery patients, 42.72%, or 91 patients, experienced side effects such as bruising, infection, and motor function loss (11). 42.72% is nearly half of the pool of applicants, which goes to show how
foster excellent quality, safety, outcomes, and experience of healthcare procedures (4). Similarly, the California Department of Health Insurance states that its focus is to provide “regular health care, such as exams, preventive care and vaccines” (5). As the NHS and Health Insurance companies strive to foster excellent safety and positive health outcomes, aesthetic treatments and weight-loss medications should not be offered or covered as they can include dangerous side effects and impair one’s self-image and body image.
Cost of the Procedures
Generally, people receive aesthetic treatments once every four to six months (6) and each treatment can cost from $100 to even $1000 (7). Similarly, weight-loss treatments such as Contrave and Xenical are usually done in 12-week intervals while using different weight-loss drug prescriptions (8). Aesthetic treatments such as botox and filler are $15 per unit (9). This may not sound like much but many people receive Botox or filler on an average of 20 to 50 units (9). As for weight programs, the average cost of a medical weight-loss program is around $1000 with Phentermine being the most common drug prescribed due to its
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effects from weight loss medications are less common than cosmetic procedures, they can be dangerous to one’s overall health if one loses weight rapidly (15). Even if the NHS or health insurance companies make these treatments free, they should require a doctor’s prescription that states why the person needs the medication for a medical issue and not just for personal preference. Since there are risks with starting any new medication, it is best for patients to first consult a dietician or start a workout plan. Aesthetic treatments and weight-loss medications that people currently pay for bring side effects and if the treatment was made free of cost, there would be a bigger population of people receiving the treatment and would therefore potential negatively impact more people.
Dangers of Aesthetic Treatments to Self-Image
The urge to receive aesthetic treatments generally stems from issues with self-image and habits like these can worsen one’s body image as well. Professionals in this field have said that when people are not satisfied with their appearance, they turn to aesthetic treatments and start getting the
common the side effects of plastic surgery actually are. Additionally, in a study conducted by Hyang-In Cho Chung and Young A Kim in South Korea, 52.5% of female college students underwent cosmetic surgery and roughly 12% experienced unpleasant side effects. When asked about their opinions of the dangers of cosmetic surgery, many stated that “the chances of serious side effects are not so high” and that it was worth it because “[cosmetic surgery] helps them overcome complexes and become more confident in front of other people” (12). Many are blinded by the fact that cosmetic surgery will make them “prettier” and give them confidence and don’t take into account the side effects that could follow.
For weight-loss treatments, a research article from the Mayo Clinic has highlighted the pros and cons of weight-loss medications and the side effects that could follow (13). Generally, weight loss medication is not prescribed unless your BMI is less than 27, which is considered overweight. However, many people are willing to take unnecessary weight loss medication with a study showing that 28% of its participants were willing to take the medication if they were prescribed it (14). While serious side
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As social media platforms emerge, more and more people have been losing self-esteem regarding their appearance. In the article by Rae Jacobson, she discusses the mental toll social media has on people, especially teenagers, and their self-esteem (18). This is relevant because people also tend to compare their appearance with others online not knowing that many beauty influences have had cosmetic procedures done, creating a beauty standard that is difficult to achieve without procedures. By having the NHS make cosmetic procedures free of cost, more people will get procedures done and negatively impact other people’s self-esteem. On a similar note, a business insider article follows one woman’s journey with weight loss pills and her struggles with body image. When Samantha lost over 35 pounds in 4 months, everyone started giving her compliments, but she herself could not differentiate between her old body and her new body. She never felt fully satisfied by her appearance no matter the compliments (19). This is an example of the struggles with body image that people face that cannot be fixed with weight loss pills. If the NHS makes weight loss treatments free of cost, more people will turn to weight loss pills and
treatments periodically to “enhance” their appearance (16). Many people want to undergo weight loss treatment even though they are at a healthy weight because of body image issues. In a study conducted by JAMA Dermatology, 270 out of 511 participants in the survey received multiple aesthetic treatments. One of the biggest reported motives for receiving the aesthetic treatments was the “...desire to feel happier and more confident or improve the total quality of life” (17). This study clearly shows how the desire for aesthetic treatments stems from a belief that a physical change could improve confidence and overall happiness. However, more than half of the respondents admitted to receiving aesthetic treatments prior to the survey that they would be willing to receive more. This goes to show that receiving treatment does not necessarily improve one’s confidence and happiness because they are constantly seeking to receive more treatments. The same people also admitted that they undergo such procedures because of their appearance insecurities and to feel more confident. This reflects personal issues with self-image and that these participants may not be able to appreciate themselves as a whole.
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way. Instead of offering these treatments, the NHS should work towards making a future of medicine that supports and celebrates people for who they are and encourages them to be content with themselves.
REFERENCES
even more people will struggle with their body image.
CONCLUSION
Overall, aesthetic treatments and weight-loss medications could cause harm to one’s body and worsen one’s body image. As the NHS and American Health Insurance companies strive to improve one’s health and well-being, they should not make the treatments free. It has been proven through numerous studies that there are a lot of dangerous side effects that can occur after going through an aesthetic treatment. People are still willing to go through treatment with side effects and the cost so making it free would just lead to more people doing it and more people experiencing negative side effects. Regarding body image, receiving aesthetic treatments and weight loss treatments can negatively impact one’s self-image and body image. Also, the rise in popularity of aesthetic treatments creates an ever-increasing standard that people then have to chase to feel “pretty”, further increasing demand and issues with self-image. Instead, we should be embracing diversity in what we consider beautiful, and finding ways to celebrate how everyone is beautiful in their own
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Preference and Adherence, vol. Volume 18, 1 Feb. 2024, pp. 435–454, LINK.
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The Impact of Environment & Genetics on Schizophrenia Risk
Schizophrenia is a chronic brain disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking, affecting about 1% of the global population. This complex condition is influenced by a combination of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors, and many aspects of its development remain under study. Although genetics play a role in susceptibility to schizophrenia, recent studies suggest that genes alone do not determine its development. Instead, it is the interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental stressors, such as prenatal exposure to infections, urban upbringing, and life traumas, that profoundly influences its development. Here, studies are presented on how genetic factors may contribute to the onset of schizophrenia, while environmental influences also shape the risk in the manifestation of this condition.
Role of Genetics in Schizophrenia
Numerous studies underscore the hereditary component of schizophrenia, highlighting the substantial influence of genetics on the disorder’s development. Research published by Kendler in The American Journal of Psychiatry shows that individuals with a family history of schizophrenia have a significantly elevated risk of developing the condition themselves (1). A Danish twin study further supports this, indicating a 33% heritability rate of schizophrenia in monozygotic twins compared to 7% in dizygotic twins (2). Specific genes, such as the neuregulin gene NRG1, have been identified as potential contributors to schizophrenia susceptibility. NRG1, a signaling protein involved in nervous system development, has been associated with schizophrenia risk by influencing critical biological processes, including neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and neurodevelopment (3). Numerous biological processes, including
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BY EMILY YEONU SONG, BEVERLY HILLS HIGH SCHOOL
Impact of Prenatal Complications on later Schizophrenia
Prenatal complications can have a significant impact on the risk of developing Schizophrenia later in life. According to research, it was found that individuals who experience obstetric complications had an overall odds ratio of 2.03 (with a 95% confidence interval of 1.6-2.4) for developing schizophrenia (4). Pregnancy-related infections such as influenza or rubella can raise the chance of schizophrenia in the offspring. These infections can cause maternal immunological activation, which might interfere with fetal brain development, potentially increasing the susceptibility to the disorder. Furthermore, research shows adverse effects on a child’s development might result from maternal stress and prenatal malnutrition. According to the article titled Perinatal Complications and Schizophrenia: Involvement of the Immune System, it has already been proven by numerous studies that “maternal stress in pregnancy has long-term neurodevelopmental effects on the infant” (5). It states that one study proved that the onset of schizophrenia has resulted due to the exposure of the pregnant mother to loss of the husband
neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and neurodevelopment, are influenced by these genes. While genetic research provides valuable insights, it also suggests that factors beyond heredity play crucial roles in schizophrenia’s complex etiology.
Environmental Factors in Developing Schizophrenia
While genetic predisposition plays a significant role, environmental factors have been shown to significantly contribute to the development of schizophrenia. The path of this disorder can be shaped by environmental factors from pregnancy to adulthood. Prenatal complications like maternal infections and malnutrition can expose one to schizophrenia in later life. Additional factors that may increase susceptibility include childhood trauma and stress, particularly abuse or neglect. Other external variables including social isolation and cannabis usage have been linked to the early stages of schizophrenia. These environmental influences (explored further below) are hypothesized to lead to the disruption of neurodevelopmental processes priming one for later schizophrenia.
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processing speed deficiencies that have been observed in people who have suffered childhood abuse point to a possible mechanism by which early trauma exacerbates the cognitive deficits that are frequently associated with schizophrenia (10). Moreover, the observed cognitive deficits related with childhood sexual abuse in individuals with schizophrenia suggest that environmental factors may have a more direct and apparent influence on some aspects of the disorder. Specifically, early trauma may impair the prefrontal cortex– a brain region responsible for executive functions– resulting in cognitive deficits commonly associated with schizophrenia (11). This research underscores the potential of environmental stressors to interact with genetic predispositions, emphasizing that while genetic factors are essential, environmental influences can significantly affect the severity and expression of certain symptoms, particularly cognitive impairments.
Impact on Social Isolation and Cannabis Use on Schizophrenia
Social isolation and cannabis use have also been implicated as environmental risk factors for schizophrenia, particularly when these factors occur during
(6). In addition, ecological evidence gathered during famine periods has shown a role for prenatal malnutrition in schizophrenia. Many investigators have conducted research and others confirmed the findings (7, 8).
Impact of early trauma/stress on later Schizophrenia
Early stress or trauma throughout crucial stages of brain development has been linked to a higher chance of schizophrenia in later life. A research study shows that people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder who have experienced sexual abuse as children have “greater deficits in working memory and information processing speed than individuals with either schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and no exposure to childhood sexual abuse” (9). This study highlights the significant impact of early environmental factors on the manifestation and severity of the disorder. Childhood trauma, such as sexual abuse, disrupts normal brain development, leading to the possible result of long-lasting neurobiological and psychological alternations that increase the susceptibility of individuals to schizophrenia in adulthood. Notably, the working memory and information
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doesn’t guarantee that someone will develop the mental illness; it just raises the risk. In addition, environmental factors such as life experiences and exposures can also influence the development of schizophrenia. Some examples include early life experiences like childhood trauma or abuse and access to mental health care as they grow. These environmental factors can interact with the genes to either increase or decrease the likelihood of developing a mental illness. Although an individual’s predisposition to schizophrenia is influenced by genetic variables, the disorder’s manifestation is not exclusively determined by the genetic factors. Environmental factors are the ones that can interact with genetic predispositions to either increase or decrease the likelihood of the development of the disorder. For instance, those who are genetically vulnerable to certain stressors may only develop schizophrenia in response to exposure to specific environmental stressors. Overall, while genetic variables play an important role in predisposing an individual to schizophrenia, environmental factors have a greater influence in shaping the onset and expression of the disorder. Much remains
adolescence. Social isolation can lead to altered brain connectivity and impaired social cognition, which are associated with schizophrenia. Loneliness and isolation may increase an individual’s sensitivity to stress, exacerbating symptoms and those predisposed to mental illness. Cannabis use, particularly frequent or early use during adolescence, has been shown to increase schizophrenia risk, potentially due to the effects of THC on the developing brain. Studies suggest that THC can disrupt normal neurodevelopmental processes, such as dopamine regulation, which plays a role in schizophrenia development (12). Together, social isolation and cannabis use exemplify how lifestyle and environmental factors during critical developmental windows can increase schizophrenia risk by interacting with an individual’s genetic susceptibility.
How do environment and genetics impact each other when it comes to developing schizophrenia?
Both genetic and environmental factors have the potential to contribute to one developing schizophrenia. Genetic susceptibility can make certain individuals more vulnerable to developing the illness, but genetic predisposition
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British Journal of Psychiatry 167, 786–793. LINK
to be discovered regarding the relative contributions of both genetic and environmental influences to the severity of schizophrenia, signifying the importance of comprehensive research in understanding and effectively addressing this mental disorder.
REFERENCES
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Exposure to the Chinese Famine of 1959-1961. JAMA. 2005;294(5):557-562. doi:10.1001/jama.294.5.557.
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Rewilding: An Underrated Environmental Savior
INTRODUCTION
As the Rewilding Institute describes it, “rewilding is [a] comprehensive, often large-scale, conservation effort focused on restoring sustainable biodiversity and ecosystem health by protecting core wild/wilderness areas, providing connectivity between such areas, and protecting or reintroducing apex predators and highly interactive species (keystone species)” [1]. In other words, it entails providing areas for nature to slowly restore itself by creating favorable environments to do so. Though it says “large-scale” in the definition, this can often also be extended to much smaller versions of the process as well. This idea of rewilding, however, has been a topic of much debate in regards to how helpful or important these types of programs are to the overall health of our planet compared to the drawbacks that it may also encounter. One notable form of this rewilding is called urban rewilding used in many places such as
the UK and Singapore [9]. This is the process of partially rewilding cities and towns to help aid in rewilding efforts, usually in much smaller proportions and includes the building of more parks and nature-connected buildings. However, this isn’t the only benefit gained from urban rewilding.
Environmental Impacts
Rewilding initiatives can not only improve the environment where the initiatives cover, but also improve the environment as a whole. Studies have found that the use of rewilding initiatives can save over 70% of species projected to go extinct with only 30% of land in the tropics being restored [2]. Additionally, 55% of land used for agricultural production can be restored to some extent without hindering the production from these lands [2]. Considering that over a third of land in the world is used for this purpose [3], that makes for a very significant portion of land. This increase of species overall increases the biodiversity of our
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BY AIDEN JOOWON PARK, NORTH HOLLYWOOD HGM HIGH SCHOOL
of a community. More than 80% of urban areas have an amount of air pollution that surpasses the safe air quality levels the WHO have laid out [5]. Sequestering a large amount of carbon would significantly improve the air quality of these areas and allow air pollution levels to lower to safer levels. This would lead to a significant decrease in lung and respiratory problems in the general population and improve physical health. Additionally, creating rewilding areas within cities and towns has been shown to promote healthy living by creating places to exercise, stretch, or just simply spend time outside [6]. This may help more people live better and stronger lives even with only relatively small rewilding additions to these urban environments.
Psychological Impacts
These rewilding efforts have also been shown to be able to drastically improve the mental health of the people living in the city. One study concluded that taking walks in the presence of nature is linked to a decrease in the likelihood of mental illnesses and other similar problems [7]. There has also been evidence to show that these rewilded areas help reduce stress and improve mental health [6]. Allowing people to interact with nature in
planet, stabilizing and maintaining a strong and resilient ecosystem, which helps provide for a healthy environment and better world.
This biodiversity also helps provide for a multitude of resources for humans. Many of the animals we rely on are considered endangered and may be projected to go extinct in the near future. However, with these rewilding programs, those species have a better chance of surviving and providing a wider variety of resources for us. In other words, rewilding is able to directly benefit humans while also being extremely helpful for the environment.
Health Impacts
Rewilding programs have shown to sequester a large amount of carbon from the atmosphere [4]. In fact, in the European Union alone, a WWF-commissioned study concluded that about 300 million tonnes of carbon dioxide could be sequestered every year through the implementation of rewilding programs alone [10]. This would do two important things. First of all, it would decrease the amount of carbon in our atmosphere, which is an extremely important step to slowing and stopping climate change. Second of all, it can greatly improve the general atmosphere
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order to perform it well [7]. When performed incorrectly, rewilding can actually harm the biodiversity of an area and, consequently, the world [7]. Also, as is with many other environmental programs, it is very controversial as it has the potential to cause economic loss to the communities nearby and use up land that could otherwise be used for profit or production [7]. On top of all this, rewilding isn’t a very known idea [7]. This means a few things. For one, it prevents people from agreeing on exactly what rewilding is. For some, it can be as little as planting a few extra trees and for others it may mean completely converting a landscape to become specifically suited for that purpose. It also means that some people may think a rewilding effort is too little or too much depending on their view of what it is which can cause a lot of backlash and controversy. Second, when it occurs, not many would truly understand what it entails or what the pros and cons of it are. An uneducated public is never a good thing, especially with programs as important as these.
CONCLUSION
Rewilding is a topic not often brought up in terms of what could be done to slow or
their daily lives is a source of respite in one’s usually busy lives. Therefore, people would naturally be inclined to be calmer and less anxious the more of it they’re surrounded by. This increase in happiness can, in turn, improve society as a whole by creating more productive members of the community that are willing to work. This can improve the quality of life and appeal of a city or town, all from even a simple rewilding program.
Drawbacks
Rewilding isn’t a perfect solution, of course. There are many drawbacks to the implementation of this idea as well. First of all, rewilding isn’t easy to implement. First of all, not all land is “rewildable”. As in, some land isn’t suitable for rewilding programs. This is one of the major problems these initiatives face. While there is still a decent amount of land that can be rewilded, there’s an upper limit to the amount of rewilding we can do without compromising other things such as food supply and other natural habitats. On top of that, rewilding can’t be done easily. While, yes, once they are in place they have many benefits, the original implementation actually takes a lot of time and resources, money, and time as well as a lot of expertise in the subject in
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stop climate change, nor is it brought up when asking how one could improve a community. However, the many impacts it can have are undeniable. Not only does it increase biodiversity with very little necessary land, it also improves the physical and mental health in urban areas with rewilding initiatives in place. However, there are also a plethora of drawbacks to these programs as well. Whether one believes that rewilding is a good or a bad idea though, it is undeniable that it is a very promising way of helping the environment and possibly even us.
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New Technology in Heart Valve Replacement: A Cheap Solution to an Expensive Problem
INTRODUCTION
No matter how strong or healthy the body is, it needs a heart to keep pumping blood and oxygen throughout it. In fact, almost every animal on Earth needs a heart to survive. Even lions, the king of the jungle, and blue whales, the world’s largest organism, are met with the same fate as a mayfly if they lose the function of their heart. Therefore, creating a cheap and time-sensitive solution to issues should be a top priority in the medical field.
Pulmonary heart valves are a key piece of the anatomy that keeps the heart functioning. The job of the pulmonary heart valve is to pump blood into the lungs, transporting deoxygenated blood into the lungs, where they can be reoxygenated and pumped back into the body[1] (Figure 1). In many cases of damaged or diseased pulmonary heart valves, the victim must deal with severe heart failure,
cardiac arrest, and even death [2]. It doesn’t help that even if someone manages to identify a damaged or diseased heart valve, it can take weeks or months for a heart valve replacement to be issued. The reason why the replacement can take so long to be issued is that the time and methods of surgery will be different based on the age, overall health, and severity of heart valve disease in the patient. Because of this, surgeons must take their time observing their patients and choosing the correct type of surgery to perform. In that time span, the victim may contract severe heart disease, or their disease could continue to worsen. In addition, because the valve doesn’t grow with the body, children need repeat high-risk heart valve surgeries. In an effort to make heart valve replacement faster and more affordable, scientists have developed new technology that allows pulmonary heart valves to be replaced in as soon as a minute.
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BY NATHAN LEE, GILBERT HIGH SCHOOL
Instead of constructing the completed replacement valves themselves, the researchers used the regenerative nature of human cells to create their replacement. Using air jets to direct liquid polymer into a valve-shaped frame, a mesh of fibers is created that mimic the extracellular matrix of heart valve cells [4]. After this process, the cells of the human body infiltrate and build upon that frame to create a replacement heart valve. In fact, the original scaffold will eventually degrade, leaving only the human cells. This is a stark improvement to the technology because since cells are on the nanometer scale, it makes it extremely hard for researchers to interact with the cells and move them onto a synthetic frame. Typically, researchers use 3D machines, but they don’t operate on a small enough plane to accurately interact with cells so it can take weeks or months to develop correctly. In this study, focused rotationary spinning has inputtable spatial cues that allow the cells to automatically make their way up the synthetic frame, thinking that it is a natural heart valve.
Figure 1. Anatomy of the Pulmonary Valve: This image shows the different parts of the pulmonary valve. It points to the location of the pulmonary trunk, which is attached to the heart, and it also shows the pulmonary valve itself. In the smaller image in the corner, it shows the leaflets of the valve, which open and close to allow blood flow (Source: [3])
This new technology was developed by scientists and researchers at Harvard University and recently published in the journal Matter [4]. Since pulmonary heart valve disease is such a big issue, the scientists involved wanted to create a method of heart valve replacement that was both cheap and could be implemented in a short amount of time. Below, the major challenges of valve disease and replacement will be summarized, and the impact of this new scientific discovery is fully explored.
FibraValves: Heart Valve Replacements Fabricated in Minutes
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may completely obstruct the blood vessels.
Due to the possible danger regarding the replacement in human hearts, the researchers decided to test out their newfound innovation on animals to decrease the risk of human endangerment. The researchers chose to test sheep because “the physical forces inside sheep and human hearts are similar, and sheep hearts also represent an extreme environment for heart valves due to sheep's accelerated calcium metabolism, which presents an increased risk of developing calcium deposits, a common complication for heart valve recipients [4].” Surgeons implemented the replacement valves into two different sheep and monitored them to see the results. In one of the sheep, the valve dislodged after a couple of minutes however the researchers believe that this was due to a sizing issue. In the second sheep the valves demonstrated good functionality, no rips or tears, and no thrombosis or blood vessels being obstructed.
However, a one-hour demonstration isn’t good enough to supply accurate evidence on what will happen if these valves are put into a human. In addition, there may
Figure 2. Mechanics of Rotationary Spinning. Here the motor used to spin the fibers is shown. On the right side of the image, it shows the collection mandrel which the fibers are wrapped around to make the final product. (Source: [4])
Once the heart valves were made, there were still many pieces of the development to test the valves. The strength and elasticity of the frame needed to be tested, along with the compatibility between the frame and heart cells. If the replacement isn’t strong enough to repeatedly open and close, then the recipient of the replacement won’t be able to pass blood through his or her body. If the replacement isn’t compatible with the heart cells and blood, then the material may cause harmful side effects like thrombosis or
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which the sheep’s hearts functioned well with minimal problems. If the researchers can make the technology compatible with human hearts as well, the replacement will likely function just as well. Due to the constraints and potential bias present in this research study, however, additional research into this new technology needs to be made to fully understand its future potential. This study only measured the function of a pulmonary heart valve over one hour, however this should be extended to multiple days to a week to test the long-term effects of the replacement. Inserting the research valve for a longer period of time will give the researchers more data about how well the valve holds up over time. In addition, since this valve replacement was only done for pulmonary replacements, it would be beneficial for future studies to look at the application of this technology for other heart valves. By having researchers from other colleges and companies analyze and attempt to replicate the original research, the technology can be further tested for its validity and reproducibility. Clearly, this piece of technology is an extremely important innovation that could save the lives of many. The more it is developed and perfected, the more confident the
be some bias from the researchers, since they want their research to be impactful and important. Therefore, the researchers need to test the valves over a longer amount of time, in more sheep and this study needs to be replicated by other researchers to confirm the validity of the results and future implications.
CONCLUSION
About 2.5 percent of Americans deal with some form of heart valve disease, and roughly 28,000 people in the U.S. die due to those same diseases [5]. With statistics like these, it is important for cheap, fast and reliable heart valve replacements to be available to the public. Without it, it may take a patient weeks or months to get a replacement for a heart valve, and in this time, they may have already suffered severe consequences. This research provides other researchers an outline for how to use a combination of human cells and man-made technology to overcome current challenges with heart valve replacement, such as finding donating tissue for everyone who needs it, replacing valves in a non-invasive way, and potentially minimizing host-donor interactions. This is shown by the researcher’s experiments on sheep, in
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medical world can be about helping people with different heart diseases, such as coronary artery disease and angina.
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Asian Carp are Ruining the Great Lakes
Every summer, my family and friends visit Lake Michigan for fun and relaxation. We play backyard games in the hot sun until we jump into the crystal blue water to go tubing behind our boat. This year, however, after our usual activities, we learned it wasn’t safe to swim due to parasites brought in by Asian carp, which can infect humans and cause dangerous illnesses (2). This invasive species has disrupted
our summer vacation and tradition.
The Great Lakes provide 21% of the world’s freshwater supply, supporting approximately 1.5 million jobs directly connected to the lakes and serving as a recreational source for many Michigan residents (3). However, the invasion of Asian carp poses a severe threat to these benefits. Initially introduced to improve water quality in the Southern U.S., Asian
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BY ETHAN MOON, FOREST HILLS CENTER HIGH SCHOOL
Figure 1. Fishermen capturing Asian Carp - an invasive species in the Great lakes (1)
Asian carp to overrun the Great Lakes ecosystem poses significant ecological and economic risks, as the loss of native fish would impact local fisheries, tourism, and related industries.
Invasive carp can have severe ecological and economic consequences on ecosystems like the Great Lakes. For instance, in ecosystems where Asian carp dominate, native fish populations tend to decline due to direct competition for food and habitat. Asian carp, especially bighead and silver carp, consume plankton—the base of the food web—which is essential for native fish species such as walleye and yellow perch (4). A study by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service shows that, due to the voracious consumption of plankton by Asian carp, native fish populations decline significantly in ecosystems where Asian carp reach high densities (5).
Economically, the Great Lakes generate an estimated $7 billion annually through commercial and recreational fishing (3). A study by Michigan State University found that Asian carp could reduce this revenue by displacing key native species, thus threatening both commercial and recreational fisheries (6). Additionally, the species poses physical risks to boaters
carp have since migrated up the Mississippi River towards the Great Lakes, where their presence endangers native biodiversity and water quality.
Asian carp disrupt the Great Lakes ecosystem by consuming large amounts of plankton, which depletes resources essential for native fish and other aquatic species. Studies show that Asian carp can consume up to 40% of their body weight in plankton daily (4), which depletes food sources for native fish species and disturbs the balance within aquatic ecosystems. Their rapid population growth compounds this issue, with some areas of the Mississippi River system reaching a biomass of over 90% Asian carp (1). Additionally, Asian carp can transmit harmful parasites, further endangering local fish populations and threatening human health. The current electric barriers designed to keep Asian carp out of Lake Michigan, while somewhat effective, are not foolproof and require regular maintenance to remain functional.
Recent population data shows an alarming increase in Asian carp numbers in areas close to the Great Lakes, underlining the urgency of effective management strategies. The potential for
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government-funded incentives for targeted hunting and trapping of Asian carp to get the public more directly involved in the solution. A program could offer discounts on fishing equipment and licenses for every carp safely removed, encouraging fishermen to catch carp for commercial purposes while releasing native species. Public education through signage at fishing spots and pamphlets at bait shops will also be essential. Also, there could be public competitions with a cash prize for whoever catches the most carp. Data from pilot programs such as targeted netting and electric barriers have shown promising reductions in carp densities by up to 95% in trial zones, according to a 2022 report by the Asian Carp Regional Coordinating Committee (8). This success provides hope that continued efforts can significantly curb their spread if scaled effectively.
Reflecting on my experiences visiting Michigan, I realize the importance of safeguarding these lakes. Preserving the Great Lakes ecosystem protects both their natural beauty and recreational opportunities, from fishing to water sports, that I’ve cherished. Protecting these waters from Asian carp ultimately ensures that future generations, including myself, can continue enjoying
and anglers due to their tendency to leap out of the water when startled, which has led to injuries and increased safety concerns for lake users.
Data on invasive species management shows the need for effective long-term barriers, as populations of invasive carp can double within a year if left unchecked. The proposed $1.5 billion project involving physical barriers in the Chicago Area Waterway System is part of a broader effort to address these types of challenges and prevent the potential multibillion-dollar economic and ecological impacts that carp could cause if they continue to spread (7). These combined ecological and economic risks underscore the importance of the proposed barrier project and the need for sustained effort and funding to keep invasive carp out of the Great Lakes.
Human error and our instinct to survive can lead to mindless actions that endanger ecosystems, affecting our environment and health. Therefore, awareness of invasive species, especially in limited resources like freshwater, must be developed globally. A comprehensive solution will take time, as laws alone cannot prevent the illegal smuggling of invasive species. Therefore, I recommend
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these unique ecosystems.
REFERENCES
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1900s Technology v.s. 2000s Technology — How Will Technology Grow in the Future?
Creativity being ahead of its time is a common trait among humans—it’s normal to see theoretical technological feats and ideas in movies and television shows. Scientists, though,often bring these grandiose thoughts and ideas to fruition. People couldn’t fathom flying through the air in a metal box centuries ago, but today, getting on an airplane is done without a thought. This idea of quickly evolving technology has been around for generations and only appears to be getting faster.
Within the beginning of the 15th century came the first printing press machine invented by Johannes Guttenburg, allowing for fast informational spreading and more books to be printed. Fast forwarding to the early 18th-19th century came the Industrial Revolution, full of new technological inventions such as the telegraph and the telephone, which allowed for even quicker communication—the early 20th century introduced computers, the
global internet, cars, and more devices capable of doing a broad range of tasks such as transportation, information gathering, and communication. Technology continues to advance, as evidenced by the development of AI (Artificial Intelligence) and robots to accommodate global needs. If people from the 1700s were to look at the present, they would be shocked to discover how humans can fly in airplanes, spaceships, and rockets. Similarly, movie watchers are realizing that “movies are becoming reality,” as evidenced in the movies “The Matrix” and “Wall-E” too. While technology continues to blossom, citizens need to be aware of how fast time is changing with every blink of an eye.
These innovations all started to evolve through the use of computational algorithm systems that were developed in the early 2000s, such as telephones, television, and computers. (1) Only then did it continue to evolve deeper through the inventions of Apple watches, artificial
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BY BRANDON KIM, EL DORADO HIGH SCHOOL
observed in China, as they are planning to initiate a “Robot + Application Action Plan” and invest 1.4 billion dollars to mass-produce robots! The plan will have about 500 robots able to replicate the work of 10,000 technicians (5)! The 1:20 ratio emphasizes how impactful technology can be in the future.
Despite the massive achievements that technology has achieved, there have been flaws growing as well. For instance, the rise of social media, another technological advancement, has been negatively impacting people’s mental health. Social media gave people a new mask of expression of how to make one’s life perfect and portray people in unrealistic reality. This new mask of reality is continuing to increase feelings of competition, jealousy, and, even worse, depression. According to UCLA health studies, research has shown that rates of depression between 2005, which was before social media, and 2017, when social media was invented, has grown by over 52%. (6) Around 69% of adults and 81% of teens all have been using social media consistently (7); over 70 million people have been negatively affected. Furthermore, the broad access to intranets and phones allows for personal information to easily slip out of one’s
intelligence, and robots invented in the modern day. (2) For example, the Roomba cleaner robot allows floors to be spotless within seconds, when humans would’ve had to use brooms and sweeping tools for work hours. (3) AI bot systems allow humans to instantly ask for help on a math problem or tips to organize their room. But more importantly, complex technology such as 3D environmental modeling and advanced AI photographic animations are starting to be constructed and implemented.
While technological innovations such as AI and machines can be limited to doing specific tasks, machinery can grow to do more complex tasks in the future. Technology is starting to grow to create self-driving cars in 2024, as seen in the auto-driving feature in Elon Musk’s Tesla. The 2024 cyber truck Tesla has an amazing cyber skeleton skin that is “titanium-like,” meaning dents, rust, or damage are no problem! The internet and wireless data/connection network systems will develop a faster system that can send around an average of 140 mBits. However, in 2030, the average will be 300 mBits! (4). In 2027, robots will produce agriculture and metals and serve in delivery or organization! This is highly
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July 2018, LINK.
hand and fall into the grasp of malicious intent. Around 43 million Americans have been victims of informational leaking, otherwise known as doxing, emphasizing how many people have lost all their privacy, their necessities, and secrets that were all given away with a click (8). So despite technology being a massive benefit to one, another has to recognize that with new technology comes a rise of new risks that have to be balanced and maintained.
From the beginning to the present, technological inventions have grown from simple computers to AI to help promote an environment that addresses worldly issues, including sanitation, danger, and healthcare, and allows for more productive research, analysis, and communication. Robots and AI will continue to grow and help solve a wide range of humanitarian necessities to open up a bright pathway towards the future. However, the evolution of technology is dynamically expanding in both positive and negative directions, pointing out that a balance is needed to balance both aspects.
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The Physiological and Societal Impacts of Gender Expression
INTRODUCTION
In the past, the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, asexual, and other queer identities (LGBTQ+) community has faced many hardships, both socially and medically. The terms that apply to this acronym cover two different categories of queer identities: sexual orientation (lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual) and gender identity (transgender, intersex). While sexual orientation reflects one’s preference when it comes to sexual or romantic partners, gender identity is defined as a person's innate sense of their gender, despite what anatomical sex they were assigned at birth. Many more terms that fall into these two categories have been added to the societal LGBTQ+ lexicon, but for the sake of brevity, this review will focus on these two broad categories, and more specifically on the transgender (trans) population which are individuals that identify with any other gender than what they were assigned
at birth (including nonbinary, genderfluid, genderqueer, etc.). The LGBTQ+ community has commonly been the victim of discrimination in many areas of life, faced prosecution, and even faced public hostility and violence due to their identities (1). Even medicine, an area of society that aims to “do no harm,” has been unsafe for many, as homosexuality has been historically viewed as a psychiatric disorder that needed to be treated (2). However, in the present day, more resources have been put into research and support for them, resulting in broadening acceptance and an increase in people coming out as queer or other classifications under the LGBTQ+ community, resulting in a surge of membership. (3). This paper aims to research and identify specific underlying biological and societal contributors to the surge of membership and access current research into any correlations between human physiology and changing social pressures with LGBTQ+ identification.
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BY MASON CHEN, CHINO HILLS HIGH SCHOOL
testosterone, as compared to cisgender (cis) female counterparts. Instead, they were reflecting levels that were more similar to those found in biologically born males (7). The opposite was found true as well, as trans women demonstrated a 2D:4D ratio statistically more similar to those found in biologically born women, indicating a much lower level of prenatal testosterone. This ratio, however, only represents a secondary biomarker, whose full explanation and effects are still not yet completely understood, and further studies on the reliability of the 2D:4D ratio need to be conducted with larger sample sizes to fully determine the correlation between the relative exposures to prenatal sex steroids and their effects in cis and trans adults. (8)
Another potential factor that has been found to influence gender dysphoria is the level of prenatal androgen (male hormone) exposure. Before puberty, sex hormone production such as testosterone and estrogen remains low. Prepubescent behaviors have been shown however to be influenced during development as early as in the mother’s womb when the fetus is exposed to androgens (9). Multiple studies have looked at the effect of prenatal androgens during the prenatal period and
Physiological Impact on Gender Expression
One significant area of research that has emerged as a suggested contributor to LGBTQ+ identities in recent years is physiological in nature. A recent study done by the Transgender Studies Centre at the Mashhad University of Medical Sciences in Iran and Northumbria University found that those who experience “gender dysphoria,” defined as “a deep sense of unease and distress that may occur when your biological sex does not match your gender identity” (4), have a higher chance experiencing an imbalance in developmental sex hormones in the womb (5). This has been demonstrated in a study that analyzed the 2nd digit to 4th digit (2D:4D) ratio, which is the ratio of the length of your index (2nd digit) finger and ring (4th digit) finger in adult trans women. This ratio has been shown to be a sexually dimorphic trait; meaning, this trait is unique between males and females. Generally, males have a lower 2D:4D ratio compared to females, leading to the 2D:4D ratio being used as a biomarker for prenatal androgen exposure (6). In this study, trans men suffering from gender dysphoria demonstrated a lower 2D:4D ratio, indicating higher levels of prenatal
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and/or other queer identities were heavily shunned in almost all aspects of society due to a multitude of reasons, such as religion, traditional values, and more. Historically, this is commonly seen through the religious criminalization of homosexuality and the severe punishments that came with it such as whipping, banishment, and even execution (10). Some prominent examples of more modern discrimination against individuals identifying as queer can be observed through the 1960s and 70s which resulted in the injury and death of people identifying as queer such as Howard Efland on the police raid of the Dover Hotel on March 9th, 1969 (11), and the police raid of the Stonewall Inn, an openly gay bar, on June 28th, 1969 (12). However, recently, society has opened up significantly about the recognition of LGBTQ+ people, with popular media seeing a 10.6 percent increase in the depiction of regular TV series characters being part of the LGBTQ+ between 2011-2022 (13), as well as more people opening up about their feelings (14). This gives the LGBTQ+ community a chance to escape the centuries-long stigma plaguing the community and begin an era where they can open up about how they truly feel.
correlated levels with demonstrated “masculinity” later in childhood/early teen years (prepubescent period). One of these studies was conducted by the TIDES study team, along with several other researchers to determine the correlation between prenatal sex hormones and later behavior of prepubescent children (9). Throughout their research, they found a positive correlation between variations of early pregnancy sex hormones and their impact on behavioral outcomes of prepubescent children of both sexes (9).
While both of the above studies indicate that prenatal sex hormones may have an impact on later gender identity, it is unclear if levels of these hormones are trending upward in recent years to correlate with the rise in the LGBTQ+ community. This would be a very interesting area of future study however and could help the scientific and queer community better understand the physiological underpinnings of queer identities.
Social Impact on Gender Expression
Changing social trends have probably had the biggest impact on the rise of LGBTQ+ in recent times. Throughout history, people who identified as gay, lesbian,
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among Americans by year of birth. This graph shows the rate of left-handedness on the y-axis and the year of birth on the x-axis (Source: 17).
The LGBTQ+ community has also greatly benefited in some ways from the creation of the Internet, which provides an avenue where people can express themselves and connect with similar-minded people regardless of distance and location. This ability to connect helps further encourage those who are queer to identify as and join the LGBTQ+ community, many of whom may have been previously isolated from similar-minded people due to different geographical and cultural factors, allowing new connections to those who share similar opinions and freedom of expression for who they want to be (18). The internet as a resource can be a haven for those whose nations actively discriminate against homosexuality and other LGBTQ+ movements, which still make up large portions of the world, primarily in Asia and Africa. (Figure 2). The ability for people to see that they aren’t alone in their identity and fight for rights helps accelerate the process of acceptance of the LGBTQ+ community in society as well. As seen in an article released by GLAAD, to reach true
A prominent example of a similar effect being portrayed in history can be displayed in tracking hand preference over time (Figure 1). In the past, left-handedness was heavily stigmatized by society, such as in Catholicism, where the right hand was associated with the hand of God (15). By contrast, the left hand was associated with the hand of the Devil (15). This belief led to people who used their left hand being shunned by society and facing persecution and punishment all the way up until the 1970s when people started to accept and produce goods specifically for left-handed people (16). It can also be observed that as time passed, people increasingly came out as left-handed, which correlates with people in the mid to late 20th century accepting left-handedness as normal, and eventually ending the stigma around left-handedness.
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Figure 1. The rate of left-handedness
amplify its acceptance on both individuals and eventually its normalization on the world stage, politically and socially, bringing in true acceptance.
CONCLUSION
At this moment, the evidence suggests a positive correlation between people’s physiology, such as the 2D:4D ratio, and its effects on androgen levels, the
acceptance, we need more than just political acceptance but societal acceptance as even in the USA, with its numerous LGBTQ+-friendly laws, they are still not fully accepted as the topic is highly uncomfortable to many people of society (19). Using the internet and other resources to connect and spread the influence of the LGBTQ movement to people all across the world, can help
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Figure 2: 50 LGBTQ-related laws and policies across the world. Laws/practices are indicated here as positive for protective (shades of blue), or negative for harmful (shades of yellow-red). Demonstrates how there is still widespread discrimination or even violence in the world, despite efforts for increased inclusion and acceptance. (Source: 20).
LGBTQ community, such as the recent Pulse bar shooting in Florida (22), and especially in other nations that have not adopted LGBTQ-friendly laws (20). These events show how far we still are from accepting LGBTQ+ members as equals in society both nationally and in the world as a whole.
REFERENCES
shifting social climate, and the recent rise of the LGBTQ+ community. However, more research needs to be done to solidify this connection as currently there are very few institutions doing any research on the physiological connections such as the 2D:4D ratio and androgen levels. This research is essential for our society as this drastic change is causing massive amounts of controversy, and this kind of research can help speed along acceptance, and give us a greater understanding of those identifying as queer, along with a greater understanding of ourselves as a whole. It is highly likely that this trend will continue to rise as more and more people “come out” and identify as LGBTQ+, however, this number will likely plateau (like those for left-handedness) when full acceptance of queer identities are achieved. There have been voices that claim LGBTQ+ and people who identify as queer are simply following a “trend” and they will subsequently leave as it becomes less “trendy” (21), however, even if this is the case then over time we should get a more accurate representation of the LGBTQ+ community in society as acceptance improves. Despite any “trends”, and the increased acceptance in society, there is still horrific violence against those in the
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Attack and Its Aftermath.” NPR, June 26, 2016. LINK.
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Analysis of First-Generation Antipsychotic Drug Groups in Reducing the Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia in American Veterans
INTRODUCTION
Schizophrenia, a chronic neurological condition, is characterized by genetic and environmental factors and affects a large percentage of the American population (1). Roughly 34% to 98% of individuals who were diagnosed with schizophrenia have experienced a major traumatic event in their lives. Post-traumatic stress disorder rates among schizophrenic patients range from 13% to 29% (1). Ultimately, it is evident that there is a strong correlation between individuals with PTSD and psychotic symptoms.
One research intern at the Treatment Advocacy Center wrote that schizophrenic veterans were at a higher risk of developing mental health-related comorbidities like post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts (2). Trauma causes alterations in the
nervous system and brain, such as an excess production of a reactive oxygen species, or ROS (3). This causes inflammation and impairs an individual’s ability to regulate their emotional responses, which aids the development of schizophrenia. This evaluation of antipsychotic medications will help the veteran community that suffers from trauma, as they are at a higher risk of developing schizophrenia.
There is no current confirmed cure for schizophrenia (4). However, various therapies and drugs have been discovered to benefit those who face schizophrenic symptoms, including first-generation medications that target positive symptoms (5). Unfortunately, these medications are highly potent, so they are often associated with severe extrapyramidal effects such as dyskinesia, involuntary facial movements, and repetitive body movements (6).
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BY ISABELLA CHOI1, CANDICE LIN2, & ADITI VADURI3
1 Chaminade High School, West Hills, CA
2 Lexington High School, Lexington, MA
3 Stratford Preparatory, San Jose, CA
collection of genes associated with both post-traumatic stress disorder and schizophrenia, indicating a higher occurrence of psychotic symptoms in individuals with PTSD. According to O'Conghaile and colleagues (2015), up to 70% of returning soldiers exhibited symptoms of PTSD and fell into the highest-risk group for developing schizophrenia. Another study found an overall high prevalence of trauma in the veteran population, with 34-98% of veterans reported having experienced at least one major traumatic event in their lives (8).
A literature review published in 2005 by Read, Morrison, and Ross found sufficient evidence for the correlation between trauma and the development of psychosis and schizophrenia, paying particular attention to positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions (9). The results of the review illustrated the significance of trauma, especially in combat veterans with PTSD, in the development of schizophrenic symptoms (9). The review referred to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), where a recent study identified 55 male war veterans with psychotic symptoms along with PTSD. They discovered that both Confederate States of America
This paper focuses on the efficacy, accessibility, and affordability of the three first-generation antipsychotic drug groups—phenothiazine, butyrophenones, and thioxanthene. Specifically, to analyze the advantages of each of the first-generation antipsychotic drug groups in reducing the positive symptoms of schizophrenia cost-effectively. This paper will also introduce the neurodivergent condition of schizophrenia and its correlation with post-traumatic stress disorder in American veterans.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Schizophrenia
Post-traumatic stress disorder affects individuals with a life-long history of traumatic experiences (7). PTSD was developed from “shell shock”, a term used during World War One when soldiers reported experiencing extreme levels of stress even years after their service (8). Individuals with PTSD are triggered by flashbacks and nightmares related to their past traumatic experiences (8). PTSD patients also experienced a lack of interest in daily activities, an exaggerated startle response, social isolation, sleep disturbances, hypervigilance, etc. (7).
A study identified an overlap in the
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veterans struggle to keep a job or are unemployed due to their mental health conditions (14). Due to the limitations the veterans faced, the team included the criteria of efficacy, affordability, and accessibility in the evaluation of antipsychotic groups. Unfortunately, due to the lack of pre-existing information regarding schizophrenic veterans, this paper focuses on drug effectiveness in the general population while keeping in mind the characteristics of the veteran population, such as income and employment status.
Schizophrenia symptoms are divided into two subdivisions: positive and negative symptoms (15). Hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thought are classified as positive symptoms, whereas a decrease in emotional expressiveness and apathy are characterized as negative symptoms (15).
Current Antipsychotic Medications Overview
First-generation antipsychotics are dopamine receptor antagonists, which means inhibited binding of dopamine to the receptors. The drug groups classified under first-generation are phenothiazines, butyrophenones, thioxanthenes, dibenzoxazepines, dihydroxyindole, and
(CSA) survivors and combat veterans had high schizophrenic scores in comparison to the general public (9). The literature review also described the influence of other traumatic events such as sexual and physical assault, finding that among 409 female inpatients, those who had experienced trauma were significantly more likely to develop schizophrenia than any other neurodivergent condition (9).
Despite veterans’ service and sacrifices, the veteran community tends to be overlooked, leaving them unsupported in their own country. In the transition from military service to civilian life, 50% of American veterans become homeless (10). Roughly 26% of the veteran military personnel display and commit violence towards others. These actions are heavily correlated with elevated suicidal rates (11). The rate among the veteran population is 41% to 61% higher than the general population (12). Unfortunately, of the 1.4 million combat veterans recorded in 2002, only 54% have received health care from the Veteran Administration (13). Even after returning from war, the physical and or psychological injuries exhibited by the veterans have resulted in distance between them and others, decreasing their ability to obtain or maintain a job. A staggering 69% of
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as second-generation or atypical medications, is classified as a serotonin-dopamine antagonist (16). These are newer medications that have been approved in the twentieth century. This branch of drugs is known to improve a patient’s cognitive ability and negative symptoms without many unpleasant side effects. As of 2016, the Food and Drug Administration had approved 16 of these types of medications.
This study will focus on three first-generation antipsychotic medications.
diphenylbutylpiperidine (16). First-generation drugs are the traditional or typical medications used by hospitals since the nineteenth century. They are especially effective at controlling positive symptoms and are widely used in the treatment of delusional disorder and paranoia. The antipsychotics serve as competition for dopamine, inhibiting 72% of the D2 dopamine receptors in the brain (16), and are responsible for lowered levels of the neurotransmitter in various pathways in the brain (17).
Another type of antipsychotic, referred to
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Table 1: Comparison of Three Antipsychotic Drug Groups | |||
| Phenothiazine | Butyrophenones | Thioxanthenes |
Examples of Drug | Fluphenazine, Chlorpromazine, Olanzapine, Perphenazine | Haloperidol, Droperidol, Benperidol | Chlorprothixene, Flupenthixol, Clopenthixol |
Common Side Effects | Dry Mouth, Dry Eyes, Sedation, Pruritus, and Constipation | Cognitive decline, dry mouth, impaired vision, constipation, sedation, urine retention | Difficulty in talking/swallowing, swelling of the facial cheeks, muscle stiffness, muscle spasms, lip smacking |
Extrapyramidal Side Effects | Dystonia, Parkinsonism, Akathisia, Tardive Dyskinesia | Parkinsonism, Dystonia, Akathisia, Tardive Dyskinesia | 1. Observed that Parkinsonism symptoms were higher with Chlorpromazine than Chlorprothixene/ 2. Effects develop in higher dosages but can be controlled by anti-parkinsonian drugs 3. Effects with clopenthixol are high |
Mechanism | Inhibits D2 dopamine receptors in mesolimbic, nigrostriatal, and tuberoinfundibular neural pathways | Depresses nerve functions to treat particular symptoms of psychosis, interrupting neuronal activity of GABA-, norepinephrine-, and serotonin-mediated activity | Medium potency in binding with the dopamine receptor, blocks postsynaptic dopamine mediated neurotransmitters |
Affordability | More expensive compared to butyrophenones | Initially created as an inexpensive chemical substitution | Flupenthixol Decanoate |
Epstein in 1962 looked at the efficacy of four phenothiazine derivatives—chlorpromazine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine, and triflupromazine—in comparison to two placebos in the treatment of chronically ill schizophrenic patients (22). The participants of the study were placed into groups sorted by sex (males and females) and duration of hospitalization (two to five and six to ten years). From these groups, they were randomly assigned to different treatments through a double-blind procedure. For the first ten days, the physicians increased the drug dosage by one unit per day. Depending on the initial responses, the dosage levels could be further increased in the days following. After eight months, the results concluded with a correlation between the groups using four phenothiazine drugs and a decreased mean morbidity score. Furthermore, the study found that not one of the four drugs was more significantly effective than the other; however, all of the medications showed a noteworthy improvement over either one of the placebos. The drug chlorpromazine was noted to have significantly more serious and toxic side effects than the other three phenothiazine drugs. A detailed record of the side effects of the
Phenothiazine
Phenothiazine is one of the first-generation antipsychotic drug groups commonly used in the treatment of schizophrenia, in addition to other physical conditions such as nausea, vomiting, and hiccups. Phenothiazine works by blocking the D2 dopamine receptors, reducing aggression, and balancing the levels of dopamine in the brain (18). Fluphenazine, the drug of the highest potency within the phenothiazine group, acts as an antagonist of postsynaptic dopamine receptors in mesolimbic, nigrostriatal, and tuberoinfundibular neural pathways and has a strong effect on both the receptors of muscarinic-1 and histamine-1 (19). However, unlike haloperidol, a drug under butyrophenone, fluphenazine does not interfere with the 5-HT2A receptor (20). Phenothiazines have been widely used in numerous hospitals spanning the US to treat both physical and mental illnesses since the 1950s (21). Phenothiazines are relatively easy to access and afford; however, many other drug groups, including butyrophenone, which will be further discussed in later paragraphs, were created with even more affordable ingredients.
A study conducted by Adelson and
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between each medication. Haloperidol is widely regarded as the most commonly used drug within the butyrophenone class. On the other hand, benperidol is referenced as an incredibly potent antipsychotic that is still commonly used. Droperidol is often utilized for its anesthetic properties in hospitals for intensive care.
Butyrophenones work by depressing nerve functions to treat particular symptoms of psychosis. For instance, researchers J. W. Garry and T. J. Leonard conducted a study that investigated the efficacy of the drug haloperidol in the treatment of chronic schizophrenia (23). In the controlled trial of this medication, various factors were monitored. The trial's goal was to determine how haloperidol affects many elements of schizophrenia, including symptom severity, cognitive function, and quality of life. The results of the haloperidol group were compared to those of a control group that received a placebo or an alternative therapy in the study. Ultimately, the trial's findings highlight the effectiveness of haloperidol in treating schizophrenia through discussions of its influence on cognitive performance, the improvement of
medication, such as drowsiness, apathy, and tremor, was also reported (22).
There were many reported side effects of phenothiazine derivatives, such as multiple extrapyramidal symptoms (dystonia, Parkinsonism, akathisia, etc.), psychosis, delirium, and even the possibility of rare side effects like cataracts, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, and agranulocytosis. Many mild symptoms such as dry mouth, dry eyes, sedation, pruritus, and constipation were also very common (18). Additionally, phenothiazine can be used in combination with the second-generation antipsychotic drug clozapine; however, the combination causes an increased risk of many serious side effects (18).
Butyrophenones
Butyrophenones are a class of pharmaceutical drugs under the antipsychotic drug group. The most well-known derivatives under this group included haloperidol, droperidol, and benperidol. These drugs were typically used in the treatment of multiple psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia, paranoid syndrome, and manic-depressive illness. However, among haloperidol, droperidol, and benperidol, there were slight differences
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urine retention (27). A majority of these side effects have similarities with those of phenothiazines.
Thioxanthenes
Thioxanthenes are the third group of derivatives, which includes the medications chlorprothixene, flupenthixol, and clopenthixol. The first drug, chlorprothixene, is generally effective for schizophrenia treatment (25). When chlorprothixene is given in lower doses, patients have noted favorable outcomes regarding anxiety, tension, insomnia, psychotic disorders, and depression.
In a study published in 2014, Tardy and her coworkers examined the effects of flupenthixol and low-potency antipsychotic medications on patients with schizophrenia (26). Randomized controlled studies contrast this medication with additional first-generation, low-potency medications for individuals with schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like psychosis. This review included a two-month, 153-participant, randomized trial from China that compared flupenthixol with chlorpromazine. The data suggests that there was no significant difference in efficacy but that flupenthixol had fewer
negative symptoms, and the decrease in positive symptoms. Overall, the results demonstrated the efficacy of haloperidol in managing positive symptoms (23). The analysis of butyrophenones shows that the drug group is effective in mainly improving the cognitive ability of patients compared to treating positive symptoms. This negated the team’s research question that this group is effective in decreasing the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia.
Extrapyramidal symptoms, which include a variety of movement abnormalities, are frequent side effects. Some of these include Parkinsonism, which causes stiffness, tremors, and slowed movements; dystonia, which results in unnatural postures and muscle contractions; akathisia, which causes restlessness and an urge to move constantly; and tardive dyskinesia, which is characterized by uncontrollable repetitive movements like grimacing or lip-smacking. Sedation is another prominent side effect that may impair daily activities and cognitive performance by generating drowsiness and decreased attentiveness. Butyrophenones are also known to have anticholinergic effects, which can result in cognitive decline, dry mouth, impaired vision, constipation, and
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increases demand for healthcare services. A single-site, longitudinal study was conducted by Chiliza and colleagues to assess the effects of treatment with flupenthixol decanoate over 12 months for patients with first-episode schizophrenia (28). The study recruited patients from hospital admissions and community clinics in the Greater Cape Town district. Patients took oral flupenthixol (1-3 mg) per day for a week, followed by long-acting flupenthixol decanoate (10 mg-2 weekly). This dosage was increased if patients failed to reach the adequate response of a 20% decrease in total positive and negative symptoms. It was noted that flupenthixol decanoate was chosen because it was widely available, accessible, and affordable, making it a popular choice by psychiatrists in both high- and low-income settings. It has also been shown to be more cost-effective than the long-lasting injectable risperidone, a second-generation antipsychotic (28). This shows that thioxanthenes are effective in decreasing the positive symptoms of schizophrenia with fewer extrapyramidal side effects. This validates the team’s research question of which antipsychotic drug group is better at reducing the positive symptoms of
side effects compared to trifluoperazine (26).
Finally, clopenthixol is recognized for acting quickly on patients suffering from delusions, aggression, destructiveness, impulsiveness, and hallucinations. Although its scope of use is more limited, it has been successful in treating individuals suffering from paranoia. An analysis done by Leucht and his colleagues in the Bayesian framework test showed that clopenthixol performed better than chlorpromazine in the 212 trials with 43,049 people (26).
Chlorprothixene was the first derivative of thioxanthene to be released. The extrapyramidal symptoms include Acute Dystonic Reactions, Parkinson's disease, Akathisia, and Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome. On the other hand, flupenthixol extrapyramidal symptoms develop with higher dosages and can be moderated with anti-parkinsonian drugs. However, the side effects associated with clopenthixol are severe (27).
Psychotic symptoms result in continuous distress, reduced autonomy, a poor standard of living, and increased morbidity and mortality for schizophrenic patients. This also places an emotional and financial burden on caregivers and
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collective data surrounding antipsychotic drug groups was evident. Specifically, there were not many papers written on the treatment of schizophrenia among American veterans using these three antipsychotic groups. Hence, the comparative analysis of phenothiazine, butyrophenones, and thioxanthenes is stressed. Previous literature allows the current researchers to figure out which data analysis techniques or research methods successfully worked. Through this, they can utilize that information to conduct a more accurate and professional study.
Some strengths found in this paper are the ample information on the mechanism of antipsychotic drugs, the efficacy of the derivatives, and the extrapyramidal side effects. Moreover, past experiments and resources mainly focused on the correlation between trauma and schizophrenia in general and less on the influence of PTSD on the development of schizophrenia. The published studies focused mainly on the mechanisms of the individual drug groups and their side effects. Due to the limited number of published articles regarding the topic, this paper may include a scarcity of data on the cost-effectiveness and accessibility of these derivatives among
schizophrenia with the fewest side effects.
Evaluation
Schizophrenia and antipsychotic literature have made significant contributions to the field of psychiatry. With the abundant pre-existing literature available to the public, researchers have been able to understand the etiology and outcomes of schizophrenia on a deeper level. Numerous studies and clinical observations led to the development of a classification of mental disorders that aided in accurate diagnosis and more effective treatments. Antipsychotic literature has also helped refine pharmacological treatments for schizophrenia. The literature provided evidence regarding the efficacy of certain drugs in reducing the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations and delusions. Along with this, many different aspects of schizophrenia research have documented the adverse reactions associated with antipsychotic medications.
Researchers can identify gaps, unanswered questions, or areas that require further exploration. For example, after evaluating information on schizophrenia, the lack of papers with
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accessible to minority groups but works the same as the established first-generation antipsychotic derivatives.
As a result, the main concepts that were researched and presented were first-generation antipsychotics, including their side effects, risks, and efficacy. The team employed these databases and sources: Google Scholar, National Institute of Health, National Library of Medicine, Veteran Affairs.gov, psychiatry journals, PubMed, PsycInfo, PsycArticles, and MIT Cognet. Through this process, we compared and evaluated the affordability, accessibility, and efficacy of the three chosen antipsychotic medications. To find the particular information in the databases, the researchers used search terms such as “schizophrenia”, “post-traumatic stress disorder”, “antipsychotic medication”, “first-generation” and phrases like “trauma influence on schizophrenia”, “schizophrenia in American veterans'', “side-effects of phenothiazine”, “side-effects of thioxanthenes'', “side-effects of butyrophenones'', mechanism of butyrophenone”, “extrapyramidal effects of antipsychotic medications'', “dyskinesia”, “parkinsonism”, and “neuroleptic
the veteran population. To further establish the specific correlation between trauma and schizophrenia in veterans, future experiments can be done where researchers can manipulate variables to see the direct correlation.
METHODS
The goal of the study was to find the ideal first-generation antipsychotic drug group that would be best for the American Veteran population. Three drug groups were identified—phenothiazines, butyrophenones, and thioxanthene—and their effects on combating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia without causing a financial burden on lower-income families living in the United States. The team’s goal was to address the gap in the literature. The team realized that there were not many sources that elaborated on veterans’ experiences transitioning from military service to a civilian lifestyle. Additionally, there were limited articles that described the mental comorbidities of American Veterans. To address the mental health issues that veterans face, their stigmatization, and how many marginalized communities are missed in the diagnosis of conditions like schizophrenia this paper seeks to identify an affordable alternative that is
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The inclusion and exclusion criteria that the researchers adopted included the study design, population, time frame, quality, and outcome of the examination. In the study, we used the systematic review method. The systematic technique allows for a comprehensive and unbiased analysis of the evidence. We also evaluated a specific group of American veterans between the ages of 40 and 60 who experienced a form of trauma. They also included publications that ranged from the 20th and 21st centuries so that the information would be relevant to modern society. The team also utilized high-quality assessment tools like reputable databases and studies without bias. These criteria enable proper, high-quality, and reputable evaluation that can be used by the future generation for research. The researchers have attempted to minimize bias in the systematic review by outlining exclusions and inclusion criteria and using articles from different authors and time periods.
The figure below is our flow diagram, a visual representation that summarizes the literature searching and sifting process of our research.
RESULTS
In the screening process, the team identified several publications and
malignant syndrome”. The majority of the key terms stemmed from the publications that we looked over. These terms represent the main ideas or topics of interest that relate to treatments of Schizophrenia and the link between PTSD and schizophrenia. Using these terms, we had access to other relevant sources and were able to further dive into the research.
For our research, the publication dates of the sources we used ranged from 1960 to 2022. We incorporated older studies to serve as a baseline and contrast in our literature review. The baseline articles were used to display a trend in the treatment of antipsychotic drugs or act as supporting evidence for the ideology in the newer articles. These sources provide insight into the development of the psychotic field. Researchers performed a longitudinal analysis to understand continuity, shifts in ideology, and long-term trends. By using primary resources, researchers can identify the gaps in past research, reassess the validity of past research, and determine the appropriateness of earlier conclusions. The researchers screened 65 studies, incorporating a total of 47 sources, including studies and database websites, within the paper.
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In research, biases can cause flaws and limitations in the transparency of a published study. The risks of bias assessment allow researchers to establish a level of trustworthiness in their evidence synthesis and findings. Some biases that the researchers of this study encountered include skewed information, inconclusive results, sampled articles based on inadequate searches, and inaccurate designs of selection criteria. The limitations of the published studies included the reliance on external survey data that led to discrepancies in the observed rates and limited ability to investigate other factors such as previous treatments, profiles, cost of treatment, severity of illness, mortality rates, etc.
Through the research and analyses of the numerous research studies, the team found similarities between the three antipsychotic drug groups. Summaries of the findings of each of the three drug groups can be found below and in Tables 2, 3, and 4.
The past research and pre-existing studies regarding phenothiazines that the researchers analyzed demonstrate that medications like chlorpromazine, fluphenazine, and promazine have similar efficacy and side effects. However, when
studies through academic databases found through the University of California Santa Barbara Library and Google Scholar. The team viewed 29 records from academic databases and 36 additional records from reputable websites and articles pertaining to the effects of first-generation drug derivatives on schizophrenic veterans. The total number of records screened was 65. Articles that were either inaccessible, outdated, or written with a focus on subjects outside of the United sources were screened out, leaving 57 full-text articles that were further assessed for eligibility. 10 of these studies that focused on topics other than American veterans, schizophrenia, first-generation medications, and antipsychotic drugs were screened out, resulting in a total of 47 sources used in the research paper. The chosen guidelines for data extraction included the study title, the credibility of the authors, the duration of the study, sample size, trial type, statistics, and a brief summary of the results. The researchers organized these characteristics into tables comparing the pre-existing studies of phenothiazines, butyrophenones, and thioxanthenes (reference Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4 in the appendix).
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among thioxanthene derivatives in regard to efficacy and extrapyramidal side effects. With the exception of one study, all the studies took longer than a month. These trials included more than 60 participants who experienced schizophrenic symptoms. The studies used various types of trials such as random Group Bayesian framework, longitudinal method, systematic/literature approach, and double-blind design. In all, the drugs were shown to have a somewhat equal effect on the mental state of the participants (reference Table 4 in the appendix).
Ultimately, the team found that phenothiazines were the most accessible, butyrophenones were the most affordable, and thioxanthenes had fewer extrapyramidal side effects.
DISCUSSION
The study was conducted to explore the ideal first-generation antipsychotic drug group for American veterans in terms of effectiveness, accessibility, and affordability. After considering the trial results from the previously published reviews, the researchers found that phenothiazines have been in use in numerous hospitals throughout the US since the 1950s. The published articles
studied against placebos or controls in the experiment done by Daniel Adelson and Leon J. Epstein, the phenothiazine medications were found to be significantly more effective and were correlated with lower morbidity scores. The participant numbers of the analyzed studies ranged from 48 to 12,649, with participants from various hospitals in the USA. The duration of the studies also varied from six weeks to eight months, with follow-up trials lasting for a year or more (reference Table 2 in the appendix).
A majority of the chosen studies were classified as double-blind studies, which involved both the researchers and participants being unaware of which drug they were given, reducing biases within the recording of data. The studies ranged from 12 to 206 participants, who were split into two groups and received different treatment. The trials also varied within a time frame of 48 hours to 12 weeks. In addition, the studies all discussed the effectiveness of these drugs regarding schizophrenia or other psychotic conditions (reference Table 3 in the appendix).
After analyzing the pre-existing studies on thioxanthenes, the researchers found that there were no significant differences
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effects when compared to trifluoperazine, with around 66% of the thioxanthene derivatives having fewer extrapyramidal side effects. Moreover, the researchers found that flupenthixol, a derivative of thioxanthene, is accessible and affordable, making it a popular choice by psychiatrists in both high- and low-income settings.
Many of the findings of this paper aligned with pre-existing ideas, including the idea that first-generation antipsychotic drugs are more effective in treating positive symptoms of schizophrenia and that phenothiazines are more affordable than butyrophenones and thioxanthenes. On the other hand, the researchers also found contradictory results throughout their research. An example of this is that there is a difference in the mechanisms of first-generation antipsychotic drugs and their efficacy levels. There was a varying effect on the efficacy of the antipsychotic drug group derivatives.
Based on the above evidence, the initial hypothesis that phenothiazine reduces the positive symptoms of schizophrenia affordably in American veterans was rejected. This differed from the previous literature because few reviews compared these three drug groups.
outlined that low-potency or mid-potency phenothiazines are commonly used by hospitals due to their ability to treat schizophrenia, schizophrenic-like disorders, and various other mental and physical illnesses. Additionally, the results showed that butyrophenones were initially created as an inexpensive alternative chemical for medications in the phenothiazine group. The studies discussed that butyrophenones were the most affordable when compared to phenothiazines and thioxanthenes, as shown in droperidol—a drug considered an inexpensive butyrophenone, although associated with persisting side effects. Lastly, the researchers concluded that thioxanthenes were the most effective in decreasing hallucinations and delusions of schizophrenic patients with the least number of extrapyramidal side effects. It was observed that parkinsonism symptoms were higher with chlorpromazine, a derivative of phenothiazines; on the other hand, chlorprothixene, a derivative of thioxanthenes, compared to the other antipsychotic groups, is classified as having medium potency when binding to the dopamine receptor, meaning that it causes fewer severe side effects. Additionally, flupenthixol had fewer side
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correlated to the lack of outside research. For instance, it is unsure whether these cumulative solutions would be most effective when considering veterans. As one of the foundations of this research was the transition of veterans into society, there was a comparison between the behaviors of veterans and those of the general public. Therefore, throughout the process of researching, one obstacle we came across was the lack of information connecting veterans, in particular, with antipsychotic efficacy. We hope that, through the basis of our research, more future work that includes veterans can be established.
As researchers are still gathering data regarding the effectiveness of each drug derivative, our conclusion may be subject to change with further research on the topic. Furthermore, additional experiments and analyses of other first-generation antipsychotic drug groups can be done and compared to the three focused on in this paper. We hope that research regarding the efficacy, accessibility, and affordability of antipsychotic medication continues, especially for the benefit of the veteran community, as they are at higher risk of schizophrenic development.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Summer Research Academies, the University of Santa Barbara, and the director, Lina Kim for giving us the opportunity to conduct this research.
Some strengths of this paper included a high statistical significance as the researchers analyzed many reputable sources from various sources that mainly had conclusive results and confidence intervals. The researchers also looked at a large sample size, and the data displayed clear trends. On the other hand, some limitations of the results were that the researchers found few sources on the effects of antipsychotic drugs on American veterans. Due to time constraints, the researchers could only analyze 47 sources, including both studies and database websites. The researchers would have analyzed at least fifty articles if given more time. Additionally, if the researchers had been given a longer time period, the team would have looked into medical records for statistics on veterans and performed their own statistical analysis.
CONCLUSION
As established, veterans have been overlooked as members of the general population in terms of the treatment they received. Although we have developed our research question in hopes of finding the most effective solution to this problem, there are a few aspects that limit this. Most of these factors
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Treatments of Schizophrenia.” 23(8), 2087–2087. LINK
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Summer Research Academies, the University of Santa Barbara, and the director, Lina Kim for giving us the opportunity to conduct this research.
REFERENCES
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Psychopharmacologyinstitute.com. LINK
A.-F. M., Schobitz, R. P., Roache, J. D., Litz, B. T., Young-McCaughan, S., & Mintz, J. (2022). “Aggression and violent behavior in the military: Self-reported conflict tactics in a sample of service members and veterans seeking treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder.” 66, 101734–101734. LINK
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An Analysis of Particulates in Different Commercial Bottled Water Brands
Aiden Park*
Aiden Joowon Park is a senior high school student of the Highly Gifted Magnet program in North Hollywood High School located in Los Angeles, California. At the time of this paper, he is currently pursuing a career in both chemistry and the environmental sciences.
3. SCIENCE SPOTLIGHT
This month, we have an outstanding student we want to highlight by sharing their science fair project! We encourage all our readers to participate in science fairs and feel free to submit your projects for the chance to be featured in our next issue!
Binding Affinities Indicate a Potential Role for Estradiol in Reducing Risk of Stroke
Dhara Hansalia
Dhara Hansalia is a senior high school student from Beckman High School located in Southern California. She is currently interested in pursuing a career in medicine and women’s health.
An Analysis of Particulates in Different Commercial Bottled Water Brands
ABSTRACT
Bottled drinking water is a regulated consumer product federally and locally in the United States. These regulations, however, do not cover suspended particulate matter that may be present in the water, such as microplastics, hence little is known of their presence in the final products sold to consumers. This study strives to fill this gap in information by examining the contents of five brand-named bottled water samples for suspended particulate matter. Samples were purchased from commercial suppliers in Los Angeles California and water samples were filtered using stainless steel filters. The filter was then inspected by a Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer from the Moore Institute for Plastic Pollution Research (MIPPR). When a particle was found, a spectrum of the particle was first created using the FT-IR machine’s software called OMNIC Picta. The particle was then identified using that software and
later confirmed using a website, OpenSpecy, made by Win Cowger from the MIPPR created specifically to analyze these types of particles. This process was completed over two separate samples of each of the 5 brands and within each sample, particle analysis was done for up to ten particles. While every water bottle had a considerable amount of plastic and protein particulates, various other materials were found in specific brands as well. For example, silica, fur, cotton and fabric ended up showing up in multiple water bottle brands. Along with this, a significant amount of soil appeared in one brand as well. This study demonstrates that stricter regulations and testing should be done on packaged water bottles to ensure the quality and safety of these products.
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BY Aiden Park, North Hollywood High School, Los Angeles, California
INTRODUCTION
In the US, water bottle brands are legally required to publish water quality reports for their products, however these do not typically include particulate content of the water. This is in contrast to community water systems, which are required to send an annual drinking water quality report to their customers by July 1 each year [1]. This illustrates a gap in quality oversight, meaning how many particles are in bottled water, what kind of particulates are there, and which brands contain them the most is unknown and untracked. In fact, the NRDC, an organization of environmental activists, scientists, and lawyers that have been vital in the passing of many environmental laws, has stated that bottled water is not necessarily safer than your tap water [2]. This is of concern because the presence of particulates increases the turbidity of the water, creating an environment known to foster microbial growth and the spread of other microorganisms. On top of that, the particles themselves can be harmful. Microplastics and nanoplastics have been measured in
bottled water for a while now [3] and once ingested are linked to problems such as lowered reproductive ability, worse memory, and, in extreme cases, strokes, heart attacks [4], and cancer [5].
Bottled water can come from many sources. For example, Arrowhead comes from multiple springs in Southern California [6], while Dasani comes from municipal supplies [7]. It is important to recognize these sources as they can lead to different particulates being present in your water. For example, fibers such as asbestos have been found in water sources close to urban areas [8]. Additionally, pesticides and dissolved solids are more likely to appear in water with sources that come from underground [9].
There are a multitude of different types of plastics that are in use and subsequently dumped into landfills all over the world. Currently, approximately 400 tons of plastic waste is produced every year [10]. Although some plastics are now decomposable [10] most of them take a very long time to decompose and never fully disappear but instead break down into smaller pieces (microplastics) that pollute our environment [11]. Plastic
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water bottles themselves present an issue, since polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) is the most common type of plastic used when it comes to the manufacturing of water bottles and the caps are usually made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or polypropylene (PP). One study estimates that over 1 million water bottles are purchased every minute, exacerbating the issue of microplastics invading our water supply [11]. In this study, five water bottle brands were tested to identify and measure microplastics and other particulate matter in our drinking water. This study aims to make the public more aware of what is in their drinking water and to consider whether or not it is truly safe.
METHODS
Materials
Experimental Design
This study specifically identifies particles found in 5 brands of bottled water. The method used in the current study is based on previously published methods for determining microplastics (sizes 50 µm or greater) in treated drinking water [12, 13]. The method involves first filtering sampled water through 5μm stainless steel filters, then visualizing and counting particles left on the filters using light microscopy and determining the chemical identities of the particles using Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR). This method is based on peer-reviewed literature and the results and recommendations from an international microplastic method evaluation study carried out by the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Authority (SCCWRP) and California EPA’s data gathering and monitoring programs and Section 116376 of the California Health and Safety Code.
Samples, Sample Collection and Preparation
Five brand name samples were used in the current study. They are coded A1 and A2 representing the brand Arrowhead, sourced from springs, B1 and B2
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|
representing the brand Dasani, sourced from municipal supplies, C1 and C2 representing the brand Fiji, sourced from aquifers, D1 and D2 representing the brand Nestle Pure Life, sourced from municipal supplies and wells, and E1 and E2 representing the brand Crystal Geyser, sourced from aquifers which were all collected in duplicates. The samples were prepared for FT-IR analysis as follows. First, the corkstop was fitted into the neck of the filtering flask. Then on top of that, from bottom to top, a washer, a stainless steel filter, another washer, and the funnel were placed in that order. The whole thing was then clamped to prevent movement that could tamper with results. The vacuum tube was then connected to the filtering flask and the vacuum was turned on. Water was then poured into the funnel while making sure no water overflowed. To obtain as many particles as possible, the bottle was rinsed with microplastic analysis grade water (MAG) water then poured into the funnel three times per bottle. The vacuum was then turned off and the clamp unclamped. The funnel and washer were lifted and the vacuum
turned back on so that the insides were washed with MAG water to catch any water stuck on the inside surfaces. The vacuum was turned off again. The filter was then placed on the microscope slide and every material was washed again except for the corkstop and the filtering flask.
Instrumental analysis
When analyzing the sample, the following steps were taken. First, the slide was loaded into the FT-IR machine and focused to be able to clearly see the filter. The camera was then centered in the middle of the filter and a 1cm by 1cm mosaic of the area centered at that point was taken. This area was then searched for particles and once found, the particles were analyzed using a Nicolet™ iN10 Infrared Microscope. After obtaining the spectrum of the particle, the spectrum was put through the machine’s database for similar particle spectra. Afterwards, the spectrum was also run through OpenSpecy, a website created by Win Cowger specifically used to analyze spectra to confirm the FT-IR machine database. This process was repeated for the first ten particles found at random (with exception to sample A1).
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Quality control
Before the filtering of each sample, the following procedures were taken to thoroughly clean the washers and funnel. As the filter would never touch the corkstop or the filtering flask, those two materials were not cleaned. The items were first rinsed with tap water. A solution of 1% Alcojet in water was used to clean the items and they were then rinsed in tap water again. Lastly, the items were washed with MAG water to get rid of any particulates that may have come from the tap water or Alcojet solution.
The instrument is calibrated and run through performance checks prior to use, and spectra are matched using relevant spectral reference libraries. The proportion of particles confirmed to be microplastics via IR spectroscopy is applied to total counts from microscopy to provide an estimate of microplastic particles per liter. This method can reliably detect microplastic particles down to 50 µm in size.
Data analysis
Microsoft Excel was used to record the type of each identified particulate and
the date it was obtained. This data was then averaged across two independent trials and graphed in a bar graph (Figure 1). The variability between trials is illustrated by the error bars on Figure 1, which represent the standard error of the mean.
RESULTS
For the current study, bottles of water from five name brands (Brands A-E) were purchased from a neighborhood supermarket to test for the presence of particulates. Infrared technology commonly used in the field of microplastics research [14, 15] was used in this study. Sealed bottled water as supplied by vendors was opened in the laboratory fume hood and filtered by way of a sterilized vacuum filtration system. Appropriate laboratory control measures were taken to avoid extraneous contamination (see methods). Results, summarized in Table 1 and Figure 1, show that every water bottle tested had a considerable amount of plastics and proteins detected and that specific brands contained other particulates as well such as fur and cotton. Furthermore, a significant amount of soil appeared in Brand A (blue bar) but fur, cotton and fabric were found in low amounts in
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many of the brands tested (Figure 1). A mix of cotton and plastic (listed under Mix in Figure 1) was also found in Brands A, B, and D, and minerals such as silica (listed under Other in Figure 1) were found in all brands except Brand E. Interestingly, there seems to be a decent amount of variation in many of the particulates in each brand of bottled water as well.
To further characterize the microplastics detected in water samples, the particles were classified into specific plastic types (Table 2). This was an important question as bottles themselves for bottled water are made of plastic, therefore we wanted to determine how much of the bottle itself might contaminate the water. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), and
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Table 1. Distribution of particulate types found in two separate/independent trials. Here all Brands should have a total of 10 particles which were then identified, however for Brand A, trial 1, 15 particles were identified.
To further characterize the microplastics detected in water samples, the particles were classified into specific plastic types (Table 2). This was an important question as bottles themselves for bottled water are made of plastic, therefore we wanted to determine how much of the bottle itself might contaminate the water. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), and Polypropylene (PP) are used most commonly in the production of bottles for bottled water. Our results indicate, a significant number of plastics other than PET, HDPE, and PP were present in the water, most notably Low-density polyethylene (LDPE). This implies that there are outside plastics that likely come from the water source or contamination from the manufacturing process rather than the actual bottle. It also shows that a majority of microplastics in water bottles are likely LDPE rather than any
other type of plastic.
DISCUSSION
In this study our goal was to quantify the amount of various particles present in commercial water bottles. In order to achieve this, we used a combination of vacuum filtration and FT-IR imagery to obtain, scan, and identify these particles.
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Figure 1. Average Number of Particles Found in Different Water Bottle Brands. The number of particulates (across 7 types) were calculated in five bottled water brands purchased in a neighborhood supermarket in the City of Los Angeles and averaged across 2 trials. The category “Other” refers to identified particles that don’t fit in any other category (such as minerals, like silica). “Unknown” indicates the presence of particles we were unable to identify to a probable degree (0.7 or more on Pearson’s r coefficient). “Mix” refers to particles that share characteristics of two or more categories, usually cotton and plastic. Here the error bars indicate the standard error of the mean.
| PET | HDPE | PVC | LDPE | PP | PS | Other | Unknown |
Brand A | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
Brand B | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Brand C | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Brand D | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5 |
Brand E | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 |
Table 2. Distribution of plastics found in five bottled water brands purchased in a neighborhood supermarket in the City of Los Angeles and summed across 2 trials. Here the above abbreviations stand for the following plastic types: polyethylene terephthalate (PET), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS). Plastics were categorized as “Other” if … and “Unknown” if the plastic type could not be identified.
Our results indicate that our hypothesis is supported. We observed that the different water bottle brands did have significant differences in terms of the types and number of particles present in each bottle. Therefore, these results indicate that the water sources themselves seemed to influence what was in the bottles. For example, Brand A, Arrowhead, which was sourced from spring water, seemed to also be the only brand that contained any amount of soil. Additionally, the water brands sourced from municipal supplies, Dasani and Pure Life, are the only brands where cotton was not found in their water. However, arguably the most important statistic to note is the amount of plastics. More specifically, the most common type of plastic was identified as LDPE, a plastic not known to be often involved with the making of water bottles. Due to this, it is likely that these plastics originate from places not including the manufacture of the bottles such as the source of the water or were introduced during transport.
While performing my experiment, there were several limiting factors
regarding my results. For example, for all samples except for Brand A during the first trial, we identified 10 particles per sample. For Brand A, trial 1, we identified 15 particles as it was the first sample processed and a baseline for the total amount wasn’t yet set due to not knowing how many particles we could find per sample. After this collection, we focused on only identifying the first 10 particles we found. This has led to the data for Brand A trial 1, to be slightly inflated with five extra particles than should be present in the data. Additionally, there was a large time constraint on my ability to analyze these samples. As the institute’s FT-IR machine was the only public use machine within the general area, we only had a limited amount of time to use the machine. With more time, more trials could have been done, more brands could have been tested, and the quality of my data would’ve likely been better.
This research opens the doorway for a multitude of follow-up experiments or studies. First of all, gathering higher quality data through more trials and brands as well as a deeper study regarding previous studies could be done. Additionally, refining the results of the
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identification of the spectra could be done as well to ensure or even increase the validity of the data obtained from this experiment.
We have shown that many bottled water brands contain a variety of different suspended particulates and while some may not be health hazards, there are many others that are. Due to this, the nature and amounts of suspended particulates in bottled water should be regulated just as it is with tap water. Indeed, more studies are needed to fully expand the number of brands beyond the five used here, but it is important to have a foothold to understand the amount of suspended particulates in bottled water and identify what they are so we can better understand their effect on human health.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledges the Moore Institute for Plastic Pollution Research, Long Beach (USA) (and the individuals and agencies that fund the institute), without whose support and facility this study would not have been possible as well as Dr. Ochan Otim who generously took the time to be a great mentor and advisor to me throughout the project.
REFERENCES
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‘biodegradable’ Plastics Truly Compostable - Berkeley News.” Berkeley News, April 21, 2021. LINK.
APPENDIX
Definitions:
MAG Water: Microplastic Analysis Grade Water
Microplastics: Tiny pieces of plastic ranging between 1 µm and 5 mm
FT-IR Spectroscopy: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
USEPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency
Filtering Flask: Glassware that resembles an Erlenmeyer flask with a sidearm to fit into a vacuum tube for easy vacuum filtration
Alcojet: A liquid created by Alconox Inc often used for cleaning equipment in laboratories.
Mosaic: The FT-IR machine’s way of capturing a map of a certain area of a sample by taking a picture at every spot in that area.
Spectrum/Spectra: The graph of absorptivity versus wavelength made after analyzing a particle using infrared spectroscopy (as it is used in this experiment)
Supplemental Figure 1. A sample image of a particle when looking at the software used for the FT-IR machine.
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Supplemental Figure 2. A sample image of the analysis of a particle when run through the machine’s identification software.
Supplemental Figure 3. A sample image of the analysis of a particle when confirmed through the OpenSpecy’s identification software.
Binding Affinities Indicate a Potential Role for Estradiol in Reducing Risk of Stroke
ABSTRACT
Ischemic stroke is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide, with limited preventive strategies often centered around lifestyle changes that can be challenging for patients to adopt. While acute treatments like tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) can reduce stroke damage, there remains a need for more effective preventive therapies. This study investigates the potential of estrogen, particularly estradiol (E2), in reducing stroke risk by modulating immune responses. By analyzing the binding affinities between three forms of estrogen—estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3)—and key anti-inflammatory markers such as Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF), CD8 co-receptor, and Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma (PPAR-γ), the results revealed that estradiol exhibited the strongest interactions. These findings, visualized through 3D molecular simulations, suggest that estradiol may play a
significant role in cardiovascular protection and stroke prevention. Future research should focus on applying hormone therapies in animal models and clinical trials to further explore their potential in managing cardiovascular health.
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By Dhara Hansalia, Beckman High School, Tustin, CA
INTRODUCTION
In the US, water bottle brands are legally required to publish water quality reports for their products, however these do not typically include particulate content of the water. This is in contrast to community water systems, which are required to send an annual drinking water quality report to their customers by July 1 each year [1]. This illustrates a gap in quality oversight, meaning how many particles are in bottled water, what kind of particulates are there, and which brands contain them the most is unknown and untracked. In fact, the NRDC, an organization of environmental activists, scientists, and lawyers that have been vital in the passing of many environmental laws, has stated that bottled water is not necessarily safer than your tap water [2]. This is of concern because the presence of particulates increases the turbidity of the water, creating an environment known to foster microbial growth and the spread of other microorganisms. On top of that, the particles themselves can be harmful. Microplastics and nanoplastics have been measured in
Ischemic stroke, a leading cause of death and disability in the United States, presents a significant public health challenge. Notably, the incidence of stroke is lower in women than in men for most of their lives, a difference often attributed to the protective effects of gonadal steroids, particularly estrogen [1]. Furthermore, pre-menopausal women, who typically have higher levels of estrogen, exhibit a notably reduced incidence of stroke, suggesting a potential neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory role of estrogen [2].
As women age and enter menopause, their stroke risk increases, coinciding with a decline in estrogen levels [3]. Paradoxically, elderly women face a higher risk of stroke than men, indicating a complex relationship between estrogen and stroke risk [4]. This complexity is highlighted by evidence that estrogen can exhibit both neuroprotective and pro-inflammatory properties depending on the context [5].
The cardioprotective effects of estrogen are well-documented in the context of coronary heart disease (CHD), another leading cause of death. Women tend to develop CHD approximately ten years
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later than men, with a significant risk increase post-menopause.[6] This increased risk is associated with declining estrogen levels, which are linked to adverse changes in lipid profiles and other cardiovascular risk factors [6]. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT), especially with oral estrogen therapy, has been shown to improve lipid profiles and potentially inhibit the development of atherosclerosis, although its efficacy in reducing CHD risk remains controversial due to mixed results from observational studies and randomized clinical trials. [6]
The protective effects of estrogen are believed to be mediated through its interactions with estrogen receptors, including estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), estrogen receptor beta (ERβ), and the G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPR30) [7]. These receptors, localized on mitochondrial membranes in cardiac tissue, can trigger transcriptional changes that influence mitochondrial function and cell survival, ultimately contributing to cardioprotection [8]. There has been limited research, however, on if estrogen can interact with other
anti-inflammatory mediators or pathways to lower stroke risk. In particular, this study focuses on three anti-inflammatory mediators: Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF)(a marker present on inflammatory macrophage cells), CD8 co-receptor (plays a role in T-cell signaling), and Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ). Each of these mediators have published findings that implicate their potential to be mediators in estrogen-mediated cardioprotection. These markers were chosen based on previously published data identifying them as anti-inflammatory molecules that specifically work towards widening the blood vessels [9].
For example, the interaction between estrogen and PPAR-γ has been shown to reduce the inflammatory response in immune cells, as PPAR-γ activation inhibits the maturation and function of dendritic cells, leading to reduced migration, cytokine secretion, and T-cell stimulatory capacity. This suggests that PPAR-γ could be a crucial player in estrogen's anti-inflammatory effects, potentially contributing to its protective role against stroke and cardiovascular disease [10].
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Additionally, studies have identified MIF as a critical regulator of immune responses, particularly in its role in macrophage activation and its involvement in inflammatory processes. Estrogen’s potential modulation of MIF activity could further elucidate its anti-inflammatory properties. Meanwhile, the CD8 co-receptor is crucial in T-cell signaling, and its interaction with estrogen may offer insights into how estrogen influences immune cell behavior in a cardiovascular context. This study, therefore, seeks to explore these interactions to hypothesize a novel mechanism underlying estrogen's complex effects on stroke and cardiovascular disease risk [11].
T cells, particularly regulatory T cells (Tregs), are crucial regulators of immune responses and have been increasingly recognized for their role in cardiovascular diseases. Tregs, characterized by their expression of the transcription factor FOXP3, help maintain immune homeostasis and prevent excessive inflammation. They suppress the activity of other immune cells, including T cells, by secreting inhibitory cytokines such as TGF-β and
IL-10. In the context of cardiovascular disease, Tregs have been shown to protect against atherosclerosis, hypertension, and myocardial infarction by reducing inflammatory responses. The modulation of T cell activity, particularly through Tregs, may therefore be another pathway through which estrogen exerts its cardioprotective effects, offering further insight into its potential role in lowering stroke and cardiovascular disease risk [12].
Given the multifaceted roles of estrogen in cardiovascular health and disease, this research aims to investigate the potential binding affinities of different types of estrogen—estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3)—to immune cells in order to see their effects on lessening the risk of ischemic stroke. This study seeks to elucidate whether these forms of estrogen interact with immune and anti-inflammatory cells in order to hypothesize a novel mechanism underlying estrogen's complex effects on stroke and cardiovascular disease risk. The findings revealed that the E2 estrogen species exhibited the highest binding affinity for all three anti-inflammatory molecules. This result is particularly intriguing as E2 is known to
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be the predominant form of estrogen during a woman's reproductive years, with levels significantly higher pre-menopause. This observation aligns with existing literature that highlights the protective effects of E2 in cardiovascular health, potentially explaining the lower incidence of cardiovascular disease in premenopausal women.
To further explore these interactions, molecular docking simulations were conducted to assess the binding affinity of estrogen with a variety of anti-inflammatory molecules and pathways. These simulations provide a deeper understanding of how E2, in particular, might interact with key components of the immune system, potentially regulating inflammatory responses in a way that contributes to cardioprotection. By mapping out these interactions, this study adds to the growing body of evidence suggesting that estrogen’s protective effects against stroke and cardiovascular disease are, in part, mediated through its influence on immune cell function and inflammatory pathways.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
To investigate the binding of different forms of estrogen to immune cells, PyMOL software was employed for 3D visualization, and AutoDock was utilized for molecular docking studies.
3D Images/Structures
The 3D images of the three primary forms of estrogen—estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3)—were generated using PyMOL. The structures were obtained from PubChem, as well as the 3D images of all the receptors or anti-inflammatory molecules. The selected structures included macrophage, CD4 T cell, CD8 T cell, and Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma (PPAR-γ). For PPAR-γ, chain B was specifically selected. Known binding residues were identified using the PDB database, and their coordinates were recorded. It was found that most residues were located in different areas throughout the entire molecule.
Molecular Docking
For the molecular docking studies, the 3D structures of immune cell receptors and estrogens were imported into AutoDock. The binding site residues and their coordinates were identified using PyMOL
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and PDB databases. Based on this the average of each of the coordinates was set as the center of the grid box in which the docking simulations would occur, and the box was made as large as possible to encompass the entire molecule to keep all binding site options open, as PubMed indicates the binding sites for all the receptor molecules used are located throughout the entire molecule.
Data Analysis
The binding affinity scores of estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) to the selected immune cell receptors were calculated. The docking scores were tabulated (Table 1) and analyzed to evaluate the differential binding affinities and potential implications for estrogen's role in immune modulation and cardiovascular health.
The docking scores were compared to assess the binding affinities of the different estrogens to macrophages, CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, and PPAR-γ. These comparisons aimed to inform the understanding of how each form of estrogen interacts with immune cells and its potential effects on cardiovascular health. The results of these analyses were compiled in Table 1 (see results section), detailing the in silico molecular docking scores for each estrogen type against the selected immune cell receptors.
RESULTS
To identify possible binding affinities between Estrogen species and inflammatory markers, we first gathered information about the structures of each Estrogen species. Chemical compound structures for estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) were retrieved from PubChem (NCBI) (Figure 1).
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Next structural information about possible anti-inflammatory markers was gathered. This study focuses on three anti-inflammatory markers, Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF)(a marker present on inflammatory macrophage cells), CD8 co-receptor (plays a role in T-cell signaling), and Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ). These markers were chosen based on previously published data identifying them as anti-inflamatory molecules that specifically work towards widening the blood vessels [13]. 3D Crystalline structures were retrieved from RCSB Protein Data Bank (PBD) (Figure 2).
Next, to identify potential docking sites between estrogen species and
inflammatory markers, the 3D structures of immune cell receptors and estrogens were imported from PubChem and PyMol into AutoDock software. The binding site residues and their coordinates were identified using PyMOL and PDB databases in order to run docking simulations in AutoDock. The binding affinity scores of estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) to each of the selected immune cell receptors were calculated and tabulated (Table 1). These values represent the differential binding affinities and potential implications for estrogen's role in immune modulation and cardiovascular health. Overall, these values ranged from -6.1 to -8.7. The lowest number represents the best binding affinity among the 9 trials, indicating where most molecules are likely to bind since it requires the least amount of energy. The table below shows the energy range across all trials, with the lowest number reflecting the most favorable binding condition and the highest number indicating the least favorable, as higher values correspond to a greater energy requirement.
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energy. The table below shows the energy range across all trials, with the lowest number reflecting the most favorable binding condition and the highest number indicating the least favorable, as higher values correspond to a greater energy requirement.
Table 1: In silico Molecular Docking Scores
The docking simulations produced a range of binding affinities, with E2 consistently showing the strongest interactions across all receptors tested. This high affinity suggests that E2 is the most potent form of estrogen in terms of binding to immune cell receptors, which might explain its significant role in immune modulation.
Furthermore, the analysis revealed that estrone (E1) and estriol (E3) exhibited lower binding affinities compared to E2, indicating that these
estrogens might be less effective in influencing immune responses. The energy values from the docking simulations ranged from -6.1 to -8.7, with lower values indicating more favorable binding interactions. This suggests that E2, with its lower energy requirement for binding, may have a stronger and more efficient interaction with immune cells.
Once the binding affinities were calculated these potential interactions were visualized in a 3D manner. In order to achieve this, the interaction sites of the inflammatory molecules were determined using AutoDock, and PyMOL was then subsequently used to accurately visualize binding interactions. This visualization provides a clear representation of the potential ligand-receptor complex between estrogen and anti-inflammatory mediators. Images depicting the binding positions with the highest affinities are presented for CD8 co-receptor (Figure 3A), MIF (Figure 3B), and PPAR-γ (Figure 3C).
DISCUSSION
The link between stroke risk and levels of estrogen has been well documented [1]. There are three species of estrogen in the body, however, and each type may have
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Binding Affinity | CD8+ | MIF | PPAR-γ |
Estrone (E1) | -6.3 to -5.3 | -7.2 to -5.3 | -6.1 to -5.7 |
Estradiol (E2) | -7.6 to -5.6 | -7.9 to -5.1 | -5.9 to -5.0 |
Estriol (E3) | -8.0 to -5.4 | -7.2 to -5.8 | -8.7 to -5.4 |
unique functions and interactions when it comes to stroke risk. In this study, the aim was to examine the structures of each estrogen species and assess their potential interactions
with anti-inflammatory mediators that could underlie the mechanisms for correlated stroke risk.
Estrone (E1) displayed the lowest overall binding affinities in our study. While
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estrone is one of the primary estrogens present after menopause, its weaker interactions with immune cell receptors may explain why its protective effects are less pronounced compared to estradiol and estriol. The lower binding affinities suggest that estrone may have a limited role in immune modulation and neurological protection, contributing to the increased risk of stroke and neurological conditions post-menopause.
Estriol (E3) is predominantly produced during pregnancy, a period when its levels rise significantly and become the most abundant estrogen in the body [2]. This aligns with the observation that pre-menopausal women, especially those in their reproductive years, exhibit a notably reduced incidence of stroke. The high binding affinity of estriol for macrophages, as indicated by our results, suggests that it may play a significant role in enhancing anti-inflammatory responses and providing neuroprotection, which could contribute to lower stroke risk during pregnancy and pre-menopausal years. As women age and enter menopause,
their estrogen levels, including estriol, decline sharply [1]. This reduction in estrogen levels coincides with an increased risk of stroke, highlighting the protective role these hormones play [1]. The decreased binding of estriol post-menopause may reduce its anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects, thereby contributing to the heightened stroke risk observed in elderly women.
Estradiol (E2), with its strong binding affinities for CD8+, MIF, and PPAR-γ, is well-documented for its cardioprotective effects. Estradiol's interactions with these receptors support its role in immune regulation and metabolic processes. The significant binding of estradiol to these receptors aligns with the lower incidence of ischemic stroke observed in pre-menopausal women. As estradiol levels drop post-menopause, the reduced receptor interactions may lead to adverse changes in lipid profiles and other cardiovascular risk factors, increasing the risk of ischemic stroke.
Future research should focus on validating these in silico findings with in vitro and in vivo studies to confirm the physiological relevance of these interactions. Additionally, exploring
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the potential therapeutic applications of these findings, such as the development of estrogen-based treatments or hormone replacement therapies tailored to enhance specific estrogen-receptor interactions, could offer significant advancements in cardiovascular and immune health management [7]. Further investigation into the structural dynamics of estrogen-receptor binding and the identification of additional receptor targets will also provide a more comprehensive understanding of estrogen's multifaceted roles in the body. Expanding the scope of this research to include other relevant tissues and disease models will be crucial in translating these molecular insights into clinical practice.
To bridge the gap between preclinical findings and real-world applications, conducting clinical trials that utilize estrogen could be immensely beneficial. These trials would aim to assess the safety, efficacy, and therapeutic potential of estrogen compounds in treating various conditions linked to cardiovascular and immune systems. By rigorously evaluating estrogen's impact on
human health through clinical studies, researchers can establish more robust and evidence-based treatment protocols, potentially leading to innovative approaches in hormone replacement therapy and other estrogen-related therapies.
REFERENCES
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(2018): 121-132.
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SUPPLEMENTAL FIGURES
Figure S1: Binding Position of CD8 T + Estradiol (E2)
Figure S2: CD8 T + Estrone (E1)
Figure S3: CD8 T + Estriol (E3)
Figure S4: PPAR-γ + Estradiol (E2)
Figure S5: PPAR-γ + Estrone (E1)
Figure S6: PPAR-γ + Estriol (E3)
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Figure S7: 1gd0(macrophage) + Estradiol (E2)
Figure S8: 1gd0(macrophage) + Estrone (E1)
Figure S9: 1gd0(macrophage) + Estriol (E3)
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MANAGING EDITOR
Heather Killeen is a California native, Educational consultant, and has a Ph.D in neuroscience from the University of Texas, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences. She has done scientific research at UT Health Sciences Center, MD Anderson Cancer Center, and more recently the University of Southern California. She has mentored many high school, college and graduate school students and currently continues to help train and mentor students interested In STEM careers.
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