Writer’s Craft
Exposition:
What to look for in exposition examples in fiction
Exposition:
Exposition is the part of a story that establishes the background and provides important information about characters, setting, and plot. It is usually presented at the beginning of your story to provide context and help set up the rest of the narrative.
Exposition:
What Is the Purpose of Exposition?
Exposition is designed to convey information that provides insight into a character or advances the story. The background information provided by exposition helps connect to the reader to the emotional stakes of the narrative. As far as literary terms go, exposition may be one of the simplest to understand. Yet nailing the exposition of a story is often one of the trickiest tightropes to walk for a writer; provide too little of a character’s backstory or background details and the reader will be confused, but write too much expository information and the reader will be bored (you’ve likely heard the motto “show, don’t tell”). That’s why it’s important to provide enough exposition to give your readers necessary context without tiring them with tedious details.
Exposition:
What ways does dialogue unfold in a story?
Exposition:
What do you consider when writing exposition:
Rising Action:
What is it?
Rising action in literature refers to all the events that happen in a story on the way to the climax.
What is the purpose?
The rising action pushes the plot along, building tension to keep us invested in the story as it moves forward, and develop the characters.
Rising Action:
How to create the rising action (options):
climax:
The climax is the dramatic turning point of the story when the conflict is resolved and the main character reaches their goal.
The climax often occurs near the end of the story, but not always. It can sometimes occur in the middle of the story (known as a mid-point climax) or even at the beginning (known as an inverted plot). In traditional stories, the climax is the reflection point to the story's inciting incident in the beginning of the story.
climax:
The types of climaxes
Crisis--A crisis climax is when the protagonist faces a life-changing decision. This type of climax is often seen in thrillers and suspense novels.
Catharsis--A catharsis climax is when the protagonist overcomes a major obstacle. This type of climax is often seen in stories that are about personal growth or transformation.
Revelation--A revelation climax is when a major secret is revealed. This type of climax is often seen in mystery novels.
climax:
The importance of the climax
The climax is an important part of the story arc because it is the turning point. It is the pivotal moment when everything changes and the protagonist must face their final challenge.
Without a climax, the story would just be a series of events with no real purpose or goal. The climax gives the story direction and meaning. It's the resolution of the central conflict, the huge battle, the final showdown, the ending of the story's plot.
The climax is also the most suspenseful part of the story. This is when the reader is on the edge of their seat, waiting to see what will happen to the protagonist and what decision they will make.
climax:
What makes a good climax?
A good climax is one that is unexpected but still makes sense. It should be something that changes everything but is still believable.
A good climax should also be emotionally impactful. This is what will stay with the reader long after they finish the story.
But the most important thing about a good climax: the protagonist needs to make a choice. This choice needs to be the hardest choice they've made in the entire story and show how much the character has grown. The climax is where your character proves they really are a changed person. This choice is usually the climactic moment of the story – the climax within the climax.
Falling action:
Falling action in a basic plot structure is the events that happen after the climax and before the resolution. This part of your story is often used to show the consequences of the climax and how it affects the characters.
Falling action:
Why is falling action important?
Falling action sets up your ending so you can close out all of those loose ends and give the audience closure on what they've just read. This is the part where your audience gets to witness what happens after your climax occurs.
Finally, falling action lets characters learn about themselves and how they've changed by experiencing their struggles throughout the story. This can help shape them into better versions of themselves or create change in their lives that wasn't possible before falling action happened.
Falling action:
How do you write falling action in a story?
You can write falling action in your story by having your protagonist deal with the consequences of their actions. For example, if they killed someone in a fit of rage leading up to the climax, falling action would have them coming face-to-face with what they did and how it affected others around him or her.
If you're having trouble writing falling action into your story, try thinking about one thing that could happen following your climax that's significant enough for readers to get an understanding on where everything is going from here.
resolution:
Resolution – The resolution is the story's conclusion where the story's conflict is resolved
Key elements of writing a satisfying story resolution
Character:
Resolution – The resolution is the story's conclusion where the story's conflict is resolved
Key elements of a satisfying story resolution
Characterization:
Characterization is the process of creating a character
Two Types: Direct and indirect
Direct Characterization:
The author or narrator makes direct statements about a character’s traits.
The author TELLS us about the character’s personality.
The reader must make a judgement about the information being shared with them. How do the actions or dialogue show what the character is really like?
inDirect Characterization:
the author or narrator SHOWS a character’s traits through his or her actions and speech.
Descriptions of:
Character Types:
setting:
The story's setting is the time and place where the story takes place. The story setting can have a significant impact on the story itself. It can affect the story's mood, tone, and atmosphere. It can also provide context for the story's events.
The three aspects to consider in a setting are:
dialogue:
Dialogue is the conversation between the story's characters. It can be used to further the story's plot, develop the story's characters, and create tension.
dialogue:
The main purpose to have dialogue in your story is to relay information. The key aspect of dialogue is ensuring that it sounds natural and flows well with your story's pacing. Below are various types of dialogue with distinct purposes in a narrative.
dialogue:
How to write good dialogue:
dialogue:
How to write realistic dialogue:
dialogue:
What makes dialogue great:
dialogue:
The mechanics of dialogue:
theme:
theme:
3) What does this teach the reader about life/human nature/the world? (That is the theme statement.)
theme:
THEME IS NOT:
clichÉ:
clichÉ:
Why are clichés a problem?
clichÉ:
What are some clichés?
This list does not and cannot include them all, but you probably have heard several of them:
clichÉ:
What do you do if clichés happen?
Tone:
The story's tone is the overall feeling or mood of the story. It can be used to create a specific atmosphere within the story.
Tone:
Positive Tone Words:
Amiable
Amused
Appreciative
Brave
Calm
Cheery
Compassionate
Complimentary
Consoling
Ecstatic
Encouraging
Energetic
Enthusiastic
Exuberant
Friendly
Happy
Hopeful
Jovial
Jubilant
Lighthearted
Loving
Optimistic
Peaceful
Pleasant
Proud
Relaxed
Reverent
Romantic
Soothing
Sympathetic
Humorous/ironic/sarcastic Tone Words:
Bantering
Comical
Cynical
Droll
Ironic
Joking
Mocking
Satiric
Sardonic
Taunting
Teasing
Wry
Tone:
Neutral Tone Words:
Ambivalent
Contemplative
Detached
Didactic
Factual
Formal
Judgmental
Incredulous
Indirect
Informal
Informative
Instructive
Intimate
Learned
Meditative
Nostalgic
Objective
Patriotic
Reflective
Restrained
Questioning
Sentimental
Shocked
Urgent
Tone:
Negative Tone Words:
Abhorring
Angry
Annoyed
Antagonistic
Apprehensive
Belligerent
Bitter
Condescending
Contemptuous
Derisive
Derogatory
Frightened
Harsh
Hopeless
Pedantic
Pessimistic
Scornful
Violent
Strong Tone Words
Ardent
Assertive
Authoritative
Candid
Confident
Determined
Direct
Dominating
Domineering
Earnest
Fervent
Impassioned
Matter-of-Fact
Persuasive
Stern
Straightforward
Strong
Point of view:
First-Person Point of View
Second-Person Point of View
Third-Person Point of View
Point of view:
The story's point of view is the perspective from which the story is being told.
First-Person Point of View
Second-Person Point of View
Third-Person Point of View
flashback:
A flashback is simply a scene or series of scenes that portray a past event. They can be used to reveal key information about a character's past, shed light on the current situation, or add suspense and tension to the story.
Flashbacks can be written in various ways, but it's important to make sure they serve a purpose and add value to the story. Otherwise, they will feel like filler and will only serve to confuse your readers.
flashback:
Direct flashbacks are when the narrator directly tells the audience or another character what happened in the past. This is the most straightforward type of flashback, but it can also be the most boring if not done well.
Indirect flashbacks are when a past event is shown through dialogue, description, or action. This is a more subtle way to flashback and can be more effective in drawing readers into the story.
Dream sequences are when a character dreams about something that happened in the past. These can be effective in revealing key information about a character's psyche or motivations.
flashback:
What purpose does it serve? Once you know the answer to that, you can start planning out your scene.
If you're writing a direct flashback, make sure the information you're providing is relevant and interesting. Don't just include a flashback for the sake of including one.
If you're writing an indirect flashback, be careful not to give away too much information at once. The point of an indirect flashback is to slowly reveal information and piece together the puzzle for your readers.
And finally, if you're writing a dream sequence, make sure it's clear that what the character is experiencing is a dream. Otherwise, your readers will be confused and may not even realize they're reading a flashback scene.
Flashback Rules:
Rules for writing flashbacks
1. Don't flashback too early in the story--If you flashback too early, readers won't have the necessary information to understand what's going on. They'll be lost and may not even want to continue reading.
2. Write flashbacks that are interesting--Action is key in flashback scenes–you want your readers to feel like they're right there with the characters, experiencing everything firsthand.The best way to do this is to use active verbs and sensory details.
3. Earn your flashbacks--You should only include flashback scenes if they're absolutely necessary.
4. Use the flashback sparingly--Flashbacks can be a great way to provide information about a character or further the plot, but they should be used sparingly. You don't want your story to feel like one big flashback scene.
5. Keep the flashback brief--A flashback scene should be just long enough to provide the necessary information.
Foreshadowing:
Foreshadowing – the use of hints or clues to suggest what is to come later in the story.
Rules:
Rule 1: Make foreshadowing relevant
Rule 2: Understand the purpose of foreshadowing
Rule 3: Give the pay-off
Rule 4: Include plot foretelling at the outlining stage
Rule 5: Don’t overdo it
Rule 6: Make plot pay-offs fit their buildup
Rule 7: Use the revision stage to add or fix plot links
Rule 8: Get feedback
conflict:
Plot Conflict - In literature, conflict is the central issue and makes the story move. Short stories have one conflict, while novels have many. Literary conflict includes internal conflict and external conflict. The way conflict is used and how the conflicts are resolved are all determined by the type of story being told.
conflict:
Internal Conflict
Person vs. Self: Internal conflict is that which exists inside the character. Struggles with morality, fate, desire and belief, to name a few. This form of conflict is central to the character, or characters and must be resolved by the character alone. Every good character suffers from the weight of internal conflict, it lends them an air of complex believability. Internal conflict is also known as man versus self. Internal conflict is necessary for good characters, but it’s the least complicated form of conflict.
conflict:
External Conflict
Unlike internal conflict, external conflict deals with the problems of the world. The story's characters will struggle against the circumstances of external conflict, they may even suffer internal conflict resulting from the issues of external conflict, but this is not as simple as internal conflict. External conflict occurs when characters are involved in the world's woes, such issues as community, nature, government and other characters are all examples of external conflict. External conflict manifests itself as person versus person, person versus nature, person versus society, and person versus fate.
conflict:
Person vs. Person: Person versus person is the most fundamental type of external conflict. This form of external conflict occurs when a character struggles against another character. These struggles may be born from moral, religious or social differences and may be emotional, verbal or physical conflicts. Person versus person is almost always the conflict present when a hero fights a villain.
Person vs. Nature: Person versus nature conflicts occur when a character, or characters, find themselves at odds with forces of nature. A character struck by lightning, characters whose boat sinks in a storm and a character who struggles against hypothermia in a snowstorm are all characters experiencing man versus nature conflicts.
conflict:
Person vs. Society: This external conflict exists when characters struggle against the morays of their culture and government. Works where character's battle evil, oppressive cultures are characteristic of person versus society conflict. One example of man versus society is Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, a
novel about a fireman who, though it's his job to burn books, secretly collects them.
Person vs. God, or the Supernatural: This could be any supernatural force that is outside the understanding of the protagonist, including monsters, aliens, or deities.
Person vs. Machine/Technology: places a character against man-made entities which may possess "artificial intelligence."
Figurative language:
Figurative language is a tool that an author uses, to help the reader visualize, or see, what is happening in a story or poem.
Simile:
A simile is a comparison of two unlike things that links them with words like, as, than, or resembles: fingers as cold as ice cubes, hair blacker than midnight, a voice like the sound of fingernails scraping a blackboard.
In “Broken Chain,” the broken bicycle chain lies in Alfonso’s hand “like a dead snake” (Soto). Then it pops up and cuts Alfonso “like a snake’s fang” (Soto). The similes help us see the chain in a new light, as if it were an evil creature bent on ruining Alfonso’s plans.
Examples:
His feet were as big as boats.
She’s as light as a feather.
The snow was like a blanket.
She ate like a bird.
His feet were as big as boats. | She’s as light as a feather. |
The snow was like a blanket. | She ate like a bird. |
Metaphor:
A metaphor is a direct identification of two unlike things. In contrast to similes, metaphors make their connections without the use of the words like, as, than, or resembles: “He is a sullen toad,” not “He is as sullen as a toad.”
Like similes, metaphors extend the range of our imagination. When they are fresh and based on a writer’s first hand observation, we feel that a strong hidden relationship has been discovered by the writer.
Examples:
Her hair is silk.
The football player is an ox.
My hands are ice.
Her hair is silk. | The football player is an ox. |
My hands are ice. | |
Personification:
Personification is giving human qualities, feelings, actions, or characteristics to inanimate (not living) objects.
Example: The house stared at me with looming eyes. The verb, stared, is a human action. A house is a non-living object. Therefore, we have a good example of personification.
Example: The ancient car groaned into first gear.
The verb, groaned, is a human action. A car is a non-living thing.
Examples:
a smiling moon the rain kissed her face art is a jealous mistress
a jovial sun the wind screams
alliteration:
Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant. There should be at least two repetitions in a row.
Examples:
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. The first letter, p, is a consonant. Its sound is repeated many times.
More Examples:
Sally sells seashells by the sea shore.
Greta Gruber grabbed a group of green grapes.
But someone still was yelling out and stumbling,
And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime . . .
onomatopoeia:
Onomatopoeia is the imitation of natural sounds in word form. These words help us form mental pictures, or visualize, things, people, or places that are described. Sometimes a word names a thing or action by copying the sound.
We use onomatopoeia when we want to recreate a sound via our words. Onomatopoeia not only creates rhythm but also beats, as the poets try to create sounds imitating the sound creators. These sounds create a sensory impression in the minds of the readers which they understand.
onomatopoeia:
In Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, we have two examples of onomatopoeia in this excerpt, “SMASH! The door was hit with such a force that it swung clean off its hinges and with a deafening crash landed flat on the floor.”
Examples: sizzle, ugh, ding, dong, POW, murmur, growl, smack, boom, buzz, splash, drip, rustle, hiss, moo, meow, and vroom
symbolism/symbols:
A symbol is a person, place, thing, or event that has meaning in itself and also stands for something beyond itself. Many symbols are traditional. We easily understand them because people have agreed on their meaning. Uncle Sam is a symbol of the United States. A dove with an olive branch represents peace.
Many writers create their own symbols. In “A Time to Talk,” the speaker goes “up to the stone wall / For a friendly visit” (Frost). The stone wall is a real wall in the poem, but to Frost it may also represent the barriers that keep people apart.
symbolism/symbols:
Symbols in poetry can acquire deeper meanings from the experiences a reader brings to the text. For example, the wall in Frost’s poem might have special meaning for someone living in East German when the Berlin Wall came down.
hyperbole:
We use hyperbole when we make an exaggeration. In the opening lines of the American folktale of Babe the Blue Ox, the narrator comically describes how cold it was. The narrator claims that "Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue.”
We use them in literature and in speaking to emphasize intensity. We understand that it is not literal.
We hear many examples of hyperbole in everyday speech:
My phone rang a million times. | You could have knocked me over with a feather. |
It’s so cold even the polar bears are wearing coats. | |
imagery:
Imagery involves one or more of your five senses – the abilities to hear, taste, touch, smell, and see. An author uses a word or phrase to stimulate your memory of those senses and to help create mental pictures.
Example:
He saw Lily looking at the bikes and she wanted one but she was not the right age to have one she needed to be nine to get one. The story notes that “Jonas could see that Lily, though she seemed attentive, was looking longingly at the row of gleaming bicycles which would be presented tomorrow morning to the Nines” (Lowry 57).
This is an example of sight he saw Lily his little sister looking at the bicycles that was for the Nines and they would get it the next day.
idiom:
An idiom is a type of figurative language that is a phrase that people say that is commonly accepted as having a different meaning that the individual words may lead you to believe. For example, stating that “it's raining cats and dogs” does not mean that there are literally cats and dogs falling from the sky.
Many writers create their own symbols. In “A Time to Talk,” the speaker goes “up to the stone wall / For a friendly visit” (Frost). The stone wall is a real wall in the poem, but to Frost it may also represent the barriers that keep people apart.
Famous examples:
Pun (think dad jokes):
A pun is a joke based on the interplay of homophones — words with the same pronunciation but different meanings. It can also play with words that sound similar, but not exactly the same. The joke’s humor (if any) comes from the confusion of the two meanings.
Examples:
The tallest building in town is the library — it has thousands of stories!
I can’t remember which state my wife wanted to visit for our next vacation — it’s OK, Alaska.
Read the joke out loud: “Alaska” sounds like “I’ll ask her.”
Why do amphibians take the bus? Because their cars are always getting toad.
“Toad” vs. “towed”
allusion:
Simply put, allusion is a reference to something else. In literature, allusion is often used to refer to important cultural subjects or details. The most commonly alluded to book is The Bible.
Allusion does not describe the thing that is being alluded to because of this tendency for it to be culturally significant or at least widely understood by the audience. In this way, allusion relies heavily on the reader’s ability to have pre-existing knowledge or to be able to look more deeply into the allusion.
Examples:
allegory:
An allegory is a story within a story. It has a “surface story” and another story hidden underneath. For example, the surface story might be about two neighbors throwing rocks at each other’s homes, but the hidden story would be about war between countries. Some allegories are very subtle, while others (like the rock-throwing example) can be more obvious.
In most allegories, the hidden story has something to do with politics, religion, or morality — complex subjects that are difficult to understand directly. Many authors find it easier to think through these issues by translating them into allegories, which are easier to understand (and more fun to read) than dense philosophical arguments.
Allegories deliver difficult messages in easy-to-read stories.
allegory:
Example 1
George Orwell’s Animal Farm is one of literature’s most famous allegories. The surface story is about a group of farm animals who rise up, kick out the humans, and try to run the farm themselves. The hidden story, however, is about the Russian Revolution, and each of the characters represents some figure from that revolution. The pigs represent Communist leaders like Stalin, Lenin, and Trotsky, the dogs represent the KGB, the humans represent capitalists, the horses represent the working class, etc.
allegory:
Example 2
Seuss wrote The Sneetches as an allegory for racism and other forms of prejudice. The story is all about creatures who are treated as inferior because they don’t have stars on their bellies. Like all Dr. Seuss stories, it’s written in a child-friendly, playful style, but it still contains an important political message.
mood:
Mood: The Emotional Atmosphere of a Story
Mood is the overall feeling or emotional atmosphere that a piece of writing creates for the reader. It's what makes you feel scared, happy, sad, uncomfortable, or excited as you read.
Mood vs. Tone (Don't Confuse Them!)
Mood=how the reader feels Tone=how the author/narrator feels
The emotional atmosphere The author’s attitude
Created through setting, events, Created through word choice,
word choice narration style
Ex) The story makes me feel scared. Ex) The narrator is sarcastic.
Mood = The reader's emotional response Tone = The author's voice
How is Mood created?
Six Elements That Build Mood:
1. Setting (Time, Place, Weather)
2. Word Choice & Diction
3. Imagery & Sensory Details
How is Mood created?
Six Elements That Build Mood:
4. Pacing (How Fast the Story Moves)
5. Character Emotions & Reactions
6. Events & Plot Development
Mood vocab list
Positive/Uplifting Moods:
Negative/Dark Moods:
Neutral/Complex Moods:
Mood vocab list
Specific Moods:
Mood in different genres
Horror/Thriller
Romance
Mood in different genres
Comedy/Light Fiction
Mystery/Detective
Mood in different genres
Fantasy/Adventure
Realistic Fiction
How setting creates mood
How Different Settings Create Different Moods:
A Library
An Abandoned House
How setting creates mood
A Crowded Party
A Empty Beach at Sunset
How Word choice
creates mood
The Same Scene, Different Moods Based on Word Choice:
Scene: A Character Walks Into an Old Building
Neutral (No Mood): "She walked into the old building. It had a lot of dust and old furniture."
EERIE/CREEPY Mood "She crept into the decaying structure, her footsteps echoing off the grimy walls. Dust particles danced in the sickly light filtering through cracked windows. The furniture lay scattered like bones, and the stench of mold and decay assaulted her nostrils."
Word Choices:
How pacing
creates mood
How Sentence Structure Affects Mood:
Fast Pacing = Tension, Excitement, Urgency
Short sentences. Choppy rhythm. Quick action.
"I ran. My heart pounded. Behind me, footsteps thundered. Closer. Closer. I couldn't breathe. I couldn't think. Just run."
How pacing
creates mood
How Sentence Structure Affects Mood:
Slow Pacing = Calm, Reflection, Contemplation
Long sentences. Flowing rhythm. Detailed description.
"The afternoon stretched before me, endless and peaceful, as I sat beneath the ancient oak tree, watching the clouds drift lazily across the sky, feeling the gentle breeze on my skin, thinking about nothing in particular, content simply to exist in this moment."
How imagery
creates mood
Sensory Details Set the Emotional Tone:
Unpleasant Imagery = Dark/Negative Mood
"The abandoned hospital reeked of stale urine and industrial cleaner. Fluorescent lights flickered overhead, casting sickly shadows across peeling walls. Broken glass crunched beneath my feet, and something wet—I didn't want to know what—stuck to my shoe."
Character emotions
creates mood
Readers Absorb the Emotions of Characters
When a character is scared, anxious, or panicked, readers feel it too.
Example: Creating Anxiety
"My palms grew slick with sweat as I stood outside the principal's office. My stomach churned, and I could barely catch my breath. Every second felt like an eternity as I waited for the door to open, terrified of what might happen next."
Events & plot
creates mood
What Happens in the Story Shapes the Mood:
Conflict & Danger = Suspenseful/Tense Mood
"As soon as she opened the door, she knew something was wrong. The living room was ransacked—furniture overturned, drawers pulled open, papers scattered everywhere. A cold chill ran down her spine. Someone had been here. Someone could still be here."
Resolution & Triumph = Satisfying/Inspiring Mood
"Against all odds, he'd done it. He crossed the finish line, arms raised in victory. The crowd erupted in cheers, and he fell to his knees, tears streaming down his face. Years of training, sacrifice, and doubt had led to this perfect moment."
Mood in literature
"The Hunger Games" by Suzanne Collins
Mood: Tense, dystopian, desperate, grim
"When I wake up, the other side of the bed is cold. My sister is not there and I remember that she is most likely dead, poisoned and drowned and burned in her bed, and I know this without being told as if I could always know this thing."
Word choice/diction:
Diction (pronounced DIK-shun) refers to word choice and phrasing in any written or spoken text. Many authors can be said to have their own “diction,” because they tend to use certain words more than others or phrase things in a unique way. In fact, every author (including you) has developed a unique diction!
Diction can also mean “pronunciation,” but we’ll ignore that definition for now since this article is mainly about writing, not speaking.
There are as many types of diction as there are writers, and there will never be a complete list of all of them. Moreover, all these different styles vary along multiple variables, such as formal/informal, simple/complex, and modern/archaic. The most basic distinction, however, is between formal diction and informal diction.
Word choice/diction:
A. Formal Diction
When you are writing an essay, dissertation, business letter, or other formal communication, it’s important to use formal diction. That is, you should avoid contractions (isn’t, don’t) and colloquialisms (slang). It’s also important to make sure that your grammar and word usage are “textbook” correct, since mistakes in this category can make your work look sloppy or careless.
B. Informal Diction
In many contexts, it’s fine to use informal diction. This includes personal emails to people you know well, and certain creative projects. (Most modern novels are written with a fairly informal diction, as opposed to older novels, which tended to be more precise and formal.) Informal diction is sometimes referred to as “vernacular,” which means “everyday speech.”
Word choice/diction:
Diction is the main thing that sets the tone of a piece. If your diction is formal, then the piece as a whole will come across as formal; if it’s quirky, then your writing will seem quirky, and so on. Diction doesn’t have any specific rhetorical purpose – it just creates the overall “sense” of your work.
In novels and short stories, diction can also help you craft a portrait of your characters. The way someone talks tells us a lot about them, and good authors use this to their advantage in character-creation. For example, a highly educated character would be more likely to use arcane words and complex sentence structure, while a more down-to-earth character would avoid such diction. Similarly, a younger character would be more likely to use slang than an older one.
connotation/denotation:
A connotation is a feeling or idea that a word has, in addition to its literal or main meaning (the denotation). Often, a series of words can have the same basic definitions, but completely different connotations—these are the emotions or meanings implied by a word, phrase, or thing.
For example, “This clothing is affordable!” versus “This clothing is cheap!” Here, “affordable” sounds much better than “cheap,” because the word cheap also implies low quality.
Denotation (pronounced dee-noh-tey-shuh n) is a word’ or thing’s literal or main definition. The term comes from the late Latin Latin denotationem meaning “indication,” and is contrasted with connotation. A word’s denotation is completely absent of emotion, so it is defined as distinguished from its connotation (its associated meaning). In other words, denotation is a word’s “dictionary definition” rather than its associated emotion or definition.
repetition:
Quite simply, repetition is the repeating of a word or phrase. It is a common rhetorical device used to add emphasis and stress in writing and speech. Repetition is widely used in both poetry and prose; throughout all genres and forms of literature and oral tradition. Aside from helping stress or highlight important thoughts and points, repetition can be a key tool for authors and speakers in developing style, tone, and rhythm.
Read the short passage below:
The big stairs led up to a big house with a big front door. Breathe, breathe, breathe, I told myself. I only have to stay for one second, be afraid for one second, not scream for one second. I can do it. I can win the bet. I can prove I’m brave.
Repetition is an important literary device because it allows a writer or speaker to place emphasis on things they choose as significant. It tells the reader or audience that the words being used are central enough to be repeated, and lets them know when to pay special attention to the language. Furthermore, repetition has historically been an important technique for oral tradition, as it helped storytellers remember details and lines that may have otherwise been difficult to repeat.
Rhyme scheme:
Rhymes are words whose endings match, as in “fly” and “spy.” This is one of the most common techniques in traditional poetry and music, and most people can easily identify rhymes.
Rhyming is very popular, and always has been, but no one is entirely sure why. One possibility, of course, is that we simply like the sound of them! Rhymes are very pleasing to the ear, and their prominence in human literature may be based on that simple fact alone.
But rhymes also have another advantage, which is that they make information easier to remember. Put yourself in the position of a storyteller in the ancient world, centuries before the invention of writing. Your job is to tell the stories passed down in your culture from generation to generation, but you can’t read them out of a book. So how can you remember all those stories? In nearly all societies, the answer has been: you make a rhyme. Thanks to the mnemonic power of rhyme, societies without writing have managed to preserve their oral traditions for generation upon generation.
Rhyme scheme:
Although rhymes were extremely important in traditional poetry, their importance has waned in recent decades due to the rise of free verse. Free verse does not necessarily rhyme, and is supposed to be far more open to the author’s creativity than the rhyming verse-forms of traditional poetry. In fact, rhyming is so far out of fashion in the poetry world that many poetry teachers have come to see it as nothing more than a distraction – they even go as far as to ban students from using rhymes in their poetry, at least until they have learned other skills.
Although rhymes are no longer a major part of poetry, they were essential to the poetic traditions of prior centuries, and so a full understanding of poetry cannot be achieved without an understanding of rhyme.
assonance:
Assonance (pronounced as–uh-nuh ns) is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds within words, phrases, or sentences. The word is derived from the Latin phrase assonare, meaning to answer with the same sound. The following is a simple example of assonance:
She seems to beam rays of sunshine with her eyes of green.
In this example, the speaker uses assonance to describe a pretty woman. Assonance occurs in the repeating vowel sounds of seems, beam, and green.
assonance:
Assonance can be used in all types of literature, but is commonly found in poetry. Assonance provides poetic writing with rhythm and musicality. It also mirrors or changes the mood of a poem in order to match the subject matter. Beyond literature, assonance is also found in pop culture, especially in music. As you will hear, it is possible to use assonance in everyday speech. However, most people don’t use it intentionally, unless trying to woo someone romantically!
assonance:
William Wordsworth uses assonance to reflect the calm and thoughtful mood of his poem “Daffodils”:
I wandered lonely as a cloud�That floats on high o‘er vales and hills,�When all at once I saw a crowd,�A host, of golden daffodils;�Beside the lake, beneath the trees,�Fluttering and dancing in the breeze…
structure:
1. CHRONOLOGICAL (Sequence)
2. CAUSE & EFFECT
structure:
3. COMPARISON & CONTRAST
4. PROBLEM & SOLUTION
5. DESCRIPTION (Main Idea & Supporting Details)
Chronological structure:
Definition: Events or steps presented in the order they occur in time.
Signal Words:
How It Works:
Example (Historical Text): "The American Revolution began in 1775 when colonists clashed with British soldiers in Massachusetts. Next, the Continental Congress declared independence in 1776. Then, Washington led the army through difficult years of fighting. Finally, the war ended in 1783 with American victory."
Chronological structure:
Why Authors Use It:
What Students Should Do:
Cause & effect structure:
Definition: One event (cause) makes something else happen (effect). Can be simple (one cause → one effect) or complex (multiple causes → multiple effects).
Signal Words:
How It Works:
Simple Cause & Effect:
Multiple Causes & One Effect:
Cause & effect structure:
One Cause & Multiple Effects:
Example (Science Text): "Because greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, global temperatures are rising. As a result, polar ice is melting. This leads to rising sea levels, which causes flooding in coastal areas."
Why Authors Use It:
Compare and contrast structure:
Definition: Shows how two or more things are alike (comparison) and/or different (contrast).
Signal Words:
Comparison: similarly, alike, like, both, same, as well as, in the same way
Contrast: however, but, unlike, different, in contrast, on the other hand, whereas, yet, still, although
Compare and contrast structure:
How It Works:
Point-by-Point Comparison:
Block Comparison:
Venn Diagram Approach:
Problem and solution structure:
Definition: Identifies a problem and proposes one or more solutions.
Signal Words:
How It Works:
Single Problem, Single Solution:
Problem and solution structure:
Single Problem, Multiple Solutions:
Multiple Problems, Multiple Solutions:
Example (Persuasive/Informative Text): "Many students struggle with time management. One solution is to use a planner to track assignments. Another approach is to break large projects into smaller tasks. A third option is to eliminate distractions while studying. Each method has benefits, and most students find that combining these strategies works best."
Problem and solution structure:
Why Authors Use It:
What Students Should Do:
Main idea and details structure:
Definition: A central idea is explained and supported through specific details, examples, facts, and descriptions.
Signal Words:
How It Works:
Main idea and details structure:
Example (Informative Text): "The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system. It covers an area of approximately 133,000 square miles off the coast of Australia. The reef is home to over 1,500 species of fish, including clownfish, parrotfish, and sharks. Additionally, it supports sea turtles, dolphins, and countless other marine animals. The reef's vibrant colors come from the various types of coral that grow there, ranging from branching corals to brain corals."
Why Authors Use It:
Main idea and details structure:
What Students Should Do:
Paragraph structure:
Typical Paragraph Structure:
1. Topic Sentence
2. Supporting Sentences
Paragraph structure:
Typical Paragraph Structure:
3. Concluding Sentence
Example Paragraph Breakdown:
"Social media has transformed how teenagers communicate. Platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat allow young people to instantly share moments with friends around the world. These tools help maintain friendships and create communities around shared interests. However, constant connectivity also creates pressure and anxiety. Despite challenges, social media remains central to teen social life."
Transitions for cohesion:
What Transitions Do:
Types of Transitions by Relationship:
Time/Sequence:
Transitions for cohesion:
Cause & Effect:
Comparison:
Contrast:
Addition:
Transitions for cohesion:
Emphasis:
Examples:
Weak (No transitions): "The economy improved. Unemployment dropped. Consumer spending increased. Businesses hired more workers."
Strong (With transitions): "As the economy improved, unemployment dropped. Consequently, consumer spending increased. As a result, businesses hired more workers."
What Students Should Do:
Structure in genres:
Structure in narrative texts:
Example: The Outsiders uses chronological structure to show Ponyboy's journey over several days, creating immediacy and tension.
Structure in genres:
Informational Text (RI.8 Standards)
Structure in nonfiction:
Example: A science article about climate change uses cause-and-effect structure to show how greenhouse gases lead to warming, which causes ice melt, which raises sea levels.
Structure in genres:
History/Social Studies (RH.6-8 Standards)
Structure in historical texts:
Example: A history textbook about the Civil War uses chronological structure with cause-and-effect relationships to show how political tensions escalated into war.
Science/Technical (RST.6-8 Standards)
Structure in scientific texts:
Example: A lab manual uses chronological structure to explain the steps of an experiment.
Analyzing structure
Step 1: Identify the Structure
Step 2: Locate Key Information
Step 3: Evaluate Purpose
Analyzing structure
Step 4: Analyze Impact
Example Analysis:
Text: "The Amazon Rainforest is Earth's largest tropical rainforest, covering approximately 5.5 million square kilometers. It is home to about 10% of all species on Earth, including jaguars, anacondas, pink river dolphins, and millions of insects. The rainforest produces about 20% of the world's oxygen. However, deforestation threatens this vital ecosystem. Every minute, an area the size of 40 football fields is cleared."
Analysis:
genre:
A genre is a category of literature identified by form, content, and style. Genres allow literary critics and students to classify compositions within the larger canon of literature. Genre is derived from the French phrase genre meaning “kind” or “type.”
Literature could be divided into countless genres and subgenres, but there are three main genres which preside over most subgenres. Here are the main genres in literature:
a. Poetry
As poetry has evolved, it has taken on numerous forms, but in general poetry is the genre of literature which has some form of meter or rhyme with focus based on syllable counts, musicality, and division of lines (lineation). Unlike prose which runs from one end of the page to the other, poetry is typically written in lines and blocks of lines known as stanzas.
genre:
b. Prose
Prose encompasses any literary text which is not arranged in a poetic form. Put simply, prose is whatever is not poetry. Prose includes novels, short stories, journals, letters, fiction and nonfiction, among others. This article is an example of prose.
c. Drama
Drama is a text which has been written with the intention of being performed for an audience. Dramas range from plays to improvisations on stage. Popular dramas include Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun, and Tennessee Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire.
irony:
Irony is when there are two contradicting meanings of the same situation, event, image, sentence, phrase, or story. In many cases, this refers to the difference between expectations and reality.
For example, if you go sight-seeing anywhere in the world today, you will see crowds of people who are so busy taking cell-phone pictures of themselves in front of the sight that they don’t actually look at what they came to see with their own eyes. This is ironic, specifically, situational irony. This one situation has two opposing meanings that contradict expectations: (1) going to see a sight and prove that you were there (2) not enjoying the thing you went to see.
irony:
Irony is often used for critical or humorous effect in literature, music, art, and film (or a lesson). In conversation, people often use verbal irony to express humor, affection, or emotion, by saying the opposite of what they mean to somebody who is expected to recognize the irony. “I hate you” can mean “I love you”—but only if the person you’re saying it to already knows that! This definition is, of course, related to the first one (as we expect people’s words to reflect their meaning) and in most cases, it can be considered a form of sarcasm.
irony:
The most common purpose of irony is to create humor and/or point out the absurdity of life. As in the all of the examples above, life has a way of contradicting our expectations, often in painful ways. Irony generally makes us laugh, even when the circumstances are tragic, such as in Aleister Crowley’s failure to beat his addiction. We laugh not because the situations were tragic, but because they violate our expectations. The contrast between people’s expectations and the reality of the situations is not only funny, but also meaningful because it calls our attention to how wrong human beings can be. Irony is best when it points us towards deeper meanings of a situation.
Dramatic irony:
Irony is when you get the opposite of what you expect, especially if the result is humorous or striking in some way. Dramatic irony, however, is slightly different: it’s when the audience knows something the characters don’t — so the characters might get an unexpected outcome, but for the audience it’s not unexpected at all.
We all know the ending of Titanic — that ship is going down. But everyone on board thinks that it’s “unsinkable”!
Dramatic irony:
Dramatic irony is often used for laughs — our extra information makes the characters appear ridiculous because we know what they’re doing won’t work. Perhaps more often, though, it’s a way of building tension. When we have information the characters don’t have, we want to shout a warning through the screen. Audience members end up on the edge of their seats, anticipating that something terrible is going to happen that the characters can’t see coming.
Disney’s Mulan is pretty much entirely based on dramatic irony. We know that Mulan is a woman who has disguised herself as a man and joined the army. But the other characters around her have no idea, and there are almost constant jokes based on this deception: for example, the songs “Be a Man” and “A Girl Worth Fighting For.”
verbal irony:
Verbal irony is found in plays, speeches, and literature when someone says something that is sharply different from the reality of the situation. Verbal irony, unlike dramatic and situational irony, is used intentionally by the speaker. It can be hard sometimes to tell if a statement is verbal irony or not.
verbal irony:
Many people believe verbal irony to be synonymous with sarcasm, but sarcasm is only one of the common types of verbal irony. It appears in four basic forms:
Like the other major types of irony, verbal irony plays with the listener's expectations.
verbal irony:
verbal irony:
Situational irony:
Situational irony takes place when the opposite of what is expected actually happens.
Other everyday examples of situational irony include:
Historical context:
Historical context refers to the moods, attitudes, and conditions that existed in a certain time. Context is the "setting" for an event that occurs, and it will have an impact on the relevance of the event.
Sensory details:
Sensory Details: Bringing Writing to Life
Sensory details are specific descriptions that appeal to the five senses: sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. They help readers experience the story rather than just read about it.
The Five Senses:
Sensory details:
Why Sensory Details Matter:
Example:
What is Textual evidence?
The Foundation of Literary Analysis
Textual evidence is specific information from the text that supports your ideas, claims, or interpretations. It's the difference between saying "I think the character is brave" and saying "I know the character is brave because..."
Why Does It Matter?
The Golden Rule: Every claim you make about a text needs proof from that text.
Types of Textual evidence
Four Main Types of Evidence:
1. Direct Quotes: The exact words from the text in quotation marks
2. Paraphrasing: Restating the author's idea in your own words
Types of Textual evidence
Four Main Types of Evidence:
3. Summary: Condensing key points or events from a larger section
4. Inference with Evidence
How to quote effectively
The Art of Quoting:
Rule 1: Quote Purposefully
Rule 2: Integrate Quotes Smoothly
How to quote effectively
The Art of Quoting:
Rule 3: Explain the Quote
Rule 4: Use Ellipsis (...) to Shorten
How to quote effectively
The Art of Quoting:
Rule 5: Use Brackets [ ] for Clarity
Paraphrasing vs quoting
When to Paraphrase:
Use Paraphrasing When:
Example:
Paraphrasing vs quoting
When to Quote:
Use Direct Quotes When:
Example:
The evidence sandwich
T.E.E. = Topic Sentence + Evidence + Explanation
Step 1: Topic Sentence (T)
Step 2: Evidence (E)
The evidence sandwich
T.E.E. = Topic Sentence + Evidence + Explanation
Step 3: Explanation (E)
Full Example:
Macbeth's ambition destroys him. When he cries "Out, damned spot!", Macbeth reveals how guilt has consumed his mind. His desperate attempt to wash away imaginary blood shows that his unchecked ambition has led to psychological destruction, not the power he sought.
Common Evidence mistakes
Mistake 1: Using Evidence Without Explanation
Mistake 2: Over-Quoting
Common Evidence mistakes
Mistake 3: Quoting Without Context
Mistake 4: Evidence That Doesn't Match Your Claim
Citation basics
Why Cite?
Three Main Citation Styles (Grade 8):
MLA (Most Common in High School)
Citation basics
Three Main Citation Styles (Grade 8):
APA (Social Sciences)
Chicago (History/Humanities)
For Grade 8, focus on MLA format — it's the most straightforward and widely taught. Attention to details-punctuation, spacing, formatting, etc. matters!
Works Cited basics
MLA Works Cited Format:
For a Book: Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.
Example: Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. Scholastic Press, 1998.
For a Website: Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article." Website Name, Publisher, Date, URL.
Example: Smith, John. "Tips for Writing." Writing Help, Writing Center, 2023, www.writinghelp.com/tips.
For a Magazine/Journal Article: Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article." Magazine Title, Volume, Issue, Year, Pages.
Example: Jones, Sarah. "Climate Change Solutions." Science Today, vol. 15, no. 3, 2023, pp. 45-52.
Works Cited basics
Important Rules:
Evaluating Sources
What Makes a Source Credible?
Credibility = Trustworthiness
A credible source is reliable, accurate, and written by someone qualified to write about the topic. Not all sources are created equal—some are much more trustworthy than others.
Why Evaluate Sources?
Remember: Just because something is published doesn't mean it's true.
Evaluating Sources
The C.R.A.A.P. Test: Use C.R.A.A.P. to evaluate ANY source.
C = Currency (How recent is it?)
R = Relevance (Does it fit your topic?)
Evaluating Sources
The C.R.A.A.P. Test: Use C.R.A.A.P. to evaluate ANY source.
A = Authority (Who wrote it?)
A = Accuracy (Is it factual?)
Evaluating Sources
The C.R.A.A.P. TestUse C.R.A.A.P. to evaluate ANY source.
P = Purpose (Why was it written?)
Types of sources (credible)
Highest Credibility:
📚 Scholarly/Academic Journals
📖 Books from Academic Publishers
Types of sources (credible)
Highest Credibility:
🏛️ Government & Educational Websites (.gov, .edu)
Types of sources (credible)
Medium Credibility:
📰 Established News Organizations
🎓 Nonprofit Organization Websites (.org)
Types of sources (credible)
Medium Credibility:
📝 Books from Major Publishers
Types of sources (credible)
Lower Credibility (Use with Caution):
💬 Blogs & Personal Websites
📱 Social Media Posts
Types of sources (credible)
Lower Credibility (Use with Caution):
🛒 Websites Trying to Sell Something
❓ Wikipedia
Identifying Bias
Bias = Preference or prejudice for or against something
Every source has some perspective, but credible sources try to minimize bias. Watch for:
🚩🚩Red Flags for Bias:
Identifying Bias
Bias = Preference or prejudice for or against something
Example of Bias:
Biased: "Renewable energy is obviously the only solution to climate change, and anyone who disagrees is ignoring science."
Balanced: "Renewable energy can reduce carbon emissions, though some experts debate its cost-effectiveness compared to nuclear power."
Questions to Ask:
Primary vs secondary sources
Primary Source = Original, firsthand account
Secondary Source = Analysis or interpretation of primary sources
Primary vs secondary sources
Both are valuable!
For Grade 8 Research: Use a mix of both. Primary sources show authenticity; secondary sources provide analysis.
FAct vs Opinion
Fact = Something that can be proven true or false
Opinion = A belief or judgment that cannot be proven
Be Careful: Sometimes statements SOUND like facts but are opinions.
FAct vs Opinion
In Credible Sources:
Your Job: Identify which is which and use facts to support your claims.
Evaluating online sources
Special Considerations for Websites:
Check the URL:
Look for:
Red Flags: 🚩🚩No author listed and 🚩🚩No date
OST Vocab
OST Question Types
OST Test strategies
1. Dissect the Prompt (Pre-Writing)
2. Strategic Reading and Annotating
OST Test writing strategies
3. Structure Your Essay (1-3-1 Outline)
Over explaining will not hurt your grade!
OST Test writing strategies
4. Use your time wisely.
Key Strategy to Remember: If you don't know the full answer, write what you do know. Partial credit is better than zero for a blank page, idk/idc, or random typing that isn’t related to the prompt.
OST Test writing strategies
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