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The Industrial Revolution

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• The Start of the Industrial Revolution
• Estimated Population of England 1066–1900
• London in 1440 and 1840
• Distribution of Population
• Agricultural Innovators
• Turnips, Cattle and Crop Rotation
• King George III
• Enclosure
• From the Country to the City

Table of Contents

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The Start of the Industrial Revolution

• By 1750, the Agricultural Revolution had led to a large increase in Europe’s population.
• About 93% of the people of Europe lived in rural areas.
• New innovations revolutionized manufacturing.
• People began emigrating from rural to urban areas searching for economic opportunities.
• Advances in medicine, hygiene and agriculture improved the quality and length of people’s lives.

http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/agriculture_england2.jpg

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Black Death

Norman

Invasion

Industrial

Revolution

Agricultural

Revolution

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Right: London 1140 and 1840, from Pugin’s Contrasts, published 1836.

London in 1440 and 1840

Urbanization and industrialization changed the architecture and way of life in London.

Urbanization: The process in which more people move to cities.

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Robert Bakewell developed the use of selective livestock breeding in England.

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He bred Dishley Longhorn cattle for beef, New Leicester sheep for their fine wool and ability to live in the cold English climate, and the Shire horse for its strength.

Agricultural Innovators

Jethro Tull

Jethro Tull developed the seed drill to make sowing seeds faster and more efficient than planting them by hand.

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The seed drill makes a small hole and drops the seed into it. It is estimated that crop yields rose as much as eight times. Large motor-driven seed drills are used today.

Clockwise: New Leicester Sheep, Shire Horse, Dishley Longhorn Cow

Seed Drill

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Turnips, Cattle and Crop Rotation

• Lord Charles Townshend helped develop the four-field crop rotation system using wheat, barley, turnips and clover.
• Four-field crop rotation was a key development in the Agricultural Revolution.
• In 1730 Lord Townshend imported Dutch-grown turnips to feed cattle during the winter.
• Using inexpensive turnips and clover allowed farmers to maintain their livestock year-round.
• Previously, English farmers slaughtered their cattle before winter because the cost of feed was too high.

Right, Clockwise: Clover, Barley, Wheat.

Far Right: Townshend, Turnips, Bull

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King George III

• King George III was very interested in agriculture and was known as "Farmer George."
• He maintained large gardens at his estates at Richmond and Windsor.
• The British Agricultural Revolution reached its peak during his reign (1760–1820).

19^th-century plowing with six- oxen team in Sussex, England.

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Enclosure

• Enclosure is when land that was traditionally held and used in common is fenced by private owners.
• Enclosure in England occurred between 1750 and 1860 as a result of parliamentary acts.
• Enclosure resulted in 21% of the land in England being fenced for private use.
• This resulted in larger, more efficient farms that required less labor.
• Many English peasants, who were no longer able to graze sheep and cattle or live off the land, were forced to move to the cities for employment.

A doggerel (rhyme) of the time went:

The law locks up the man or woman who steals the goose from off the common; But leaves the greater villain loose who steals the common from the goose.

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From the Country to the City

• The population of England rose slowly, by less than two million people, during the 100 years from 1700 to 1800.
• The population then increased sharply from 1801 to 1901, increasing by over 22 million.
• Many people moved into the cities looking for work.

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• Major Factors That Contributed to Industrialization in England
• The Putting-Out System
• Urbanization in England
• Mercantilism and Navigation Acts
• Anglo-Dutch Wars
• Boston Tea Party
• Seven Years’ War
• Britain Gains Canada and India
• Trading with the Colonies
• England’s Trade Network
• Europe Dominated Manufacturing Markets
• Cotton and India

Table of Contents

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Major Factors Existing in England That Contributed to Industrialization:

• Large supplies of coal and iron.
• A large number of people willing and able to work.
• Many engineers and innovators.
• Large amount of wealth from colonies.
• A stable government supporting entrepreneurs:
• Government encouraged innovation and the spread of global trade.
• The government created patent laws that allowed inventors to benefit financially from the “intellectual property” of their inventions.
• The British government also encouraged global trade by expanding the Navy to protect trade and granting monopolies and other financial incentives to companies so they would explore the world to find resources.

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Manufacturing Regions

1759

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The Putting-Out System

• The "putting-out system" was a way for 18^th-century businesses to contract workers from their homes; an example of cottage industry.
• Different parts of a product were made in the home, collected, and then assembled at a central location.
• The main products of this system were textiles, locks, guns, and iron goods such as pots, pans, and pins.
• In the cottage textile industry, for example, the entire family was involved in cotton yarn production:
• Children would sort the cotton fibers in a process called carding.
• Women would spin the fibers into threads.
• Men would weave the threads into fabric.

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By 1750, large numbers of workers had begun to move into urban areas.

This provided a large pool of workers for factory labor.

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More factories encouraged more workers to move to the cities, and more workers attracted more industry.

Urbanization in England

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• Mercantilism was an economic theory that argued that nations acquire wealth by exporting more than they import.
• The value of imports and exports, called the balance of trade, was measured in gold and silver bullion (bars). [omit (silver or gold).]
• Governments passed trade laws encouraging companies to export while limiting imports through tariffs (import taxes).
• The English Navigation Acts were a result of mercantile policies.
• The acts allowed only ships of the United Kingdom to trade directly with England.

Gold Bullion

Mercantilism and the Navigation Acts

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Anglo-Dutch Wars

• The Navigation Acts caused tension between the Netherlands and England.
• The British and Dutch competed to control ocean trade.
• There were four Anglo-Dutch Wars from 1652 to 1784.
• The wars were fought entirely at sea.
• In the end the English gained control of Dutch trade routes, and thus global trade.

Dutch Victory, 1667

Fourth Anglo-Dutch War

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• The Seven Years’ War involved all of the major European powers.
• Britain and France were enemies during the war.
• Battles were fought in India, North America, Europe, the Caribbean islands, the Philippines and coastal Africa.
• Great Britain, victorious in the war, gained a large number of French colonies, including India, Canada, and Senegal.
• The result, again, was that the British gained even great control over global trade.

Seven Years’ War 1756–1763

French Colonies in America, India, and Senegal

India

Senegal

French Colonial Flag

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• Mercantilism was successful for England.
• England could trade with all of her colonies without restrictions or tariffs.
• England held a monopoly on commerce in her colonies.
• Nearly half of England's exports went to the American colonies.
• England’s merchant fleet and navy grew to be the largest in the world.
• England saw itself as the center of the world!

Trading with the Colonies

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England saw itself as the center of the world!

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English Trade Routes of 1700

England had the widest global trade network of colonies.

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During the Industrial Revolution, European manufacturing dominated world markets, and England dominated them all.

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Cotton and India

• In the 1600s, imported cotton from India became popular in Europe.
• Prior to 1600, wool was the most common textile in Europe.
• English wool manufacturers convinced Parliament to pass a law banning cotton cloth imported from India.
• Cotton manufacturers in England then turned to importing raw cotton from the West Indies and Brazil.
• They used the putting-out system to manufacture cotton cloth.
• The British East India Company stopped all cotton cloth manufacturing in India.
• Raw cotton from India was exported to England, made into cloth, and sold back to India.

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• The Water Wheel
• Northern England
• Mechanization of the Textile Industry
• Innovations in Cotton Spinning
• Eli Whitney
• Interchangeable Parts
• Thomas Newcomen
• James Watt and Practical Steam Power
• Matthew Boulton
• Richard Trevithick
• Quarry Bank Mill
• The Workhouse

• Samuel Slater
• Francis Cabot Lowell
• Falling Prices of Cotton Goods
• The Speenhamland Allowance Scale
• Manchester Becomes the International Center of Cotton and Textile Production
• Alexis de Tocqueville
• John Cockerill Brings Industry to Belgium

Table of Contents

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The Water Wheel

• A water wheel is a means of converting the kinetic energy of flowing water into mechanical energy to operate machines.
• Water wheels were primarily used to power grist mills for making flour.
• During the Industrial Revolution, Richard Arkwright used the water wheel to spin cotton thread.
• Later, water wheels were adapted to run many spinning machines and looms.
• The most powerful water wheel built in the United Kingdom was the 100 hp water wheel at Quarry Bank Mill.

Grist Mill Sound

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Water Wheels

Factory Falls in Lowell

Water Wheel in New Lanark, Scotland

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• Many new textile mills were started using the water wheel. New towns grew up around the mills.
• New Lanark was a mill town established in 1786 by David Dale, a Scottish merchant and businessman.
• Dale offered employment to poor Scottish Highlanders who had had their land taken from them by the "Highland Clearances."
• These were parliamentary acts similar to the Enclosure Acts in England 100 years earlier.

David Dale, New Lanark, and Highland Clearances

David Dale

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• Much of the innovation for the United Kingdom’s Industrial Revolution came out of Lancashire County, which included the cities of Manchester and Liverpool.
• Lancashire is located in northern England.
• The county has a cool, moist climate that was ideal for cotton spinning.
• It also has many natural streams to provide water power.

http://rmhh.co.uk/gifs/blackpool/bowenmap.jpg

Lancashire County

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The flying shuttle, invented by John Kay in 1733, increased the speed at which cloth could be woven.

The carding machine was developed by Daniel Bourn and Lewis Paul in 1748. It speeded up the process of brushing raw or washed fibers to prepare them for spinning, called carding.

Mechanization of the Textile Industry

Innovation: The creation, development and implementation of a new product, process or service.

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Innovations in Cotton Spinning:

Hargreaves and Arkwright

• Richard Arkwright developed an improved spinning machine called a water frame.
• Water wheels were used to turn the machine.
• In 1771 Arkwright built the world's first water-powered cotton mill at Cromford, Derbyshire, England.

• In 1764 James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny.
• It was hand-operated and could spin eight threads at a time.

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Spinning jenny demonstration, click to view

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In 1779 Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule, bringing water power to large-scale factory production of thread. The spinning mule could spin large numbers of threads at a time.

The Spinning Mule

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spinning mule machine

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The Jacquard loom, a type of punch card loom, was developed by Frenchman Joseph Marie Jacquard around 1804. It automated pattern weaving, using punch cards to control the design.

The power loom, invented by Edward Cartwright in 1785, used mechanical power from water wheels. It was designed so one person could operate many looms.

The roller spinning machine was developed in 1839 by Lewis Paul and John Wyatt. It increased the speed of making thread. They powered their machines using a donkey.

Jacquard

Cartwright

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Eli Whitney

• In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, a mechanical device used to remove the seeds from cotton fiber.
• Prior to the cotton gin, seeds were removed by hand.
• Not only did the cotton gin allow faster production of cotton, it was also capable of processing the short fiber or "short staple" cotton, thereby increasing the amount and type of cotton available for the industry.

An unintended consequence of the cotton gin was that, in expanding cotton production in the southern United States, it caused an increase in the use of slave labor used to plant and harvest cotton.

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Interchangeable Parts

• In 1778, Honoré Blanc demonstrated that muskets could be built using interchangeable parts.
• Eli Whitney is often credited with the development of interchangeable parts, which he used for the muskets that he produced for the U.S. Army in 1798. Whitney was a strong promoter of the idea.
• In America, John H. Hall, the inventor of the M1819 Hall breech-loading rifle, perfected the production of interchangeable parts, using specialized milling machines to produce his rifles in 1819.
• Henry Maudslay, a 19^th-century British machine tool maker, improved the accuracy of milling machines used for making interchangeable precision parts. He is considered a founding father of machine tool technology.

Flintlock Musket

A lathe is a type of milling machine.

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• Thomas Newcomen built the first practical steam engine. It was used for pumping water out of mines in the first decade of the 18^th century.
• His engine converted steam power into mechanical energy.
• It used reciprocal (back and forth) motion.
• It was called the atmospheric or Newcomen steam engine.

Thomas Newcomen

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James Watt and Practical Steam Power

• James Watt was a Scottish engineer who, in 1775, modified the steam engine and made it practical for industrial use.
• He is credited with the invention of the sun and planet gear, a method of converting reciprocal (back and forth) motion to rotary (circular) motion.

Sun and Planet Gear

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• Matthew Boulton was a toymaker who bought a two-thirds share of Watt’s patent on his steam engine.
• Boulton and Watt created a partnership to make steam engines at their Soho Foundry near Birmingham, England.
• Boulton brought success to the business by using interchangeable parts and by placing all processes of production under one roof, creating a modern factory.

Far Right: Matthew Boulton’s "Moonstone" from the Lunar Society

Matthew Boulton

• Boulton kept his factories clean, well-lit and well-ventilated.
• He provided his employees with workers’ insurance and refused to employ young children.
• Boulton was a member of the Lunar Society (See Industrialists and Enterprise).

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• Richard Trevithick was a British inventor who built the first high-pressure steam engine in 1799.
• His invention made steam engines smaller and useful for powering cotton mills and locomotives.
• Trevithick also built the first working steam locomotive.

Clockwise from Top Left: First Locomotive, Trevithick, High-Pressure Steam Engine, "Catch Me If You Can" Locomotive Circus

Richard Trevithick

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• Quarry Bank Mill was built by Samuel Greg in Cheshire, England, in 1784.
• Greg used unpaid child apprentices from workhouses as his labor.

Above: Apprentice House, Workhouse Children Below: Samuel Greg, Power Loom

Quarry Bank Mill

• Greg, like many other industrialists in Manchester, England, was a Utilitarian.
• The children were provided with education and medical treatment.
• Greg hired Dr. Peter Holland, the first doctor to be employed by a mill in England.
• The mill still operates today.

Utilitarianism: The belief that one’s actions should bring happiness or pleasure to society

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• The workhouse was a place where people went who could not support themselves.
• Homeless people and the insane were sent to workhouses by local authorities.
• Orphans, as in Charles Dickens’ novel Oliver Twist, were also sent to workhouses.
• Conditions in the workhouses were purposely harsh, in order to encourage people to leave and find work.
• Little money was provided to maintain workhouses.
• People did unpaid work in exchange for food and shelter. People were fed gruel, soup, bread and cheese.
• Many children from workhouses were apprenticed to mine owners and textile mills, where they worked for no wages.

The Workhouse

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• Samuel Slater (1768–1835), a Quaker merchant, is known as the "Founder of the American Industrial Revolution."
• Slater secretly brought plans for building cotton mills from England to America.
• England prohibited engineers from leaving the country, so Slater left for America dressed as a farmer.
• In 1793 he constructed the first successful cotton mill, called Slater Mill, in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.
• Slater’s mill was based on Richard Arkwright's cotton spinning inventions.

Industrialization Spread to America: Samuel Slater

Rhode Island

Slater Mill

Samuel

Slater

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• Francis Cabot Lowell visited England to study and sketch plans of British textile technology.
• In 1814, with the help of an American engineer named Paul Moody, Lowell built the Boston Manufacturing Company in Waltham, Massachusetts.
• Lowell put all processes of manufacturing under one roof, turning raw cotton into cloth.

• To keep costs down, Lowell hired young farm girls to operate the machines.
• Although he paid them low wages, he gave them safe housing and education.

Boston Manufacturing Company

Francis Cabot Lowell

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Lowell, Massachusetts, was named after Francis Cabot Lowell. In the 19^th century it had ten major cotton mills.

http://165.176.125.169/schools/projects/photoproject/history/lowell/lowell1820.jpg

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• The introduction of factory-based cotton thread production led to falling cotton thread prices.
• From 1786 to 1832 the price of cotton yarn fell 90%.
• Wages fell for cotton hand weavers.
• Hand loom weavers making 25 shillings a week in 1786 were only able to make 9 shillings and 6 pence by 1830.
• Craftsmen left the putting-out system to work in factories.

A shilling was worth 1/20 of a pound, or 12 pence.

Falling Prices and Wages

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Price of Bread (Per Pound)

• The Speenhamland Allowance Scale of 1795 in England tied the minimum wage of workers to the price of bread.
• Every worker was to receive a minimum wage equivalent to about 12.5 pounds of bread per day.
• It was estimated that 1/3 of a worker’s wage went to food.

The Speenhamland Allowance Scale

Source: http://www.victorianweb.org/

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• By 1853 Manchester had 108 cotton mills.
• Manchester was nicknamed "Cottonopolis," meaning the city of cotton.
• Transportation systems expanded, linking Manchester to all of England.
• Canals, turnpikes, and even the first passenger railway were all built in Manchester.
• In the ten years between 1806 and 1816, the number of warehouses in Manchester soared from 1,000 to 1,819.

Manchester Becomes the International Center of Cotton and Textile Production

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In 1835, French writer and historian Alexis de Tocqueville wrote of Manchester, " A thick black smoke covers the city. The sun appears like a disc without any rays. In this semi-daylight 300,000 people work ceaselessly. A thousand noises rise amidst this unending damp and dark labyrinth...the footsteps of a busy crowd, the crunching wheels of machines, the shriek of steam from the boilers, the regular beat of looms, the heavy rumble of carts, these are the only noises from which you can never escape in these dark half-lit streets..."

Manchester Then and Today

In 1835, French writer and historian Alexis de Tocqueville wrote of Manchester:

"A thick black smoke covers the city. The sun appears like a disc without any rays. In this semi-daylight 300,000 people work ceaselessly. A thousand noises rise amidst this unending damp and dark labyrinth...the footsteps of a busy crowd, the crunching wheels of machines, the shriek of steam from the boilers, the regular beat of looms, the heavy rumble of carts, these are the only noises from which you can never escape in these dark half-lit streets..."

Alexis de Tocqueville

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John Cockerill Brings Industry to Belgium

• John Cockerill (1759–1832) was a British entrepreneur who settled in what is now Belgium.
• He brought British spinning and weaving inventions to Belgium to manufacture cotton textiles for the European market.
• At that time, French emperor Napoleon III was blockading British goods, highly desired in Europe.
• Cockerill also brought technology for making steam engines, iron, cannons, bridges, and locomotives.
• His factories in Verviers and Liege produced iron for railroads throughout Europe.
• Through Cockerill’s enterprise, Belgium became the second industrialized country in Europe.

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• The Coal and Iron Deposits of England
• Map of Coal Centers
• Iron and the Bloomery Method
• Charcoal
• Abraham Darby and Coke
• Production of Coke
• Darby’s Coke Blast Furnace
• Uses of Iron
• Abraham Darby III – The Largest Cast Iron Bridge

Table of Contents

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The Industrial Revolution in England was possible in part because England had abundant supplies of coal and iron.

The Coal and Iron Deposits of England

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Manufacturing centers emerged close to supplies of coal, which they used for energy.

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• During Medieval times, iron was produced in England using the "bloomery method."
• Charcoal, made from trees, was used to smelt the iron from the ore.
• Bellows were used to provide oxygen to the coal, to produce a temperature of 1500° Celsius.
• The resulting product was the production of iron "pigs."
• The introduction of the water wheel to drive the bellows greatly expanded production.
• The need for wood resulted in large-scale deforestation.

Iron and the Bloomery Method

Bellows: A device used to push air.

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Iron Pigs

Smelting: the process of melting iron ore to take out the iron.

Charcoal was made by slowly heating wood to remove the water and leave only the carbon.

http://homepages.tig.com.au/~dispater/blacksmithgallery.htm

Bellows

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• Abraham Darby was a Quaker living in Bristol.
• He began his business by casting iron pots to replace expensive brass pots imported from the Netherlands.
• Darby had the idea to smelt iron using coke, a special form of coal.
• Darby developed a way to produce high-grade iron using coke in a blast furnace.

Abraham Darby and Coke

Quaker: A member of a pacifist group called the Religious Society of Friends.

18^th-Century Bristol

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• Coke is a form of coal produced in an airless oven. The volatile fumes, smoke, and tar are burned away, leaving behind a nearly pure carbon for high-temperature burning.
• Coke was used in malting kilns to produce beer, as it did not leave a smell of sulfur and smoke.
• Darby had experience in using malting kilns, and decided to try using coke in blast furnaces for iron.

Production of Coke

Raw Coke

Coke Kiln

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Coalbrookdale by Night

by Philip James de Loutherbourg

• Darby bought an old blast furnace in Coalbrookdale, England.
• He successfully produced high-grade iron using the coke process in 1709.
• Darby’s innovation allowed for the mass production of iron using coal instead of trees.
• Iron became a key material in the Industrial Revolution.

Darby’s Coke Blast Furnace

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• Iron was used to construct the frames of textile mills and other large buildings to help protect them from fire.
• Iron was also widely used for building machinery, including spinning and weaving machines in the textile mills.
• Iron was used to make rivets, chains, railway couplings, water and steam pipes, boilers for steam engines, rails for trains and bridges.

The U.S. Capitol dome, built in 1866, is framed in cast iron.

Iron Weaving Machines

Uses of Iron

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Abraham Darby III – The Largest Cast Iron Bridge

• Abraham Darby III, the grandson of Abraham Darby, continued the family business in Coalbrookdale.
• He built the largest cast iron bridge of his time in 1779.

Darby’s cast iron bridge in Telford, England,

1779 and present.

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• Steam Coaches
• Matthew Murray
• George Stephenson
• The Rainhill Trials of 1829
• Liverpool and Manchester Railway
• The Thames Tunnel
• America’s Transcontinental Railway
• The Trans-Siberian Railway
• Otto, Daimler, and the Internal Combustion Engine
• Road Construction Pioneers

• Turnpike Trusts
• Canals in England
• The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct
• Canal du Midi in France
• The Suez Canal
• Clipper Ships
• Robert Fulton’s Steamboat
• Steamships Cross the Atlantic
• Iron Ships
• Commodore Perry Opens Japan to America

Table of Contents

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This comic depicting two large steam coaches demonstrates the public’s doubts about their safety.

Steam Coaches were an early potential competitor to trains. However, the danger of steam engine explosions and other safety issues made them impractical.

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• Matthew Murray (1765– 1826) designed and built the first commercial steam locomotive, called the Salamanca, in 1812.
• It ran on a toothed track (rack railway).
• The train was used to transport coal from Leeds to the colliery in Middleton, a distance of four miles.

Matthew Murray

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George Stephenson

• George Stephenson (1781–1848) was an English engineer.
• He built the first fully locomotive rail line in 1819, to haul coal.
• It was eight miles long.
• In 1825 he built the Stockton-Darlington line using wrought-iron rails.
• He demonstrated that it was economical for locomotives to transport coal.
• The gauge (distance between rails) he used became the world-wide standard.

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• The city of Manchester had grown to be the center of the textile industry in the United Kingdom, while Liverpool was the nearest large port city.
• Investors decided to build a railway connecting the two cities.
• They held a competition at Rainhill to decide which type of locomotive engine to use. Each locomotive had to haul three times its weight at a minimum of 10 miles per hour.
• Locomotives were limited to six tons to avoid breaking the tracks.
• Only three locomotives competed: the Sans Pareil, the Novelty, and the Rocket, built by George Stevenson.
• Stevenson’s Rocket won the competition.

The Rainhill Trials of 1829

Stevenson’s Rocket

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The Novelty

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Liverpool and Manchester Railway

• The Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR), built by George Stephenson, opened on September 15, 1830.
• It was the world’s first city-to-city passenger railway.
• It was 31 miles long and was built with two sets of parallel tracks.
• The railway was built to transport textiles and cotton between Liverpool and Manchester.
• However, people soon found that its great speed of 17 miles per hour made it convenient for passenger travel.

Opening Day of L&MR Entrance to Water Street Station, Manchester

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• The Thames Tunnel was the world's first underwater tunnel.
• Construction began in 1825 and finished in 1843.
• The tunnel runs for 1300 feet beneath the River Thames in London.
• It was first used for pedestrians, but was switched to rails in 1865.
• It is now part of the London Underground subway system.

The Thames Tunnel

Clockwise: Construction, Side View, Pedestrians, Railway, Subway

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• Railways transformed industry across the world, connecting raw materials with manufacturing centers.
• The greatest railway accomplishment of the Industrial Revolution was the Transcontinental Railroad in the United States, connecting the eastern seaboard of the US with California on the Pacific coast.
• It was completed on May 10, 1869, at Promontory Summit, Utah.
• The railway ran between Omaha, Nebraska, and Sacramento, California, with 1,777 miles of track. At Omaha, a bridge built over the Missouri River in 1872 connected it to eastern rail lines.

America’s Transcontinental Railway

Promontory Summit, Utah

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The Trans-Siberian Railway

• The Trans-Siberian Railroad was begun in 1891 under Tsar Alexander III.
• It was built to link St. Petersburg (then the Russian capital) to the Pacific port city of Vladivostok, Siberia, totaling 6,116 miles (5,785 miles from Moscow).
• The first section, crossing through Manchuria, was completed in 1904. A second section, built entirely in Russia, was completed in 1916.
• The railroad transported over 2.5 million landless Russian migrants to Siberia during 1906-1911.

Moscow

Vladivostok

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• Nikolaus August Otto (1832–1891) was a German inventor who built the first practical four-stroke internal combustion engine.
• He began production of his engine in 1868.
• Gottlieb Daimler became partners with Otto in 1872 and went on to found Daimler Motors.
• Daimler built and patented the first motorcycle in 1885.
• Karl Benz, using Otto’s engine, built and patented the first commercial automobile in 1886.

Otto, Daimler, and the Internal Combustion Engine

Benz

Otto

Four-Stroke Engine

First Motorcycle

First

Car

Daimler

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Thomas Telford (1757–1834) was a Scottish stonemason, architect and civil engineer. He was responsible for building roads and canals throughout Scotland and England. His constructions linked many industries, such as ironworks and collieries. He was nicknamed the "Colossus of Roads."

John Loudon McAdam (1756–1836) was a Scottish engineer and road builder. He developed a process for building roads with a smooth hard surface called macadam. It consisted of three layers of stones and was graded for drainage. His all-weather road, called a tarmac, was coated with tar.

Road Construction Pioneers

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Turnpike Trusts

• Turnpike trusts in the United Kingdom were agencies set up by an act of Parliament that were responsible for maintaining roads through the collection of tolls.
• The first turnpikes were set up in the early 1700s, and covered the Great Roads leading out of London.
• By 1825, there were over 1000 trusts responsible for maintaining nearly 18,000 miles of turnpike road in England and Wales.
• At times turnpike trusts charged excessive tolls. This led to the Rebecca Riots against tolls in Wales between 1839 and 1844.
• Railways made many turnpike trusts go bankrupt in the 19th century.

The Great North Road

Rebecca Riots

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• From 1760 to 1790, over 4,000 miles of canals were built in England.
• The most famous of these was the Bridgewater Canal, built by engineer James Brindley for the Duke of Bridgewater in 1761.
• Barges moved coal from the Duke’s mines in Worsley to his factories in Manchester.
• The mines had over 46 miles of underground canals used to transport coal to the surface.

James Brindley

Canals in England

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The Manchester Ship Canal and Railway connected Manchester to the port at Liverpool.

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• The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, completed in 1805, was a technological achievement. Using a cast iron trough, it acts like a bridge to move water and ships over the River Dee in England.
• It was designed by Thomas Telford and William Jessop.
• The aqueduct is 1,007 feet long.
• Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct

Thomas Telford

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• The Canal du Midi in France was completed in 1681, connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea.
• Construction of the canal was overseen by Pierre-Paul Riquet.
• The canal allowed commercial traffic to bypass the warships of Spain and the pirates of the Barbary Coast.
• The Canal du Midi was the first canal ever built using a tunnel through a mountain.
• The canal was also the first to use its own reservoir to provide water for the 103 locks used to climb 109 meters.

Canal du Midi in France

Canal Lock and Tunnel

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The Suez Canal

• The original Suez Canal existed as far back as the 13^th century BCE, during the time of Ramesses II.
• The 101-mile canal connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.
• The canal allows ships to travel from Europe to Asia without going around Africa.
• The Suez Canal was rebuilt by the French Suez Canal Company in 1869.
• In 1888 the canal was declared a neutral zone for all nations of the world and was placed under the protection of the British.

Red

Sea

Mediterranean

Sea

Canal Construction, 1869

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• Clipper ships were small, fast cargo sailing ships used in the first half of the 19^th century.
• Their speed was two to three times faster than that of larger traditional merchant sailing vessels.
• They were built to carry high- value, low-volume cargo such as tea, coffee and spices, as well as passengers and mail.
• Donald McKay was the most successful clipper ship builder.
• One of his ships, the Flying Cloud, sailed from New York to San Francisco, around South America, in 89 days.
• Clipper ship construction declined rapidly after 1860 due to competition from steam-powered vessels.

Clipper Ships

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Robert Fulton’s Steamboat with James Watt’s Steam Engine

• Robert Fulton (1765–1815) built the first commercial steamboat, called the Clermont, in 1807. It used James Watt’s steam engine.
• The Clermont carried passengers between New York City and Albany, New York.
• Fulton also designed the first practical submarine, the Nautilus, for Napoleon Bonaparte.
• Before the Clermont, Scottish engineer William Symington had developed steam paddleboats to move coal along English canals.
• The first steamship was built by Marquis Claude de Jouffroy in 1774.

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• The first steam-powered ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean was the paddle-steamer SS Savannah in 1819.
• The Savannah traveled from Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool, England, in 29 days.
• The Savannah also had sails to use on windy days. The paddle wheels could collapse when the ship was under sail.
• The SS Great Western was built in 1837 for Atlantic voyages.
• It was built of steel-strapped oak planks and had four auxiliary masts for wind power.
• In 1838 the Great Western crossed the Atlantic under sustained steam power in 15 days.

Steamships Cross the Atlantic

SS Savannah

SS Great Western

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• The first iron steamship, the SS Aaron Manby, was built in England in 1822 by Admiral Charles Napier.
• It crossed the English Channel from London to Paris and was then put into service on the River Seine.
• The SS Great Britain, built in 1843, was an iron steamship built to cross the Atlantic. It was the largest ship of its time.
• The SS Great Britain used a propeller for propulsion, but was also equipped with sails.
• The SS Great Britain crossed the Atlantic in 14 days.

Iron Ships

Admiral Charles Napier

Launching of the SS Great Britain

Propeller

Stern of the

SS Great Britain

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• Coal-fired paddle steamers were used by the United States Navy to open negotiations with Japan and other Pacific countries.
• The fleet was led by Commodore Matthew Perry.
• The Japanese called them "The Black Ships" due to their black color and the black smoke pouring from their smokestacks.
• The impressive paddle fleet allowed Admiral Perry to negotiate a trade agreement, the Convention of Kanagawa, with the Japanese.
• The treaty ended Japan’s two-hundred-year exclusive agreement with the Dutch and Portuguese.

Commodore Perry Opens Japan to America

Steamer Warship

USS Mississippi (foreground)

Commodore Perry

*

• The Factory System
• Strict Discipline and Long Hours
• The Truck System
• Child Labor
• Children in the Coal Mines
• Labor Commissions and Testimonies
• Labor Laws
• Coal Dust and Black Lung Disease
• Brown Lung Disease

Table of Contents

*

The Factory System

• The factory system is a method of manufacturing developed in England during the Industrial Revolution.
• The factory system spread to Belgium, America, and the rest of Europe.
• In the factory system, each worker is responsible for a specific part of the manufacturing process, rather than the entire product.
• Specialized workers become more efficient at their tasks.
• Workers are paid by wage (rather than by the piece).
• The machines are located at a factory.
• All the processes of production take place under one roof.

*

Strict Discipline and Long Hours

Before the factory system, people worked seasonally in the putting-out system.

The factory system required hard work to be performed daily and on a strict schedule.

Workers were expected to do their jobs 12 to 16 hours a day.

Failure to do the job resulted in loss of wages, corporal punishment, and being fired.

*

• Factory owners kept tight control over their workers using the "truck system."
• Factory employees received their wages in script and tokens, rather than money.
• The tokens could only be used at the factory "truck shop."
• Factory owners sold low-quality goods at high prices in exchange for the tokens.
• Parliament passed several "Truck Acts" requiring employers to pay their workers in English currency.

The Truck System

Script Used by a Georgia Mine

English Collier "Shop Ticket"

*

Child Labor

Young

Coal

Miners

• Children had worked in the putting-out system under the supervision of their families.
• The factory system changed the way children worked.
• There were no laws regulating child labor.
• Children were paid less than adults and made to work in small, dangerous places.
• Factory owners preferred to use children because they cost less and could be easily controlled.

*

• Boys and girls were hired by colliers to work in small, narrow mine shafts.
• They were used as "drawers" to pull tubs of coal through narrow shafts.
• The children pushing the tub were called "thrusters." They often had bald spots on their heads from the tub.
• They were given candles for light and worked 12 hours a day.
• Boys and girls as young as three years old would work in teams.
• Small children were used to open doors, allowing the carts to pass through.

Children in the Coal Mines

*

Labor Commissions

"My father has been dead about a year; my mother is living and has ten children, five lads and five lasses; the oldest is about thirty, the youngest is four; three lasses go to mill; all the lads are colliers…I go to pit at 5 o'clock in the morning and come out at 5 in the evening; I get my breakfast, porridge and milk, first; I take my dinner with me, a cake, and eat it as I go; I do not stop or rest at any time for the purpose, I get nothing else until I get home, and then have potatoes and meat, not every day meat…the bald place upon my head is made by thrusting the corves."

Government labor commissions were set up to investigate labor abuses in the new factory system. The Ashley Mines Commission of 1842 interviewed Patience Kershaw, a girl of 17, who worked in the mining pit. Her testimony, and that of others like her, led to labor laws to protect workers.

http://www.redcross.org/museum/history/cherryHill.asp

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"I'm a trapper in the Gawber pit. It does not tire me, but I have to trap without a light and I'm scared. I go at four and sometimes half past three in the morning, and come out at five and half past. I never go to sleep. Sometimes I sing when I've light, but not in the dark; I dare not sing then. I don't like being in the pit. I am very sleepy when I go sometimes in the morning. I go to Sunday-schools and read Reading made Easy. [She knows her letters, and can read little words.] They teach me to pray. [She repeated the Lord's Prayer, not very perfectly, and ran on with the following addition:] ‘God bless my father and mother, and sister and brother, uncles and aunts and cousins, and everybody else, and God bless me and make me a good servant. Amen.’ I have heard tell of Jesus many a time. I don't know why he came on earth, I'm sure, and I don't know why he died, but he had stones for his head to rest on. I would like to be at school far better than in the pit."

Testimony of Sarah Gooder, Age 8

http://www.victorianweb.org/history/ashley.html

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"I was married at 23, and went into a colliery when I was married. I used to weave when about 12 years old; can neither read nor write. I work for Andrew Knowles… and make sometimes 7 shillings a week, sometimes not so much. I am a drawer, and work from 6 in the morning to 6 at night. Stop about an hour at noon to eat my dinner; have bread and butter for dinner; I get no drink. I have two children, but they are too young to work. I worked at drawing when I was in the family way… I have a belt round my waist, and a chain passing between my legs, and I go on my hands and feet. The road is very steep, and we have to hold by a rope; and when there is no rope, by anything we can catch hold of. There are six women and about six boys and girls in the pit I work in; it is very hard work for a woman. The pit is very wet where I work, and the water comes over our clog-tops always, and I have seen it up to my thighs; it rains in at the roof terribly. My clothes are wet through almost all day long... I am very tired when I get home at night; I fall asleep sometimes before I get washed. I am not so strong as I was, and cannot stand my work so well as I used to."

Testimony of Betty Harris, Age 37

*

"The employment of females of any age in and about the mines is most objectionable, and I should rejoice to see it put an end to; but in the present feeling of the colliers, no individual would succeed in stopping it in a neighborhood where it prevailed, because the men would immediately go to those pits where their daughters would be employed

[to put them back to work]. The only way effectually to put an end to this and other evils in the present colliery system is to elevate the minds of the men; and the only means to attain this is to combine sound moral and religious training and industrial habits with a system of intellectual culture much more perfect than can at present be obtained by them."

Thomas Wilson, Esq., Owner of Three Collieries:

On the Employment of Women

*

• "I object on general principles to government interference in the conduct of any trade, and I am satisfied that in mines it would be productive of the greatest injury and injustice."
• "I should also most decidedly object to placing collieries under the present provisions of the Factory Act with respect to the education of children employed therein."
• "First, if it is contended that coal-owners, as employers of children, are bound to attend to their education, this obligation extends equally to all other employers…."
• "Secondly, if the legislature asserts a right to interfere to secure education, it is bound to make that interference general…."
• "Thirdly, because the mining population is in this neighborhood so intermixed with other classes… that it would be impossible to provide separate schools for them."

Thomas Wilson, Esq., Owner of Three Collieries:

On Government Interference

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• Starting in 1802, Parliament began to pass labor laws protecting adults and children.
• The Factory Act of 1802 made employers responsible for the cleanliness of their factories, and stated that children were to be given two sets of clothes, provided with education, and could work no more than 12 hours a day.
• The 1819 Cotton Mills and Factories Act made nine years the legal minimum age of employment.
• The Factory Act of 1833 stated that children ages 14-18 could not work more than 12 hours a day, with a one-hour lunch break.
• Children ages 9-13 were not to work more than 8 hours, with a one-hour lunch break.
• Children ages 9-13 were also required to receive two hours of education per day.

Labor Laws

*

• The Factory Act of 1844 limited the time children ages 9-13 could work to six hours per day.
• The Factory Act of 1850 stated that children and women could only work from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. in the summer and 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. in the winter, ending at 2 p.m. on Saturdays.
• The Factory Act of 1874 reduced the workday in the textile industry to nine and a half hours.
• The Factory and Workshop Act of 1878 extended the law to all trades. No child anywhere under the age of 10 was to be employed. Education was made compulsory for children up to 10 years old. Children ages 10-14 could only work half days.
• The Factory Act of 1891 raised the minimum age for children’s employment to eleven.

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Coal Dust and Black Lung Disease

• Black lung disease, also known as coal workers' pneumoconiosis (CWP), is a serious danger to coal miners.
• It is caused by long-term exposure and inhalation of coal dust.
• Coal dust accumulates in the lungs and causes inflammations, fibrosis and eventually necrosis (destruction of lung tissue).
• Eventually it will lead to disability and death.

*

Brown Lung Disease

• Byssinosis, also called brown lung disease, is a lung disease caused by exposure to cotton dust.
• This disease was common during the Industrial Revolution.

• It affected young girls working in mills and other textile factories.
• Brown lung disease causes destruction of lung tissue, leading to death from infection or respiratory failure.

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• Poor Laws
• Paris Becomes a Modern City
• Suffrage: The Right to Vote in the UK and USA
• The Luddites
• Reform in Parliament
• The Chartist Movement
• The Rise of Trade Unions

​

• Living Conditions
• Cholera, Tuberculosis, and Life Expectancy
• The Salvation Army
• The Social Gospel, Work Ethic and Max Weber
• The Methodist Church and Social Justice
• Universal Public Education

Table of Contents

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Poor Laws

• The Poor Laws were passed to provide relief for the poor in England in 1601.
• The laws provided community assistance for the ill, the elderly, the helpless, the long-term unemployed, and the homeless.
• Relief for the poor was organized according to church parish, an administrative district in England.
• Local residents paid taxes to support poor relief.
• The Poor Laws were reformed in 1834 due to corruption and abuse.
• Assistance was made available only through workhouses.
• The 1834 reforms forced the rural poor to move to cities.
• Urban workers protested the change, fearing competition for their jobs.

Poverty in London

Mealtime in a Poor House

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Paris Becomes a Modern City

• In 1852, Napoleon III, the first president and last emperor of France, commissioned Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann to modernize the city of Paris.
• The center of Paris was transformed. Impoverished slums with dark, narrow streets were replaced by a modernist city of wide boulevards, parks, and monuments.
• Working-class neighborhoods were moved outside of the city next to the factory districts.

Slum: A part of a city marked by poverty and poor living conditions.

Modernism: A way of thinking that emerged in the nineteenth century, valuing rational behavior and individualism.

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Suffrage: The Right to Vote in the UK and USA

• Before 1832, only free men with property were allowed to vote in England.
• Reform Act, 1832 – Extended voting rights to adult males who rented certain types of land. One in seven men could now vote.
• Reform Act, 1867 – Included rural male residents. Extended voting to 60% of all men.
• Representation of the People Act, 1918 – Extended the vote to all men over 21, and to women over 30 with property.
• Representation of the People Act, 1928 – All men and women over 21.
• Representation of the People Act, 1969 – All men and women over 18.

• Voting rights in America were initially determined by the individual states.
• Constitutional amendments were later written to make voting fair.
• 15th Amendment (1870) – No law may restrict members of any race from voting.
• 19th Amendment (1920) –Voting rights for women.
• 23rd Amendment (1961) – Allows residents of the District of Columbia to vote for president and vice-president.
• 24th Amendment (1964) –Prohibits poll taxes and any other type of voting tax.
• 26th Amendment (1971) – Lowered voting age to 18.

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The Luddites

• The Luddite movement began in 1811 as a social reaction against the changes that the factory system brought to England.
• The movement was named after Ned Ludd, or "King Ludd," a popular folk character who was said to have destroyed textile machinery.
• New machinery requiring unskilled labor replaced many of the textile workers employed in the putting-out system.

• The Luddites protested by destroying machinery at textile mills.
• At one point the British government had to call on the army to suppress the Luddites.
• Today the term Luddite is used to describe anyone opposed to technological progress and change.

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• Charles Grey, the second Earl Grey (1764–1845), was a member of the British Whig Party and prime minister of England in 1830.
• The Whig Party supported constitutional monarchy and was opposed to absolute rule.
• The Whigs were opposed by the Tories, who believed in hereditary succession and the rule of kings.
• Grey fought for the passage of the Reform Act of 1832, which granted representation in the House of Commons to the many new industrial and manufacturing cities.
• Before the Reform Act, new cities were not included in national elections.
• The act gave more men the right to vote, but specifically banned women from voting.
• Grey’s government was also responsible for the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire in 1833.
• Earl Grey tea is named for him.

Reform in Parliament

House of Commons,

1800s

*

• The Chartists were a social movement supporting universal male suffrage.
• The limited voting rights included in the Reform Act of 1932, combined with a downturn in the economy and high inflation, prompted the Chartists to call for political changes and a repeal of the 1834 Poor Law Act.
• On April 10, 1848, the Chartists organized a mass meeting to present a petition to Parliament.
• The size of the protest forced Parliament to recognize the needs of the workers.
• Over time, most of the reforms sought by the Chartists were carried out.

The Chartist Movement

Chartists,

April 10, 1848

Chartist Riot

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• The factory system led to the separation of workers from their employers.
• The earlier apprentice system had encouraged a paternal relationship between apprentices and master craftsmen.
• Under the factory system, workers had no rights and would be fired if they protested or complained.
• Workers began to organize into trade unions. These are organizations of workers with similar types of jobs.
• Trade unions organize to obtain better working conditions and fair wages for workers.
• Trade unions use the threat of work stoppage, or strike, to make employers accept their demands.

The Rise of Trade Unions

Port of Bristol

Working-Class Home

*

• Unions and strikes were made illegal in England by the Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800.
• Trade unions were also illegal under English Common Law, which condemned them as "conspiracies" of workers trying to influence prices and wages.
• The Combination Acts were repealed in 1824 and trade unions were made legal, although severely restricted in their rights.
• Trade unions were made fully legal by 1875, and given the same rights as any other civil organization.

The Peterloo Massacre of August 16, 1819, was the result of a cavalry charge into the crowd at a public meeting at St. Peter's Fields, Manchester, England.

*

Living Conditions

​

​

• Living conditions differed greatly between the wealthy, the middle class and the poor.
• The wealthy lived on large estates with many rooms, extensive gardens, and many servants.
• The growing middle class of lawyers and other professionals lived in large homes staffed by paid housekeepers.
• The poor lived in very crowded houses and tenements along narrow streets.
• The poor shared toilets; sewers were open to the air.
• Deadly diseases such as cholera and typhoid were common due to contaminated water shared at public water supplies.

Poor

Middle

Wealthy

*

*

Cholera, Tuberculosis, and Life Expectancy

Control of cholera, tuberculosis and other infectious diseases has led to an increase in the average life expectancy in humans.

Cholera is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. It is generally spread through contaminated water. If untreated, death will occur from dehydration due to diarrhea.

Tuberculosis is a common but deadly infectious disease caused by bacteria. It is spread person-to-person from coughing. Tuberculosis most commonly infects the lungs. Death occurs due to the destruction of lung tissue.

The Public Feared Cholera

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The Salvation Army

• The Salvation Army is a Christian charity and religious organization founded by former Methodist minister William Booth and his wife Catherine in 1865.
• It began as the Christian Mission, helping the poor, destitute and homeless in London's impoverished East End.
• In 1878, Booth reorganized the mission into a military-style organization, with officers, ranks, and himself as general.
• Today the Salvation Army offers relief services worldwide.
• Its mission is to relieve poverty and to promote the Christian religion.

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The Social Gospel, Work Ethic and Max Weber

• The concept of the Protestant work ethic arose during the Victorian era (1837–1901) in England.
• The work ethic is a set of values based on hard work, faith and diligence.
• Sociologist Max Weber wrote that Protestantism favored the rational pursuit of economic gain.
• In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, he argued for the importance of religious beliefs in Europe’s economic development.

• The Social Gospel was a 19^th- century Protestant intellectual movement that called on Christians to end poverty.
• It addressed issues such as inequality, liquor, crime, racism, slums, health and education.

Gin Lane by

William Hogarth

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The Methodist Church and Social Justice

• John Wesley (1703–1791) was a minister in the Church of England.
• He began the Methodist movement in England in the late 1730s.
• The Methodists were evangelical members of the Church of England.
• Under Wesley, Methodists became social leaders, supporting many issues of social justice, including prison reform and abolitionism.
• Later, Methodism became a separate church with various branches and denominations.

Evangelical: From the Greek "good news," meaning a person or organization who promotes salvation through faith in Jesus Christ.

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Universal Public Education

• A system of universal education was established in Scotland in 1561 during the Scottish Reformation.
• Public education began in England in 1833 when Parliament granted money for the construction of schools for poor children.
• In 1840 Parliament passed the Grammar Schools Act to improve elementary school education.
• In 1880 public education was made compulsory for children ages 5 to 10.
• That age was increased to 13 in 1893.

• Public education for all children in America began with passage of the Land Ordinance of 1785, which set aside a portion of every township for schools.
• Public education was made the responsibility of state legislatures.
• By 1918, every state required all children over age 5 to attend elementary school.

United Kingdom

United States

*

• New Business Organizations
• The Dutch East India Company
• The British East India Company
• Industrialists and Magnates
• Josiah Wedgwood
• John Marshall
• The Lunar Society
• Cartels
• Friedrich and Alfred Krupp

Table of Contents

• John Davison Rockefeller
• Standard Oil: The Great Monopoly
• The Trust Company
• The Holding Company
• Ida Minerva Tarbell
• Anti-Trust Laws

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New Business Organizations

The rise of the corporate model of business organization was an important step in America’s economic development.

*

• The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602, during the age of mercantilism.
• The government of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia.
• It is considered to be the first multinational corporation in the world, and also the first company to issue stock.
• The company was granted the authority to maintain an army, conduct war, make treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.

The Dutch East India Company

The Extent of the Dutch East India Company, with Company Flag

Dutch East India Company Stock Certificate

A corporation is a legal entity which acts as a legal personality, separate from its shareholders.

*

The British East India Company: The World’s Largest Monopoly

• The British East India Company was an early joint-stock company similar to the Dutch East India Company.
• The company traded in cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpeter, tea and opium with British colonies and trading partners.
• It was formed by royal charter in 1600, which provided a 21-year monopoly of trade with the British colony in India.
• The Company went on to establish colonies in British Malaya, Burma, Ceylon, Hong Kong and Singapore.

British East India Company, London

British East India Company Fort in Calcutta, India

*

• Pressure from other entrepreneurs led Parliament to open India to new investment in 1694, ending a 100-year monopoly.
• However, the Company bought out the competition and regained its monopoly by 1708.
• By 1720, the Company controlled all imports from British India, amounting to 15% of total British imports.
• In 1760 Sir Robert Clive led the Company’s army to victory over France and its Indian allies, giving the Company near-complete control over all Indian exports.

Sir Robert Clive

*

• In 1773, to improve the British government’s balance of trade with China, the Company increased its illegal trade in opium from Bengal to China.
• China responded with military action, but was defeated by the British.
• England gained the port city of Hong Kong and stepped up its trade in opium.

Combat at Guangzhou

During Opium Wars

Flag of the British East India Company

Opium is a narcotic drug produced from the sap of the opium poppy.

*

• The British East India Company was responsible for governing Bengal.
• The Company raised land taxes to 50% of agricultural production.
• The Company had a monopoly over rice and controlled its supply.
• The Company left no rice reserves for the Bengali people.
• A three-year drought, from 1778 to 1780, caused widespread famine and starvation.
• An estimated 10 million people – one third of the population – died.

The Bengal Famine

East Bengal, 1860

*

*

• By the middle of the 19^th century, the Company ruled over 1/5 of the world's population.
• Sepoys (Indian soldiers in the Company’s army) revolted against the Company in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
• The revolt forced England to send regular troops to suppress the rebels.
• Because of the revolt, Parliament nationalized the Company in 1858.
• The Company continued in the tea trade until it was dissolved on January 1, 1874.

Indian Rebellion

*

• A business leader with great wealth and power may be called a magnate, mogul, tycoon, baron, or industrialist.
• Charitable business leaders who give large donations to their communities are called philanthropists.
• Business leaders who were thought to have dishonest business practices were called "robber barons."

Industrialists and Magnates

*

Josiah Wedgwood and the Industrialization of Pottery

• Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795) was an English potter who is credited with developing the first pottery factory. He organized his production efficiently into separate processes of milling, molding, firing, and glazing.
• He made effective use of canals to transport both raw materials and finished pottery.
• Wedgwood is noted for the invention of the pyrometer to measure kiln temperatures.
• Wedgwood was an abolitionist and made medallions to support his cause.
• Wedgwood was also a member of the Lunar Society.

Clockwise from Top: Wedgwood, Medallion Art, Queens Ware, Wedgwood's Factory

*

• John Marshall (1765–1845) was a British industrialist.
• He built a water-powered mill in Yorkshire, England, to make linen from flax. Previously Yorkshire had produced linen by hand.
• The design of his largest mill, Temple Works, was based on the temple of Edfu at Horus, Egypt.
• To maintain proper humidity for flax, sheep were set to graze on the grass-covered roof.
• Marshall’s employees worked 72 hours a week.
• Forty percent of his workers were women aged 13 to 20.
• Twenty percent of his workers were children under 13.
• Marshall was considered progressive for his time.
• Corporal punishment of workers was not allowed, and children were provided with free education.

John Marshall

Below: Handmade Linen, Flax, Marshal Mill Interior and Exterior

*

• Social clubs were important in the development of the Industrial Revolution.
• Clubs provided a venue for people to meet and exchange ideas, as well as to make business arrangements.
• The Lunar Society was a dinner club of prominent industrialists and intellectuals who met regularly between 1765 and 1813 in Birmingham, England.
• The club met on full moons to take advantage of the extra moonlight for traveling home.

The Lunar Society met at Erasmus Darwin’s home, Matthew Boulton’s Soho House, and the Great Barr Hall. Members included Josiah Wedgwood, James Watt, Sir Richard Arkwright, and John Wilkinson, as well as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson when they visited England.

The Lunar Society

Soho House

*

Cartels

• One of Germany’s first cartels was in steel production for railroads in the 1850s.
• Germany’s economic boom from 1870 to 1913 led to the formation of many powerful cartels.
• These were based in the coal, steel, and potash industries.
• They grew especially powerful in the early 1900s.
• The purpose of the cartels was to protect Germany’s domestic industries and, later, to dominate European markets.

Cartel: A group of companies working together to control prices and production.

*

• The Krupps were leading industrialists who produced steel and armaments in Germany.
• In 1811 Friedrich Krupp founded Krupp Gusstahlfarbik (Cast Steel Works), producing steel rails.
• His son, Alfred Krupp, improved the steel works and added cast steel cannons to its production.
• Krupp brought his new cannon to the Great Exhibition of 1851 and received international acclaim for his process.
• Krupp created "colonies" for his workers, providing housing, parks, schools and social benefits on the condition that they swore an oath of loyalty to him.

Friedrich and Alfred Krupp

Friedrich Krupp

Alfred Krupp

*

• John Davison Rockefeller, Sr. (1839–1937) was an American industrialist and philanthropist.
• Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company in 1870.
• With the rising popularity of the automobile and sales of gasoline, stocks of Standard Oil skyrocketed in value.
• Rockefeller became the richest man in the world and the first "billionaire" in America.

John Davison Rockefeller

*

Standard Oil: The Great Monopoly

• Standard Oil grew to become the largest oil refining company in America, effectively controlling all oil production in the USA.
• Rockefeller’s strategy was to buy out competing refiners, often by unfairly selling his oil and oil products at prices at or below production costs, forcing his competitors out of business.
• He also demanded discounts from oil shipping companies who relied on Standard Oil’s large volume.

*

• In the US, each state is in charge of its own rules for incorporation.
• In the 19^th century, interstate commerce was also controlled by state governments. This led Standard Oil to operate as different companies in many states.
• In 1882 Standard Oil developed a new form of partnership called the trust company, to manage the shares of stock of all of Standard Oil’s individual companies.
• However, the consolidation of Standard Oil under one company caused public anxiety and controversy. No one trusted a corporation that could control all of one product.

The Trust Company

Standard Oil Refinery, 1899

*

• Newspapers and politicians attacked the monopolistic practices of Standard Oil.
• States such as Ohio began regulating the size of individual companies and trust companies.
• In 1899, Rockefeller placed all of Standard Oil under a holding company.
• At that time Standard Oil controlled 90% of the production of kerosene in America.

The Holding Company

A holding company owns the stock of other companies.

*

Ida Minerva Tarbell (1857–1944) was an investigative reporter.

• Her book The History of the Standard Oil Company exposed the truth about Rockefeller’s unfair practices.
• Chapters of the book were first published by McClure’s Magazine.
• Tarbell was called a muckraker, a term used to describe reporters who expose corruption and other social problems.

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Anti-Trust Laws

• Anti-trust laws were passed in Congress that prohibited single companies from becoming a monopoly, that is, controlling all of the production of a commodity.
• The US Supreme Court convicted Standard Oil of monopolistic practices in 1911 and ordered that it be divided into 34 separate companies.
• Today these companies are known as Conoco, Amoco, Chevron, Exxon, Mobile, and Sohio.

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• Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch
• William Morton, Crawford Long, and the Development of Anesthesia
• Cholera and Epidemiology
• Florence Nightingale
• The Great Physicians of Guy Hospital
• Joseph Lister and Antiseptics
• Aspirin
• Joseph Jackson Lister
• The Sewing Machine
• Isaac Merritt Singer

• Sir Humphry Davy
• Margarine
• Atomic Theory
• Michael Faraday
• Electricity: Volta and Edison
• The Telegraph and Trans-Atlantic Communication
• Radio and Telephone
• Steel
• Elisha Otis and the Elevator
• Louis Sullivan
• The Eiffel Tower
• Paleoanthropology
• Alfred Nobel

Table of Contents

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Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch

• Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist.
• He pioneered the field of germ theory.
• His research led to the reduction of puerperal (childbed) fever.
• He created a vaccine for rabies.
• He developed the process of "pasteurization" which prevents milk and wine from spoiling.

• Robert Koch (1843–1910) was a German physician.
• He is known for discovering the bacteria causing anthrax, Bacillus anthracis (1877), the tuberculosis bacillus (1882), and the cholera vibrio bacteria (1883).
• The medical profession also remembers him for Koch's postulates, guidelines that specify how to establish that an organism is the cause of a disease.
• He received the Nobel Prize in 1905 for his research on tuberculosis.

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William Morton, Crawford Long, and the Development of Anesthesia

• Before the anesthetic property of ether was discovered, a patient undergoing surgery had to endure the pain.
• William Thomas Green Morton successfully demonstrated the use of ether as an inhalation anesthetic at the Massachusetts General Hospital on October 16, 1846.
• Dr. Crawford Williamson Long was the first physician to use ether during surgery, on March 30, 1842.
• Their findings led to the development of anesthesiology and allowed physicians to practice surgery more effectively, with less distress for patients.

Crawford Long

William Morton

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• Before the discovery of germ theory, Dr. John Snow (1813–1858) determined that cholera was caused by contaminated water.
• He studied the pattern of infection during the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak in London.
• He is considered to be one of the first to use epidemiology, the study of the pattern of disease transmission.

Cholera and Epidemiology

Note the clustering of cases.

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Florence Nightingale and Nursing

​

​

• Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) is known as the pioneer of modern nursing.
• She became famous during the Crimean War, when a Times article described her as a "ministering angel" in the British war hospital: "she may be observed alone, with a little lamp in her hand, making her solitary rounds."
• As a result she was nicknamed "The Lady with the Lamp."
• In 1860, Nightingale received funds to set up the Nightingale Training School.
• Her techniques became the basis of modern nursing.
• Her use of hospital statistics demonstrated the benefits of proper hygiene in saving patient’s lives.

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Thomas Hodgkin (1798–1866) identified the cause of Hodgkin's disease, a form of lymphoma and blood disease, in 1832. His methods were among the first of what would become clinical pathology.

Richard Bright (1789–1858) worked at London’s Guy Hospital with Thomas Addison and Thomas Hodgkin. His research into the causes and symptoms of kidney disease led to the identification of Bright's disease.

The Great Physicians of Guy Hospital

Thomas Addison (1793–1860) is remembered for the identification of Addison's disease, which results in the destruction of the adrenal glands. He identified appendicitis, described the actions of many poisons, and contributed to the diagnosis of many other diseases.

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Joseph Lister and Antiseptics

• Joseph Lister (1827–1912) was an English surgeon.
• He promoted the idea of sterilizing surgical equipment before conducting surgery.
• Before his discovery, physicians believed that surgical infections were caused by bad qualities in the air called "miasma."
• Patients often died from gangrene infection caused by unsanitary conditions.
• Lister began experimenting with phenol (carbolic acid) to kill bacteria on surgical equipment, dressings, and wounds.
• His discoveries led to a great reduction in infections from surgery.
• Listerine, made in 1879 as a surgical antiseptic and later as a mouthwash in 1915, is named after Lister.

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Aspirin

• The basic active ingredient of aspirin, known as salicylate, can be found in willow bark.
• In 1763 British chaplain Edward Stone began preparing extracts of willow bark, called salicin, to treat several illnesses.
• The active ingredient of salicin, acetylsalicylic acid, was isolated by French chemist Charles Frederic Gerhardt in 1853.
• Later, in 1897, Felix Hoffmann, a chemist working for Friedrich Bayer & Company, used an original process to synthesize a stable compound of acetylsalicylic acid.
• His formula became the process from which Bayer first produced commercial aspirin.

Hoffmann

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• Joseph Jackson Lister (1786–1869), Joseph Lister’s father, believed that he could improve existing microscopes to provide better resolution for the study of plant and animal cells.
• He worked on developing combinations of lenses that would minimize distortion and allow the greatest magnification.
• His work, published in 1830, led to the perfection of the optical microscope.
• Lister's optical discoveries became the basis of modern microscopic science.

Joseph Jackson Lister

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The Sewing Machine

• Sewing machines revolutionized the process of making fabric into clothes.
• They increasing production and reduced costs for the manufacturer.
• Walter Hunt developed the first sewing machine in 1834, but it was neither patented nor commercially successful. Hunt was also the inventor of many other useful devices, such as the fountain pen and the safety pin.
• Elias Howe is recognized for patenting the first commercially successful sewing machine in 1845.

Top Right: Elias Howe

Below: Howe’s Sewing Machine

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• Isaac Merritt Singer patented many improvements on the sewing machine.
• Having lost a patent claim to Elias Howe, Singer developed the "patent pool," in which competing companies share their patented concepts.
• Singer’s commercial success came from Edward Clark, Singer’s business partner and attorney.
• Clark developed the idea of installment payments, making the sewing machine affordable for everyone.

Isaac Merritt Singer

Right: Isaac Merritt Singer and His Sewing Machine

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• Sir Humphry Davy (1778–1829) was a British chemist and physicist. He is credited with the identification of chlorine as a natural element and invention of the safety lamp.
• The safety lamp, made with a wire shield around the flame, was designed to prevent fires inside the mines.

Sir Humphry Davy’s Safety Lamp

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Margarine

• In 1869, Emperor Napoleon III of France offered a prize for the development of a substitute for butter to be used by the poor living in the cities and by the armed forces, particularly the navy.
• The goal was to make a cheap, long-lasting product that would not spoil like butter.
• Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés won the prize by inventing oleomargarine, later shortened to margarine.
• His invention used beef tallow and skimmed milk, but today margarine is made from a wide range of fats and oils.

Right: Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés, Margarine

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Atomic Theory

In 1869, Russian physicist Dmitri Mendeleev designed a periodic table by arranging elements by weight and valence (number of chemical bonds formed by each atom).

Around 1805 John Dalton, an English physicist, developed an atomic theory which stated that each element is composed of unique atoms. He designed a periodic table to explain his theory.

In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro, by discovering the relationship between gas volumes and pressure, corrected errors in Dalton’s theory. He contributed to the concept of molecular weight.

The discovery of the electron was made in 1897 by J. J. Thomson.

Dalton’s Periodic Table

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Michael Faraday

• Michael Faraday (1791–1867) was an English chemist and physicist.
• Faraday advanced the field of electromagnetism and electric energy.
• He invented simple electric rotary devices which were later developed into electric motors.
• He discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis.
• He is best known for the dynamo, an early electrical generator.
• He is also known for Faraday’s Law, which states that an electrical charge is generated between the ends of an electrical magnetic field when the conductor is in motion.

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Electricity: Volta and Edison

Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) was an Italian physicist known for inventing the first battery, called a voltaic pile, in 1799.

• Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) was an American inventor and businessman.
• He invented the phonograph in 1877.
• Edison was not the first to invent the incandescent lamp (light bulb).
• However, in 1879 he designed and patented a light bulb capable of safe and practical use, using a high-resistance filament and near-vacuum tube.

Edison and the Phonograph

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The Telegraph and Communication

• The first commercial electrical telegraph was built by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in 1837.
• It was used for the Great Western Railway in Britain in 1839 to ensure that trains would not collide.

The Great Western Railway – note the broad-gauge track. This was made obsolete by a parliamentary act establishing standard-gauge track.

Charles Wheatstone also invented the stereoscope.

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The Telegraph and Trans-Atlantic Communication

• Samuel Morse independently invented and patented his telegraph in the United States in 1837.
• He and his assistant, Alfred Vail, developed Morse Code.
• The telegraph allowed high-speed communication over great distances.
• The first transatlantic cable to deliver telegraphic messages was completed in 1866 between Ireland and Newfoundland, Canada.

Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail

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• Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) was an American scientist credited with the invention of the telephone in 1876.
• Both Bell’s mother and wife were deaf, driving his interest in listening devices.
• Bell is also credited with the invention of the metal detector in 1881.

• Marchese Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937) was an Italian inventor who developed radio communication in England in 1897.
• Around the same time, Nicolas Tesla was also transmitting radio communication in the United States.
• Though there is a dispute about which man can be credited with the invention of radio, both men were instrumental in the development and use of radio communication.

Radio and Telephone

Marconi and Tesla

Bell and the Telephone

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Steel

• Benjamin Huntsman’s invention of crucible steel in 1740 tremendously increased steel production.
• Huntsman was a clockmaker in search of better steel for clock springs.
• Unlike forged steel which is hammered, crucible steel is melted in a container (crucible).
• His town of Sheffield became a leading steel-producing city.
• Steel production increased again after Sir Henry Bessemer’s invention of the Bessemer process in 1858.
• He also lived in Sheffield.
• His process drastically lowered the production price of steel, making steel available for more kinds of applications, such as bridges and skyscrapers.

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• Elisha Otis was a master mechanic who developed a safety brake that prevented elevators from crashing.
• The elevator is often credited with making skyscrapers (tall buildings with many floors) possible.
• Before the elevator, buildings were built no taller than six floors.

Elisha Otis and the Elevator

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Louis Sullivan and Skyscrapers

• Louis Henri Sullivan (1856–1924) was an American architect.
• He is considered to be the creator of the modern skyscraper.
• Prior to the use of steel, buildings were limited in height by the thickness of the brick walls used to support the weight of the building.
• The superior strength of steel could support taller buildings.
• The Bessemer process lowered the price of steel, allowing it to be used as a building material.
• The Wainwright Building in St. Louis, designed by Sullivan and completed in 1891, is considered to be the first true skyscraper.

Price of Steel

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The Eiffel Tower

• The Eiffel Tower, designed by Gustave Eiffel, is a symbol of the Industrial Revolution.
• It is built of 7,300 tons of iron.
• It was completed in 1889 as an entry for the Exposition Universelle, the World's Fair commemorating the centennial of the French Revolution.
• On completion, it replaced the Washington Monument as the tallest tower in the world.
• Forty-one years later, the Chrysler Building in New York took the title of world’s tallest tower.

Eiffel Tower Today

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• Paleoanthropology, the study of ancient humans, began with the discovery of fossilized Neanderthal skeletal remains in the Neander Valley in Germany in 1856.
• The bones were given to amateur naturalist Johann Carl Fuhlrott, who brought them to anatomist Hermann Schaaffhausen.
• In 1857 they announced that the fossils belonged to a group of ancient Europeans.
• Since then, over 400 Neanderthal specimens have been found.

Paleoanthropology

Hermann Schaafhausen and Johann Carl Fuhlrott

Neanderthal Skull

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Alfred Nobel

• Alfred Bernhard Nobel (1833–1896) was a Swedish chemist who invented dynamite.
• He went on to found Bofors, a major iron and armament (weapons) manufacturing company.
• Nobel became wealthy from his patents on dynamite and other explosives, as well as from the sales of weapons and munitions.
• Nobel wanted to be remembered for more than his destructive inventions.
• He left his fortune to the establishment of the Nobel Prizes, including a Peace Prize to honor individuals for their contributions to world peace.

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• The Victorian Era
• Etiquette in the Victorian Era
• Courtship and Marriage in the Victorian Era
• Victorian Households
• Capitalism
• Adam Smith and Laissez-Faire
• David Ricardo
• Thomas Malthus and Population Growth
• Charles Darwin

• Alfred Wallace
• Social Darwinism
• Eugenics
• David Hume
• Jeremy Bentham
• John Stuart Mill
• Robert Owen and Socialism
• Utopian Socialism and Anarchism
• Utopian Philosophers and the Social Contract
• Karl Marx

Table of Contents

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• The Victorian era is named after Queen Victoria, the longest-reigning monarch in British history. She held the throne from 1837 to 1901.
• Britain was just beginning to industrialize when Queen Victoria ascended to the throne.
• She reigned through the typhoid and cholera epidemics of the 1830s–1850s.
• During her reign, women gained the legal rights to property, divorce, and custody of children.
• All men over 21 were given the right to vote.

The Victorian Era

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Etiquette in the Victorian Era

• Etiquette is a set of rules used to guide social behavior.
• It refers to the way people are expected to talk, act, and dress when they are together.
• Etiquette was very important in Victorian times. Some rules of etiquette included:
• It is expected that a gentleman stand up the first time a lady enters a room or takes her final leave.
• A man shall remove his hat when talking to a lady.
• A lady never tolerates or performs rudeness, crudeness, indifference or ignorance from or to another human being.

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Courtship and Marriage in the Victorian Era

• Courtship followed very particular rules of etiquette.
• The goal of courtship was to produce a perfect marriage.
• The “language of flowers" was developed to send polite love messages that expressed feelings without using words.
• For example, red roses meant passion and true love; pink roses meant grace and romantic interest; white roses meant virtue and chastity; and yellow roses symbolized friendship.
• A man could also send purple lilacs to suggest his "first emotions of love."

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• Women were expected to take care of their homes and children in a proper, respectable way.
• Rules for running the household were published in 1861 in Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management.
• The guide contained 2,751 rules.
• It included advice about paying servants, cooking meals, recipes, and child care.
• Several million copies were sold.

Victorian Households

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• Capitalism is an economic and social system in which the means of production (factories, machinery, and tools) are privately owned.
• Production is accomplished through the use of wage labor.
• Prices of goods and services are determined by the free market.

Capitalism

• The Industrial Revolution and the factory system spread capitalism across the world.
• Theories about capitalist society were developed by political economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo.

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Adam Smith and Laissez-Faire

• Adam Smith (1723–1790) was a Scottish philosopher and economist.
• His book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations help to end mercantilist policies and began the age of free-market capitalism.
• Smith argued that rational self-interest and competition leads to a balanced economy and prosperity.
• Smith promoted policies of free trade, in which markets are left to balance themselves.
• He called this balancing process the "invisible hand."
• If left alone, he believed, market supply and consumer demand will determine the "natural price" of a commodity.
• Market self-regulation is also called laissez-faire, meaning "let do."

Rational self-interest: One’s actions are aimed at maximizing economic gain.

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David Ricardo

• David Ricardo (1772–1823) was an English political economist who contributed many ideas to free-market economic theory.
• His theory of comparative advantage states that countries should specialize in the most efficient methods and types of production for their resources.
• He was against government intervention and supported free competition.
• He believed that wages should be decided by the market, not by government policy.
• Profit is limited by wages. However, with a strong economy, wages will increase as profits increase.
• Ricardo was against tariffs (taxes on imports), and especially the "corn laws" that were used to protect British feudal landlords by limiting agricultural imports.
• Ricardo supported industrialists who used profits for investments to increase production and benefit the economy.

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• Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) was an English demographer and political economist.
• Malthus is remembered for his views on population growth, expressed in his book An Essay on the Principle of Population.
• Malthus argued that poverty is a natural condition of humanity.
• He noted that population growth occurs after a nation has learned to expand its resources, especially agricultural production.
• Malthus pointed out that populations grow geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.) while food supplies increase only arithmetically (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.).
• He wrote that population growth was controlled by epidemics, famines, or wars, which occur when a nation reaches the limits of its resources.

Thomas Malthus and Population Growth

Food and Population

Growth

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Charles Darwin

• Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882) was an English naturalist who developed the theory of the natural selection of species, commonly known as evolution.
• Darwin traveled for five years on the HMS Beagle as a geologist.
• Darwin's observations of the distribution of plants and animals around the world led him to develop his theory.
• Darwin was encouraged by Alfred Russel Wallace, who was developing a similar theory from his own observations.
• In 1859 Darwin published On the Origin of Species, proposing evolution as the primary cause of natural diversity.

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Alfred Wallace

• Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) was a British naturalist and geographer.
• He studied nature in the Amazon River basin and in the Malay Archipelago.
• He developed a theory of natural selection based on his observations of warning coloration in animals.
• He noted that when the population of a species is separated, it develops into two species. This is now known as the "Wallace effect."
• In 1858 he and Darwin published On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection.
• Wallace was a social activist. He was against free trade policy and promoted land reform for poor and working-class people.
• He opposed the ideas of Social Darwinism.

Right: Amazon Basin

and Malay Archipelago

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• Social Darwinism is the belief that competition between individuals and groups leads to evolution in human societies.
• Herbert Spencer, influenced by the ideas of Thomas Malthus, was the leading advocate of Social Darwinism.
• He coined the phrase "survival of the fittest," and suggested that people and nations evolved in accordance with their morality and character.
• Social Darwinism fit in well with laissez- faire capitalism, and was used to justify the exploitation of the poor and working classes by the wealthy.
• Social Darwinism was rejected by both Darwin and Wallace.

Social Darwinism

Thomas Malthus

Herbert Spencer

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• Eugenics was an extreme form of Social Darwinism advocated by Darwin's cousin Sir Francis Galton.
• Galton believed that society should encourage selective breeding to remove undesirable physical and social traits.
• Eugenics was widely accepted well into the twentieth century, and led to the racial policies of Nazi Germany.

Nazi Poster Separating the Axis from the Allies

Eugenics

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David Hume

• David Hume (1711–1776) was an Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian.
• Hume was particularly interested in the ideas of free will and responsibility.
• Hume argued that people must follow a moral path dedicated to promoting utility in their actions. He believed that an ideal life for an individual was one of hard work and little waste.

• Hume stressed that free will had consequences based on cause and effect. Hard work and good moral character led to success, while laziness and immorality led to failure.
• Hume’s ideas of utility would later influence Jeremy Bentham.
• Hume also argued against mercantilism and influenced Adam Smith.

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• Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) was an English philosopher and social reformer.
• He is known for his concept of utilitarianism, the belief that a person’s actions have moral value (utility).
• The utility of a person’s actions should bring happiness and pleasure to society.
• Bentham supported animal rights, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, the abolition of slavery, equality for women, and free trade.

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think..."

From The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)

Jeremy Bentham

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• John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) was a British philosopher and political economist.
• He built on Jeremy Bentham’s concept of utilitarianism by arguing that some forms of happiness are more valuable than others.
• Mill is known for his ideas about liberty and the power of the society over the individual.
• He developed the "harm" principle, which states that each individual has the right to act as he wishes, so long as these actions do not harm others.
• Mill supported abolitionism, women’s rights and suffrage, compulsory education, the public ownership of natural resources, and equal taxation.

John Stuart Mill

Women could not vote in England until 1928

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• Robert Owen (1771–1858) was a Welsh social reformer.
• He was one of the founders of socialism and the cooperative movement.
• Owen based his philosophy on three fundamental ideas:

1. He believed that society is responsible for human development.

2. He was firmly against religion because it made men weak-minded.

3. He was against the factory system of production.

• In 1825 Owen put his socialist ideas to work by creating two cooperative societies: one at Orbston, near Glasgow, England, and one at New Harmony, Indiana, which was known as the New Harmony Society.
• Within two years both communities failed.

Robert Owen and Socialism

New Harmony, as Envisioned by Owen

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• The word "socialism" was first used in discussions of the Association of All Classes of All Nations, formed by Robert Owen in 1835.
• Owen believed that the state could develop good conduct in individuals.
• Karl Marx referred to Owen’s ideals as "utopian socialism."
• Josiah Warren, a member of the New Harmony Society, wrote that the community did not work because its members lacked personal freedom and private property.
• Warren helped to develop the concept of American individualist anarchism.

Utopian Socialism and Anarchism

Josiah Warren

Karl Marx

Socialism: The state is responsible for production and the welfare of the people.

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John Locke (1632–1704) was an English philosopher. He believed that in a natural state, people are equal and independent and that no one has the natural right to harm anyone else. He also believed that social inequality came with the invention of money. He argued that a social contract exists between the state and the people: the state receives its power through the consent of the people.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1788) was a French philosopher strongly influenced by Locke. He believed that people were naturally good, but that the growth of societies forced them into competition, producing inequality. He claimed that people guaranteed their survival and freedom through social contracts. In The social Contract, he wrote: "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains."

Utopian Philosophers and the Social Contract

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Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825) was a French utopian socialist. He believed that people were ruled by the "hand of greed." He thought that education could change this part of human nature. He also thought that society should be governed by industrialists and scientists who would make decisions for the social good.

Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) was a French anarchist. He believed that the state, capitalism, and the church all limited personal freedom. He felt that workers should own the means of production and that society, organized at the local level, should regulate production.

Utopia: Ideal society

Anarchist: One who believes that people

can and should govern themselves

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Karl Marx

• Karl Heinrich Marx (1818–1883) was philosopher and political economist.
• Marx introduced the world to the ideas of communism.
• He believed that capitalism, filled with social turmoil and injustice, would naturally fail, and would be replaced by a classless society called communism.
• In 1848 he and Friedrich Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto, stating, "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."
• According to Marx, communism would develop after the impoverished workers of world, called the proletariat, came together and revolted against the ruling bourgeoisie (wealthy merchants and industrialists).

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• The Great Exhibition of 1851
• Lord Tennyson’s "Ode"
• The Invention of Photography
• Romanticism
• Romantic Period Writers
• Romantic Period Composers
• Romantic Period Artists
• Impressionism and Post-Impressionism

Table of Contents

• Social Critics
• William Hogarth
• Charles Dickens
• Oliver Twist
• Émile Zola
• Henrik Ibsen
• George Bernard Shaw
• Mary Shelly
• George Sand
• Charlotte Bronte
• Harriet Elizabeth Beecher Stowe

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• The Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park was a demonstration of the greatest achievements of the Industrial Revolution and a symbol of the Victorian age.
• It was housed in the Crystal Palace, a wrought iron and glass building designed by Joseph Paxton. The building was over 500 yards – over five football fields – long.
• More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world participated the exhibition.
• It was held in response to the French Industrial Exposition in Paris of 1844.
• The great Chicago World’s Fair was held in 1893.

The Great Exhibition of 1851

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Excerpt from Lord Tennyson’s

"Ode Sung at the Opening of the International Exhibition"

The world-compelling plan was thine,—�And, lo! the long laborious miles�Of Palace; lo! the giant aisles,�Rich in model and design;�Harvest-tool and husbandry,�Loom and wheel and engin’ry,�Secrets of the sullen mine,�Steel and gold, and corn and wine,�Fabric rough, or Fairy fine,�Sunny tokens of the Line,�Polar marvels, and a feast�Of wonder, out of West and East,�And shapes and hues of Part divine!�All of beauty, all of use,�That one fair planet can produce.� Brought from under every star,�Blown from over every main,�And mixt, as life is mixt with pain,� The works of peace with works of war.

Tennyson, English Poet Laureate, was influenced by the Industrial Revolution.

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The Invention of Photography

Daguerreotype of Jenkins Roberts, the first president of Liberia, by African American photographer Augustus Washington (c.1820–1875)

19^th-Century Studio Camera

The word photography, from the French photographie, comes from the Greek words meaning drawing with light.

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Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (1787–1851) was a French chemist who invented the daguerreotype process of photography. In this process, chemically- treated paper is exposed to light, creating a black and white mirror image.

Joseph Niépce (1765–1833), French, was the inventor of photography. Around 1826 he made the first permanent photographs. He collaborated with Daguerre until his death in 1833.

View from Niépce’s Window, 1826

Boulevard du Temple, c.1838

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William Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877) invented the collotype, a negative/positive process in which the photo not reversed, and is identical to the original image.

The Footman, 1840

The collodion process made photos less expensive and more accurate. It was invented by both Frederick Scott Archer and Gustave Le Gray around 1850 and used until 1890.

Le Gray

Theodore Roosevelt, 1890,

Collodion Process

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• In 1884, George Eastman patented a photographic photo-emulsion coated on paper rolls.
• In 1888, he patented an easy-to-use camera using roll film.
• He founded the Eastman Kodak Company in 1892.

The Modern-Day Roll-Film Camera

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• Romanticism was an artistic movement that began in the middle of the 18^th century.
• It was a reaction to the scientific rationalization of nature and the industrial way of life.
• Romantic artists sought a return to the spiritual and aesthetic qualities of life.
• In literature, Romanticism is identified with William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, William Blake, Goethe, Sir Walter Scott, Alexandre Dumas, Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell and Victor Hugo.
• In music, Romanticism is identified with Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, and Ludwig van Beethoven.
• In art, Romanticism is identified with Francisco Goya, Eugène Delacroix and J.M.W. Turner.

Romanticism

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Excerpt from The Excursion, 1814:

​

Meanwhile, at social Industry's command

How quick, how vast an increase. From the germ

Of some poor hamlet, rapidly produced

Here a huge town, continuous and compact

Hiding the face of earth for leagues – and there,

Where not a habitation stood before,

Abodes of men irregularly massed

Like trees in forests, – spread through spacious tracts.

O'er which the smoke of unremitting fires

Hangs permanent, and plentiful as wreaths

Of vapour glittering in the morning sun.

William Wordsworth (1770–1850) was an English poet.

Romantic Era Writers

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Alexandre Dumas (1802–1870) was a French writer known for his novels The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers.

Excerpt from The Count of Monte Cristo:

"Ah, is it you, Dantes?" cried the man in the skiff.

"What's the matter? and why have you such an air of sadness aboard?"

"A great misfortune, M. Morrel," replied the young man, -- "a great misfortune, for me especially! Off Civita Vecchia we lost our brave Captain Leclere."

"And the cargo?" inquired the owner, eagerly.

"Is all safe, M. Morrel; and I think you will be satisfied on that head. But poor Captain Leclere -- "

"What happened to him?" asked the owner, with an air of considerable resignation.

"What happened to the worthy captain?"

"He died."

"Fell into the sea?"

"No, sir, he died of brain-fever in dreadful agony." Then turning to the crew, he said, "Bear a hand there, to take in sail!"

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Victor Hugo (1802–1885) was a French writer. Among his works are The Hunchback of Notre Dame and Les Miserables.

Excerpt from Les Miserables:

Thanks to the Revolution, social conditions have changed. Feudal and monarchical maladies no longer run in our blood. There is no more of the Middle Ages in our constitution. We no longer live in the days when terrible swarms within made irruptions, when one heard beneath his feet the obscure course of a dull rumble, when indescribable elevations from mole-like tunnels appeared on the surface of civilization, where the soil cracked open, where the roofs of caverns yawned, and where one suddenly beheld monstrous heads emerging from the earth.

"Cosette" from Les Miserables, by Émile Bayard

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George Gordon Byron (1788–1824), known as Lord Byron, was an English poet.

Byron wrote the poem Darkness in 1816, "The Year Without a Summer." That year, the eruption of the volcano Mount Tambora, located in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), poured enough ash into the atmosphere to obscure the sun. No one in Europe understood the cause of the darkness. Some mistakenly thought the darkness was caused by sun spots, which had recently been discovered; others thought it foretold the end of the world.

"The large spots which may now be seen upon the sun's disk have given rise to ridiculous apprehensions and absurd predictions. These spots are said to be the cause of the remarkable and wet weather we have had this Summer; and the increase of these spots is represented to announce a general removal of heat from the globe, the extinction of nature, and the end of the world."

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William Blake (1757–1827) was an English poet, painter and printmaker.

In his etching of Sir Isaac Newton (right), Blake portrayed the mathematician as single-minded, focused on his drawings and not on the world around him.

Excerpt from “The Tiger”:�

Tiger, tiger, burning bright�In the forests of the night,�What immortal hand or eye�Could frame thy fearful symmetry?�

What the hammer? what the chain,�In what furnace was thy brain?�What the anvil? what dread grasp�Dare its deadly terrors clasp?

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Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell (1810–1865) was an English novelist.

Some time in the course of that afternoon, two working men met with friendly greeting at the stile so often named. One was a thorough specimen of a Manchester man; born of factory workers, and himself bred up in youth, and living in manhood, among the mills. He was below the middle size and slightly made; there was almost a stunted look about him; and his wan, colourless face gave you the idea, that in his childhood he had suffered from the scanty living consequent upon bad times and improvident habits. His features were strongly marked, though not irregular, and their expression was extreme earnestness; resolute either for good or evil, a sort of latent stern enthusiasm.

Excerpt from Mary Barton:

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Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881) was a Scottish writer known for his essays and historical works.

It is the Age of Machinery, in every outward and inward sense of that word; the age which, with its whole undivided might, forwards, teaches and practices the great art of adapting means to ends. Nothing is now done directly, or by hand; all is by rule and calculated contrivance.

For the simplest operation, some helps and accompaniments, some cunning abbreviating process is in readiness. Our old modes of exertion are all discredited, and thrown aside. On every hand, the living artisan is driven from his workshop, to make room for a speedier, inanimate one. The shuttle drops from the fingers of the weaver, and falls into iron fingers that ply it faster.

Excerpt from “Signs of the Times”:

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Hymn to the Virgin.

Ave. Maria! maiden mild!

Listen to a maiden’s prayer!

Thou canst hear though from the wild,

Thou canst save amid despair.

Safe may we sleep beneath thy care, Though banished, outcast, and reviled—

Maiden! hear a maiden’s prayer;

Mother, hear a suppliant child!

Ave Maria!

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) was a German writer and poet.

Nothing is more revolting than the majority; for it consists of few vigorous predecessors, of knaves who accommodate themselves, of weak people who assimilate themselves, and the mass that toddles after them without knowing in the least what it wants.

-- From Proverbs in Prose, 1819

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Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) was a German pianist and composer.

Franz Liszt (1811–1886) was a Hungarian pianist and composer. Click to hear the piano suite Au bord d'une source (Beside a Spring).

Romantic Period Composers

Click to hear Sonata No. 15

A suite is a set of instrumental pieces meant to be played together in concert.

A sonata is a composition for one or more instruments, usually in several movements (sections).

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Felix Mendelssohn (1809–1847) was a German Jewish composer, pianist and conductor.

Johannes Brahms (1833–1897) was a German composer.

Click to hear Symphony No. 3

Click to hear Waltz No. 8 for Piano

A symphony is a composition written for an orchestra.

A waltz is a ballroom dance using three steps per measure (3/4 time).

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Franz Peter Schubert (1797–1828) was an Austrian composer. He wrote symphonies, operas, chamber and solo piano music.

Carl Weber (1786–1826) was a German composer, conductor, pianist, guitarist and composer.

A concerto is a composition for a solo instrument accompanied by an orchestra.

Click to hear Ellens dritter Gesang, based on Sir Walter Scott’s Lady of the Lake.

Chamber music is a composition for a small group of musicians.

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Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849) was a Polish pianist and composer.

Right: Chopin by Eugène Delacroix. Below: The polonaise, a Polish dance that changed under Chopin’s influence.

Frédéric Chopin

Click to hear Polonaise No. 6

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Romantic Period Artists

Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851) was an English Romantic landscape painter. Right: Self-Portrait. Below: Rain, Steam, and Speed: The Great Western Railway.

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Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) is considered the most important of the French Romantic painters. Right: Self-Portrait. Below Left: Greece Expiring on the Ruins of Missolonghi. Below Right: Oath of the Horatii.

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Francisco Goya (1746–1828) was a Spanish painter and printmaker. Right: Self-Portrait. Below: The Colossus, 1810.

Paul Gustave Doré (1832–1883) was a French artist. Below: Over London by Rail, 1870.

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Impressionism and Post-Impressionism

• Impressionism began as a reaction against the Academie des Beaux-Arts, which dominated the 19^th-century French art world.
• In 1863, judges for the Academie’s annual art show rejected more than 3,000 paintings, especially those of the young Impressionists.
• Emperor Napoleon III felt that the people of Paris should make up their own minds, and sponsored an alternative exhibition called the Salon of the Refused, featuring the rejected paintings.
• Impressionist artists tried to capture the changing effects of light, making expressive use of color and texture.
• The recent invention of pre-mixed paints in lead tubes gave them the freedom to paint spontaneously.
• Later, the Post-Impressionist painters added new elements to their work, such as Pointillism and Symbolism.

The young Impressionists met at the Café Guerbois.

Napoleon III

Saint Lazare Train Station, by Monet

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Edvard Munch (1863–1944) was a Norwegian painter and printmaker. His art represents a transition from Realism to Impressionism, as seen below.

Above: Self-Portrait

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Left: Spring Day on Karl Johan Street (Norway)

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Claude Monet (1840–1926), French painter and founder of Impressionism

Edgar Degas (1834–1917) was a French artist. Right: Self-Portrait.

Below: Cotton Exchange, 1873.

Below: Impression, Sunrise. Impressionism was named for this painting.

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Georges Seurat (1859–1891) was a French painter. He developed a technique called Pointillism, using small dots of color to form larger images.

Paul Gauguin (1848–1903) was a French Post-Impressionist painter who spent years painting in the South Pacific.

Right: Self-Portrait.

Watermill in Pont-Aven

Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte

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Avenue de l'Opera

Camille Pissarro (1830–1903) was a French painter who influenced the Impressionist as well as Post-Impressionist generations. Right: Self-Portrait.

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Vincent van Gogh

(1853–1890) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter.

Right: Self-Portrait

Below: The Potato Eaters

Mary Stevenson Cassatt (1844–1926) was an American Impressionist painter.

Below: A Cup of Tea

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Social Critics

Many writers challenged the abuses that arose from the Industrial Revolution.

A critic is a person who analyzes, observes, interprets or judges. A critic’s statements are based on personal opinion.

Charles Dickens (above) was a prolific writer and social critic. Top Right: Oliver Twist. Bottom: David Copperfield.

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• William Hogarth (1697–1764) was an English painter and printmaker known for his moralistic and satirical artwork.
• He often made serial pieces, creating several pictures based on the same theme.
• In Marriage à-la-mode, he makes fun of the upper classes who marry for money.
• In his series Industry and Idleness, he depicts the lives of two apprentices: one who works hard, and one who is lazy, lawless, and eventually executed.

William Hogarth, Social Critic

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• Charles Dickens (1812–1870) was an English novelist of the Victorian era.
• His best-known works are Great Expectations, David Copperfield, Oliver Twist, A Tale of Two Cities, and A Christmas Carol.
• His books are social commentaries on England’s poverty, the unjust social class system, and the misery of the poor.

A Christmas Carol is a story of Victorian morality. Ebenezer Scrooge discovers that his obsession with wealth cannot compare to the value of life.

Charles Dickens Was a Social Critic of the Victoria Age

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This novel is about Oliver, an innocent orphan born in a workhouse. He is sold as an apprentice to an abusive overseer. Oliver runs away and is taken in by a thief named Fagin who leads a band of young pickpockets. Oliver is caught presumably stealing and arrested. He is rescued by his alleged victim, Mr. Brownlow, a kindly old gentleman, and Rose Maylie, his estranged aunt. Throughout the novel, Dickens describes the corruption of the workhouse and the unfair treatment and desperation of the poor.

Oliver Twist

Dodger Introduces Oliver to Fagin

Oliver in the Workhouse

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Excerpt from Germinal:

He found himself before the shaft, in the center of a huge hall swept by drafts. Of course he thought of himself as brave, yet an unpleasant emotion caused his throat to contract among the thundering of the carts, the clanking of the signals, the muffled bellowing of the megaphone, facing the continuously flying cables, unrolling and rolling up again at top speed on the spools of the machine. The cages rose and fell, slithering like some nocturnal animal, continually swallowing men that the hole seemed to drink down. It was his turn now. He was very cold.

Émile Zola (1840–1902), French Naturalist Writer

Zola, by Édouard Manet

Naturalism, also known as Realism, was a rejection of Romanticism and an attempt to show real life, especially its darker sides, and the forces influencing characters’ actions.

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Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906) was a Norwegian realist poet and playwright.

Helmer. Do I need to tell you that? Are they not your duties to your husband and your children?

Nora. I have other duties just as sacred.

Helmer. That you have not. What duties could those be?

Nora. Duties to myself.

Helmer. Before all else, you are a wife and a mother.

Nora. I don't believe that any longer. I believe that before all else I am a reasonable human being, just as you are -- or, at all events, that I must try and become one. I know quite well, Torvald, that most people would think you right, and that views of that kind are to be found in books; but I can no longer content myself with what most people say, or with what is found in books. I must think over things for myself and get to understand them.

Excerpt from A Doll’s House. Nora, has learned that her husband, Torvold Helmer, does not respect her.

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• George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950) was an Irish playwright, novelist and essayist.
• Shaw was a powerful critic of the society created by Industrial Revolution.
• He portrayed the upper and middle classes as fighting against the lower classes in a struggle for survival.
• He criticized democracy because he felt that the uneducated poor could not understand what they were voting for.
• He claimed that private ownership of land was a form of theft and advocated land reform, but believed in gradual change rather than Marxist revolution.
• Shaw belonged to the Fabian Society, a socialist organization that helped found the UK Labour Party in 1900.
• He was an extreme believer in eugenics.

George Bernard Shaw, Social Critic

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Mary Shelley (1797–1851) was a British writer.

Shelley’s novel Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is considered by many to be a warning about the uncontrolled scientific advances and dehumanizing conditions brought about by the Industrial Revolution. In the story, the creature is built, like a machine, by Dr. Victor Frankenstein.

"The dissecting room and the slaughterhouse furnished many of my materials; and often did my human nature turn with loathing from my occupation, whilst, still urged on by an eagerness which perpetually increased, I brought my work near to a conclusion."

Right, From Top: Mary Shelly, Boris Karloff as Frankenstein (1931), Original Cover Art

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Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin (1804–1876), known by her pseudonym George Sand, was a French novelist.

George Sand, by Eugène Delacroix

Excerpt from The Devil’s Pool:

The man of toil, for his part, is too crushed, too wretched, and too frightened concerning the future, to enjoy the beauties of the landscape and the charms of rustic life. To him also the golden fields, the lovely meadows, the noble animals, represent bags of crowns, of which he will have only a paltry share, insufficient for his needs, and yet those cursed bags must be filled every year to satisfy the master and pay for the privilege of living sparingly and wretchedly on his domain.

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Charlotte Brontë (1816–1855) was a British novelist, as were her sisters Emily and Anne. Her most famous novel is Jane Eyre, about the adventures of an English orphan girl.

Excerpt from Jane Eyre:

On that same occasion I learned, for the first time, from Miss Abbot’s communications to Bessie, that my father had been a poor clergyman; that my mother had married him against the wishes of her friends, who considered the match beneath her; that my grandfather Reed was so irritated at her disobedience, he cut her off without a shilling; that after my mother and father had been married a year, the latter caught the typhus fever while visiting among the poor of a large manufacturing town where his curacy was situated, and where that disease was then prevalent: that my mother took the infection from him, and both died within a month of each other.

Curacy:

An office

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Harriet Elizabeth Beecher Stowe (1811–1896) was an American writer and abolitionist.

In 1851, Stowe wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a novel about the horrors of life as a slave. She was inspired to write after the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. She researched the realities of slavery and interviewed fugitive slaves. By 1854, Uncle Tom’s Cabin had been translated into 60 different languages.

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U.S. History PowerPoint presentations

Colonization to Reconstruction: Early U.S. Review

Colonial Era

American Revolution

The New Nation: Washington to J.Q. Adams

First Industrial Revolution in America: 1790-1860

Slavery

Westward Movement

Expansion and Reform: 1820-1860

Causes of the Civil War

Civil War

Reconstruction

Miners, Ranchers, Farmers, and Native Americans: 1865-1900

Rise of Industrial America

Response to Industrialism

Immigration and Urbanization

America becomes a world power: Imperialism

The Progressive Era

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The U.S. and World War One

1920s

Great Depression and New Deal: 1930s

Causes of World War Two

World War Two

1950s

1960s

Civil Rights Movement

Cold War: Truman to Kennedy

Cold War: Johnson to the fall of the Berlin Wall

Vietnam

Late History Overview: 1970s, 1980s, 1990s

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World History PowerPoint presentations:

Kingdoms and Empires in the Fertile Crescent: Sumer to Persia

Ancient Egypt: Neolithic to Roman Conquest

Aegean Civilizations

Ancient Rome

Medieval Europe

Black Death and other great pandemics

India, and Southeast Asia

History of Africa

Mesoamerican and Andean Civilizations

Islamic Civilization

China: Ancient Civilization to the Communist

The Conquest of Mexico

The Renaissance

Enlightenment

The Industrial Revolution

French Revolution

European Imperialism 1800-1914

Nationalism in Europe 1830-1914

World War I

Europe Between the Wars: 1919-1939

World War II

HMS Historical Media, a division of Multimedia Learning, LLC, has 26 classroom ready historical simulation games available on various topics.

Please visit our website which contains sample slides from all of our PowerPoint presentations: www.multimedialearning.org

We send out monthly newsletters containing free downloads to subscribers. If you are connected to the internet simply click on the on the following link: Sign up to receive our email newsletter containing specials and free downloads If you are not on the internet, please visit our homepage at www.multimedialearning.org and sign up.