BUILDING SCIENCE.�FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH OFFICERS.

COURSE CODE: BST211

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BEAM.�Is a structural element which is capable of standing load primarily by resisting bending.

UNIT 1; BEAMS

BEAMS

• Bending force is induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external load, on weight, span and external reaction to this load is called bending moment.
• Beams can be classified into 4 main types according to their criteria. And these are;
• Beam based on geometry,
• Beam based on the cross section
• Beam based on equilibrium conditions.
• Beam based on the type of support.

BEAM BASED ON GEOMETRY

• These beams are categorized into 3 categories and these are;
• Straight beam – a beam with the straight profile.
• Curved beam- beams with curved profile.
• Tapered beam – beam with tapered section.

Beam based on the cross section �

• These beams are categorized into 3 categories and these are;
• I beam – beam with i-crosss section.
• T beam – beam with T – cross section.
• C- beam – beam with C- cross section.

Beam based on equilibrium conditions. �

There are only two beams that are based on equilibrium and these are ;

1. Statistically determinant – This is where equilibrium conditions alone can be used to solve reactions.
2. Statically in-determinant – equilibrium conditions are not enough to solve reactions additional diffraction are needed to solve the reaction.

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Beam based on the type of support

• 1. simply supported beam – is a type of beam which has pinned support at one end and one roller support at the other end. Depending on the load applied it undergoes shearing and bending.
• 2. cent lever – is a type of beam which is fixed at one end and free on the other.
• 3. over hanging – is a type of beam that has one or both end potions extended beyond its support .it may have many number of supporters.
• 4. continues beam – it has more than 2 supports distribute through out its length.
• 5. fixed beam – both ends are well supported.

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UNIT 2: BUILDING GEOMETRY AND TECHNICAL DRAWING� �

2.1 TECHNICAL DRAWING

TECHNICAL DRAWING

• Is the drawing that is used in the industrial of the technical nature.
• It is mechanical in nature , meaning it is done with the aid of drawing instruments. T.D is a written language used and understood by engineers.
• T.D is controlled by a very definite set of rules.
• In T.D the ground work must be understood meaning every singe line and symbol has a definite meaning. There's nothing slipshod in the preparation of T.D.

Principles of technical drawing�

• Accuracy

Objects must be drawn as they are , not anyhow .Always remember that T.D is in universal language.

2.Thoroughness

All the necessary details of the drawing must be provided based on the standard of drawing practice .there should be no short cuts.

3.Neatness

Multiple drawings should be even distributed and well spaced on the drawing paper. Poorly distribution of work will result in disorganised work.

4. Swiftness.

Drawing can only be done within the specified period of time.so a learner must develop a skill in the most efficient manner. e.g. when drawing a rectangle you save time ,if you draw vertical lines first then horizontal lines later.

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Equipment

• Some basic equipment is necessary in order to learn drawing effectively, here are the main ones.

T-square:

• A T-square is a technical drawing instrument primarily used for drawing horizontal lines on a drafting table,
• it is also used to guide the triangle that is used to draw vertical lines.
• The name “T-square” comes from the general shape of the instrument where the horizontal member of the T

(blade) slides on the side of the drafting table.

T-square:�

Set- square

• A set square or triangle is a tool used to draw straight

vertical lines at a particular planar angle to a baseline.

• The most common form of Set Square is a triangular

piece of transparent plastic with the centre removed.

• The outer edges are typically beveled.
• These set squares come in two forms, both right triangles: one with 90-45-45 degree angles, and the other with 90-60-30 degree angles

Set- square

Compass

• Compasses are usually made of metal, and consist of two parts connected by a hinge which can be adjusted.
• Typically one part has a spike at its end, and the other part a pencil.
• Circles can be made by pressing one leg of the compasses into the paper with the spike, putting the pencil on the paper, and moving the pencil around while keeping the hinge on the same angle.
• The radius of the circle can be adjusted by changing the angle of the hinge

Compass

Dividers

• These are used to transfer measurements from the rule to the drawing.
• They have two (2) needle points and are not less than 125mm long

Drawing table

• It is a multi-angle desk which can be used in different angle according to the user requisite.
• The size suites most paper sizes, and are used for making and modifying drawings on paper with ink or pencil.
• Different drawing instruments such as set of squares, protractor, etc.
• are used on it to draw parallel, perpendicular or oblique lines

Protractor:

• The Protractor is a circular or semi-circular tool for measuring angles.
• The units of measurement used are degrees. Some protractors are simple half-discs.
• More advanced protractors usually have one or two swinging arms, which can be used to help measuring angles

Drawing Pencil�

• This is a hand-held instrument containing an interior strip of solid material that produces marks used to write and draw, usually on paper.
• The marking material is most commonly graphite, typically contained inside a wooden sheath.
• Mechanical pencils are nowadays more commonly used, especially 0.5mm

Drawing Pencil

• These are graded according to their hardness of the lead used in their manufacture. B ranges from B – 6B and H from H – 6H. Between these grades is HB. For the purpose of this course the following pencils are required:-
• HB – Lettering and dimensioning
• H – Lettering and dimensioning
• 2H – Construction
• 3H – Construction
• 4H - Construction
• 2H should be chisel shaped while H should be fine pointed. When using 2H, the flat side of the lead should be held against a straight edge.

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Drawing pins

• Large headed brass pins should be used.
• These should not be pushed into the same holes as previously because this will cause the drawing paper to shift while drawing.
• You may prefer to use clips

Eraser

• Erasers are article of stationery that are used for removing pencil writings.
• Erasers have made of rubbery material, and they are often white.
• Typical erasers are made of rubber, but more expensive or specialized erasers can also contain vinyl, plastic, or gum-like materials

DRAWING SCALES AND LETTERING METHODS

Drawing Scales

• Generally, it is easier to produce and understand a drawing if it represents the true size of the object drawn.
• This is of course not always possible due to the size of the object to be drawn, that is why it is often necessary to draw enlargements of very small objects and reduce the drawing of very large ones, this is called “SCALE”.
• However, it is important when enlarging or reducing a drawing that all parts of the object are enlarged or reduced in the same ratio, so that the general configuration of the object is saved.
• Thus, scales are multiplying or dividing of dimensions of the object.

Scale

• The scale is the ratio between the size represented on the drawing and the true size of the object.
• Scale= Dimension to carry on the drawing ÷ True Dimension of the object.
• Examples:

1. Dimension carried on the drawing = 4mm.

• True dimension= 40mm
• Scale = 4 ÷ 40 = 1:10

• Calculating drawing dimension of a line having a true dimension of 543 mm to a scale of 1/10.
• If a true dimension of 10mm is represented as 1mm, a true dimension of
• 543mm is represented as X
• Then 10 mm ----------------􀃆 1 mm
• 543 mm----------------􀃆 X mm
• We have 1/10= x ÷ 543 or X= 54.3mm.
• Therefore, a true dimension of 543mm is represented to a scale of 1/10 by a length of
• 54.3mm.

Lettering

• Free hand printing is very important. Poor printing may spoil a drawing.
• The exact formation of each letter, capital or small must be learnt thoroughly and this can only be done through practice; practice during class alone is not enough.
• It is essential that all printing should be easily read and all lettering is a form of design, therefore all letters should be shaped to the best of your ability.
• Capitals or block letters look best when they are spaced out, if closely spaced they are difficult to read. Small letter should be formed close together with a space between the words equal to the width of the letter “O” or twice, but the spacing must be uniform

Cont’d

• Capital letters are preferred to lower case letters since they are easier to read on reduced size
• drawing prints although lower case letters are used where they from of a symbol or an
• abbreviation.
• Attention is drawn the standard to the letters and characters

Recommendations for minimum size of lettering on drawing sheets

Cont’d

• The spaces between lines of lettering should be consistent and preferably not less than half of the character height.
• There are two fundamental methods of writing the graphic languages freehand and with instruments.
• The direction of pencil movements are shown

Cont’d

Cont’d

Quiz

• 1 Reproduce the text below

On a drawing sheet copy the following text using the correct lettering�methods:

UNIT 3

TOWN PLANNING

What is Town & Country Planning?

• Town Planning – the art and science of ordering the land-uses and sitting the buildings and communication routes so as to achieve the maximum level of economy, convenience and beauty.
• Land use means different land uses such as residential areas, commercial areas, etc.
• Siting means physical aspect like the actual positing of buildings on the round.

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Characteristics of Town and country Planning

- Concerned with spatial arrangement of land use

- Looks toward the future

- Suggests future land use and policy alternatives

- Devises implementation strategies (i.e., zoning, subdivision regulations, funding etc.)

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Why study Town Planning?

• Town planning is the guidance and control of development to ensure that the right kind of building goes in the right place, e.g. a factory which creates a lot of noise or smoke should not be built in a residential hosing area, but would be best located in a separate industrial area away from residential houses, schools, hospitals, etc

Responsibility for town planning

• The Minister of Local Government and Housing is responsible for the administration of the regional and Urban # 15 Planning of the Laws of Zambia.
• The dept. of physical planning and housing advises the minister on all town and country planning matters. The minister has delegated certain functions to statutory planning authorities.

Responsibility for town planning cont…

• These functions relate to the control of development and subdivision of land.
• Statutory planning authorities include; Lusaka province planning authority, southern province planning authority, etc.

Who is involved in planning?

• Politicians
• Town and country planners
• Developers
• Architects
• Civil Engineers
• Environmental health practioners
• Interested and affected parties
• Citizens

Benefits of town and country Planning

• Water quality controlled
• sanitation is controlled
• Most people have adequate light
• Most people have adequate air
• Fire danger is controlled
• Diseases are prevented
• Protects the value of property
• Affordable housing
• Protection of the environment
• Sustainable development

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Goals for Town Planning:�

• Reduce poverty and improve quality of life for the most people.

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• Distribute both positive and negative aspects of development fairly.

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• Environmental conservation

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• Cultural and historic preservation

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• Provide a predictable process for decision making that is informed by these goals. 

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Principles of Planning

Development of communities & towns

• Many of the new towns were planned on the basis of being divided into neighborhood units. This enabled the development to be phased logically and enabled the physical provisions of shops and schools with ready-made catchment areas. E.g. in Lusaka, fewer 10 years ago had cars, so it worked realistically but this is not the case today with increase in the population.

Development of communities & towns cont..

• So our towns and communities are dynamic and they have been growing from year to year. E.g. a community may grow from a village to a city because of developments and advanced technology.
• Most of our towns have been growing outwards & expanding due to different factors like urbanization, population increase and good infrastructure services such as improved schools, health care, etc.

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Internal structure of a town

• A town is made up different areas or zones were different activities take place. For e.g. there are areas were people shop or conduct business, areas where industries are located and areas where people live.
• The functions of a town are organized into specific areas due to several factors. For e.g. roads or rivers may influence the location of different activities. The arrangement of activities into functional zones is known as morphology (or shape) of the town.

1.0 Concentric model

• This model is common in most towns. It has rings for specific functions. For e.g. the inner most ring is known as the Central Business District (CBD). Other rings are the industrial area, residential area and agricultural area. See figure below that shows the concentric model of a town.

Concentric model diagram

Residential area

• Residential areas are usually classified as high, medium and low density depending on the type of houses and number of people who live there. A high density area is one where houses are close together and there are many people, for e.g. Mtendere compound. Low density areas have spacious houses and gardens with a small population for e.g. Kabulonga. In between the two extremes are the medium density areas for e.g. Chelstone, Kabwata and Lilanda.

Agricultural areas

• On the outskirts of a town, land is usually used for agriculture. The most common type of farming that takes place is market gardening. A variety of crops such as vegetables and fruits are grown all year round and are sold in town. An example of where market gardening takes place in Zambia is the Chilanga area along Lusaka – Kafue road.

Central Business District (CBD)

• The centre of the town is known as the CBD. A number of shops, business centre & offices are found in this area. It is the centre of the activities and rentals are very high. Tall buildings are a common feature as they take up less ground but bring in more rent. The core ring is surrounded by other rings. Rentals start to fall with distance from the centre. The CBD for Lusaka is the area between Cairo road and Lumumba road.

Industrial area

• This is the area where most industries and factories are located. The industrial area is usually located close to good road and railway system for easy transportation of raw materials and finished goods.

2. Sector model

• This pattern depicts land use in sectors from the CBD. For e.g. well developed routes running to the centre of the city may lead to high land values as shown in the diagram. Some industries are located along these routes for easy accessibility. Some residential areas may also be found along the developed routes. See figure below on sector model
• Due to difference in land value, land use patterns have cut across the rings.

Sector model diagram

Development Of Planning Strategies

Land Use

• Land Use (also called Land Development and Spatial Development) refers to how the landscape is treated, including the location and design of buildings, transportation facilities, parks and farms. landscape, is earth’s surface.

Major land use categories

Land use patterns

• Land use patterns can be evaluated based on the following attributes
• Density - number of people or housing units in an area.
• Mix - whether different land use types (commercial, residential, etc.) are located together.
• Clustering - whether related destinations are located together (e.g., commercial centers, urban villages, residential clusters, etc.).

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Land use patterns cont…

• • Greenspace – portion of land devoted to gardens, parks, farms, woodlands, etc.
• • Accessibility – ability to reach desired activities and destinations.
• • Nonmotorized accessibility – quality of walking and cycling conditions.

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Categories of geographic areas

• Urban – relatively high density (5+ housing units per gross acre), mixed land use, with multimodal transport (typically includes walking, cycling, public transit, automobile and taxi service).
• • Suburban – medium density (1-5 housing units per acre), segregated land uses, and an automobile-dependent transportation system.
• • Town – Smaller urban centers (generally less than 20,000 residents).
• • Village – Small urban center (generally less than 1,000 residents).

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Categories of geographic areas cont….

• • Exurban – low density (less than 1 house per acre), mostly farms and undeveloped lands, located near enough to a city for residents to commute and use services there.
• • Rural – low density (less than 1 house per acre), mostly farms and undeveloped lands, with a relatively independent identify and economy.
• • Greenspace (also called Openspace) – biologically active lands such as gardens, parks, woodlands, etc.

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Categories of geographic areas cont…

• Sprawl refers to dispersed, low-density, automobile-dependent land use
• Smart Growth, which refers to more compact, mixed, multi-modal land use.

Comparing Sprawl and Smart Growth �

Comparing Sprawl and Smart Growth cont……

Policies that encourage sprawl growth

• Maximum roadway capacity and speed.
• Generous parking supply.
• Low road user charges and fuel taxes.
• Poor walking and cycling conditions.
• Inferior public transit service.
• High public transit fares.

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Policies that encourage Smart Growth

• Transit service improvements.
• More affordable public transit fares.
• Pedestrian and cycling improvements.
• Reduced parking supply with parking management.
• Road and parking pricing.
• Traffic calming and traffic speed reductions.

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Smart Growth Practices �

• Strategic planning. Establish a comprehensive community vision which individual transport and land use policies and planning decisions should support.
• Encourage compact development. Encourage higher development densities, particularly within existing urban areas or near activity centers, such as downtowns, commercial centers and transit stations.

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Smart Growth Practices cont…

• Create more self-contained communities. Locate various compatible land uses close together so people can reach commonly-used services by walking or short vehicle trips. For example, develop schools, shops and recreation facilities in or adjacent to residential areas. Mix land uses at the finest grain feasible.

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Smart Growth Practices cont…

• Encourage a mix of housing types and prices. Develop affordable housing near employment, commercial and transport centers. Support second suites, apartments over shops, lofts, location-efficient mortgages and other affordable housing innovations.

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Smart Growth Practices cont…

• Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place. Encourage physical environments that create a sense of civic pride and community cohesion, including attractive public spaces, high-quality architectural and natural elements that reflect unique features of the community, preservation of special cultural and environmental resources, and high standards of maintenance and repair.

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Smart Growth Practices cont…

• Maximize Transport Options. Support transportation diversity, including walking, cycling, ridesharing, public transit, Delivery Services and Telework.
• Improve nonmotorized travel conditions. Encourage walking and cycling by improving sidewalks, paths and crosswalks, by calming traffic, and by providing street amenities (trees, awnings, benches, pedestrian-oriented lighting, etc.).

Smart Growth Practices cont…

• Encourage Transit oriented development. Increase development density within walking distance (0.25 to 0.50 miles) of high capacity transit stations and corridors, and provide high quality pedestrian and cycling facilities in those areas.
• Maximize connectivity. Create a network of well-connected streets and paths. Keep streets as narrow as possible, particularly in residential areas and commercial centers.

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Smart Growth Practices cont…

• Accessible site design. Encourage buildings that are oriented toward city streets, rather than set back behind large parking lots.
• Implement mobility management programs. Use mobility management to reduce total vehicle traffic and encourage the use of efficient modes.
• Manage parking for efficiency. Encourage parking management strategies such as sharing, regulating and pricing parking facilities.

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Smart Growth Practices cont…

• Improve street design to create complete streets. Design streets to efficiently accommodate all modes and activities such as strolling, playing, shopping, and special events.
• Reform tax and utility rates. Structure property taxes, development fees and utility rates to reflect the lower public service costs of compact infill development.
• Preserve greenspace. Preserve open space, particularly areas with high ecological and recreational value. Channel development into areas that are already disturbed

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Sustainability Planning

• Sustainability emphasizes the integrated nature of human activities and therefore the need to balance economic, social and environmental objectives. Interest in sustainability can be considered a reaction to overly specialized decision-making focused on easily measured goals and impacts, while ignoring those that are indirect or more difficult to measure. Sustainability planning requires comprehensive analysis that accounts for all significant impacts, including those distant in space and time.

Sustainability Planning cont…

• It strives for development (increased quality) rather than growth (increased quantity), and recognizes resource constraints and ecological risks such as fossil fuel depletion, habitat loss and climate change. Conventional planning asks, “Does it work?” Sustainability planning tends to ask “Does it fit?” That is, whether individual decisions fit into overall long-term goals.

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Effective planning cont….

• Planning should be integrated, so individual, short-term decisions are consistent with broader, strategic goals.
• Analysis should be comprehensive, reflecting all significant perspectives, impacts and objectives. A broad range of options and impacts should be considered.
• Planners should be objective, fair and respectful.
• Insure adequate public involvement. Stakeholders should be kept informed and have opportunities for involvement.

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Effective planning …..

• Clearly define the goals (what you ultimately want), and regularly revisit the question, “what exactly are we trying to accomplish?”
• The planning process should be understood by all stakeholders, with clearly defined vision or problem statement, goals, objectives, evaluation criteria and performance indicators.
• Consider a wide range of possible solutions including some that may initially seem unrealistic but could be appropriate as part of an integrated program.

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Effective planning cont….

• Identify resources, constraints, and conflicts. Draw attention to potential problems.
• Make sure results are comprehendible to the intended audience, using suitable language and visual information (graphs, maps, images, etc.).
• Identify and avoid token solutions which fail to really address a problem. Modest actions may be appropriate if it is the beginning but not the end of more substantial solutions.

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Effective planning cont….

• Be prepared for setbacks. A planning process sometimes initially fails, but succeed if repeated due to changing circumstances, more stakeholder understanding and commitment.
• Changes should be implemented as predictably and gradually as possible.

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RURAL URBAN DRIFT

Rural-Urban Drift

• Rural-to-urban drift is a phenomenon as old as the invention of towns. On the below graph, you can see that worldwide nearly 800 million people have moved from the countryside to the cities between 1950 and 2000, and this transfer is showing no sign of deceleration.
• Migration is a phenomenon necessary for the growth and the development of societies. But excessive migration to the towns can exceed their absorptive capacity.

Rural-Urban Migration (global level)�

Why did people move to cities?

• Hard to make much money through farming or pastoralism; risky to drought, epidemics, or insect depradation
• People move to the city for new jobs in industry (mines in the case of Zambia), service (the informal economy), or government work: some pay better or are more stable than others

Lusaka, Zambia

1.3 million people

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39 % of Zambians live in urban areas

What is Rural – Urban Drift

• Rural – Urban drift is the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. This is the major cause of urbanization. Urbanization is an increase in the percentage of a country’s population living in towns or urban areas. This is usually caused by the movement of people from rural areas to towns (rural-urban drift).
• Urbanization is influenced by several factors and these can be:
• push out factors or
• pull in factors

Push out factors

People leave rural areas for various reasons such as:

• Not enough land
• Not enough food
• Not enough jobs
• Natural disasters such as floods, drought
• Dislike of traditional way of life
• Civil wars

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Pull in factors

People move to urban areas for various reasons such as:

• Hope of improvement in the standard of living
• Search for employment
• Search for educational opportunities
• Search for better medical care
• Looking modern ways of life

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Social and Health Implications of Urbanisation

• Housing problems: due to many people living in towns, houses are not adequate to accommodate everyone
• Overcrowding: due to shortage of housing, people end up living together in large numbers. This has led to a situation where 5-7 people, may occupy one room thereby causing overcrowding.

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Social and Health Implications of Urbanisation cont…

• Development of shanty compounds: when people who have come from rural areas have no where to stay, they end up building shelters to live in. These shelters are built anywhere and anyhow without permission from planning authorities. More often than not shanty compounds lack proper services such as water supply and electricity, sanitation services, schools and health centres. This is because they are unplanned settlements.

Social and Health Implications of Urbanisation cont…

• Pressure on health facilities: there is pressure on health facilities due to many people living in urban areas. The town population grows at a faster rate than the provision of health services.
• Pressure on educational facilities: there is pressure on educational facilities due to many people living in urban areas. The town population grows at a faster rate than the provision of educational services.

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Social and Health Implications of Urbanisation cont…

Other problems associated with urbanization are:

• Noise pollution from traffic
• Environmental deterioration
• Drop in standard of living
• Traffic congestion
• Increased crime
• Increase in unemployment levels.

Population

• Population is a number of people living in area at a given point in time. The size of the population is known by counting the people and this known as census.
• The population of Zambia has been increasing from 7,759,161 in 1990, 9,885,591 in 2000 and 13,046,508 persons in 2010.
• The regional distribution of the population shows that 7,978,274 people (61 percent) resided in rural areas and 5, 068, 234 (39 percent) resided in the urban areas

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Population Projections

• Population projection is an estimate of a future population. In contrast with intercensal estimates and censuses, which usually involve some sort of field data gathering.

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Use of population projections

• For planning purposes- town planners need to have some idea of likely future changes in the size, composition and distribution of the population.

Use cont….

• The demands for housing, health and education services, employment, or economic development are determined to a large extent by the size and composition of the population.
• At regional level, the likely growth of towns and cities caused by rural-urban migration or population mobility or differential natural increase need to be known so that housing, transport, other services and amenities can be provided.

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Use cont..

• At more local level, planners need to estimate likely demand for public utilities, schools, hospitals, recreation facilities, housing, road network, and other essentials.
• Projection is seen to influence policies and planning process. In view of this perspective, it can be used to estimate the likely demographic impact of planning decisions and policy changes and their implications on demographic change.

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Approaches to Population Projections

• There are two methods of carrying out population projections
• First, the mathematical method, sometimes called, ‘formula method’, in which the evolution of the population is assumed to be described by the application of mathematical formula.
• Second, the component method, in which the components of population change are taken into account directly.

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Approaches cont…

• The mathematical method is quick and it is the approach of choice for many projections of the whole populations of countries.
• The component method is more time consuming and requires more data, but it has a great advantage of providing detailed aspect of population structure.

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The general procedure of projections�

• Population projection makes use of models of population change. It involves, first, choosing a model of population change; and second specifying the parameters of the chosen model; and third, applying the model to current data to extrapolate into the future.
• This entails that once the model has been chosen, and the parameters specified, the future population’ characteristics are determined.

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Population Density

• Population density is the index of geographical distribution- a mathematical relationship between the total land area of a country or other unit and its population.
• Density is expressed as the average number of persons per square kilometre
• It is simply the average number of people on each unit of land.

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Effects of High Density

• Changes in Social systems- Significant increase in population density tends to intensify social density.
• When population grows in a confined areas, such as a city that develops where a small village had long prevailed, interaction and communication become complex, human relationship become more numerous, complex and impersonal- the whole nature of social system may change, include norms.

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Effects of High Density cont….

• Stress in groups of People - great population. density decreases personal involvement that people can have in each other’s lives and increases competition for scarce resources (housing, water and sanitation)
• Isolation from meaningful interaction (e.g. alienation) and loneliness (effects of overcrowding on human behavior).

DEVELOPMENT PLANS

• Development means the carrying out of any building, rebuilding or other works or operations on or under land, or the making of any material changes in the use of land or buildings
• A development plan consist of a report of the survey in respect of the area to which the development plan relates. A plan include maps and such descriptive matter as may be necessary to illustrate the proposals
• The Minister shall, with or without modification, approve a development plan submitted to him or reject it

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Development plans cont…

• At least once in every five years, after the date on which a development plan for any area is approved by the Minister, the planning authority shall carry out a fresh survey of that area and shall submit a report of the survey, together with proposals for any alterations, additions or substitutions to the plan to the Minister who may if he deems it necessary order the preparation and submission of a new or amending development plan.

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Content of Development plans

• A development plan shall consist of a report of the survey in respect of the area to which the development plan relates and the survey shall be carried out in such manner as may be prescribed, together with a plan indicating the manner in which it is proposed that land in the area may be used (whether by the carrying out thereon of development or otherwise) and the stages by which any such development may be carried out.

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DEVELOPMENT PLAN CONTENT (SECOND SCHEDULE OF ACT)

• Every development and regional plan shall have:
• Part I. Roads
• Part II. Public Services
• Facilitating by reservation of land or any other measures the establishment, extension or improvement of works by local or township authorities or by undertakers, in relation to power, lighting, water supply, sewerage, sewage disposal, drainage, refuse disposal and other public services.

Development Plan Content Cont…

• Part III. Buildings and Other Structures
• 1. Regulating and controlling:

(a) the size, height, spacing and location of buildings;

(b) the density of development in any area either by designating the population, accommodation units, or buildings which may be established on any area or plot, or by designating the number and size of plots;

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Development Plan Content Cont…

c) the number of buildings of a specified class or classes which may be established, constructed or erected

(d) the minimum cost per square foot of the building with a minimum overall cost of erection of the building and a minimum or maximum floor space of a building;

(e) the purpose for and the manner in which buildings may or may not be used or occupied including in the case of dwelling-houses the letting thereof in separate tenements;

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Development Plan Content Cont…

(f) the removal, demolition or alteration of buildings or works which are inconsistent with or obstruct or retard the implementation of a development plan;

(g) external appearance and materials of buildings and other structures.

2. Defining and regulating building lines.

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Development Plan Content Cont…

• Part IV. Use of Land

1. Providing for the control of the use and change of use of land zones and reservations for various purposes including-

(a) dwelling-houses, flats or other residential development of various classes and densities;

(b) offices, shops and other commercial development;

(c) industries of various classes and warehouses;

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Development Plan Content Cont…

(d) public buildings and places of assembly;

(e) Government and local authority or township authority purposes;

(f) cemeteries and crematoria;

(g) schools;

(h) agriculture, horticulture and forestry.

Development Plan Content Cont…

2. Providing for the permanent restriction or prohibition of the development of land on the grounds that-

(a) the land is physically unsuitable for building;

(b) the development would be prejudicial to natural resources or to public health or other public interests or would be dangerous to human life.

Development Plan Content Cont…

3. Providing for the temporary restriction or prohibition of the development of land on the grounds that-

(a) the land is physically unsuitable for building;

(b) the development would be prejudicial to natural resources or to public health or other public interests or would be dangerous to human life;

(c) the provision of public services would be uneconomic;

(d) the use is undetermined and awaiting zoning. 

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Development Plan Content Cont…

Part V. Amenities

1. Reserving of land for parks, recreation ground or other open space whether public or private.

2. Providing for the preservation of views, and places or features of natural beauty and interest.

3. Indicating or reserving sites of buildings and objects of archaeological, architectural, scientific or historical interest.

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Development Plan Content Cont…

4. Preserving single trees, groups of trees and natural vegetation.

5. Prohibiting, restricting or otherwise controlling either generally or in any particular place the exhibition of all or any forms of advertising or public notice.

6. Prohibiting, restricting or otherwise controlling-

(a) the deposit or disposal of disused vehicles or waste materials;

(b) the pollution of rivers, lakes, lake shores and ponds.

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Development Plan Content Cont…

Part VI. Transport And Communications

Part VII. Miscellaneous

ZONING PRINCIPLES

• Zoning is the division of land (town/city) into different districts with particular characteristics. It is an integral part of town planning and help to ensure or facilitate appropriate distribution and design of municipal services that include water supply, waste disposal, fire protection and public facilities such as recreation areas, schools, burial sites and other social facilities.

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ZONING PRINCIPLES cont…

• Zoning controls land utility to conform to certain regulations when they develop the land for residential or business purposes. Zoning also controls the type of building to be erected in a given section of the community and helps to avoid the overcrowding traffic movements thereby reducing accidents.

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The purposes of zoning

• 1. To control the density of population per unit area,

2. Locate residential, commercial and industrial areas

3. Mark roads and highways,

4. Determine street width that will accommodate the traffic requirements;

5. Ensure safety of the population from other hazards including air pollution, noise pollution and other stresses arising from industries or commercial business centers.

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Types of Zoning/Districts

• Residential Zone / District
• Commercial (Business) Zone
• Industrial Zone / District
• Recreational Zone
• Institutional Zone (schools, hospitals and etc)

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Residential Zone / District�

• This zone is assigned for residential purposes where residential dwellings predominate. Zoning regulations in around residences is very explicit as to spacing individual houses from each other to ensure sufficient lot, air, and light

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Commercial (Business) Zone�

• Commercial zone may also encompass a variety of business needs such as neighborhood shopping centers which serve the day to day needs and sub urban shopping center for the residents. Markets and shopping centers are usually located along streets and central business districts.

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Commercial (Business) Zone�cont…

• Zoning of commercial sectors into separate units is not only beneficial to promote community health, but it is also convenient for easy transportation, storage, and display of the products. These sections run similar activities and demand similar basic services. The size of free spaces between individual commercial sectors, allocating minimum distance from Main Street, placement of each commercial unit with respect to their type and services they render are all governed by the zoning regulations.

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Industrial Zone / District�

• Industrial zone may also have several subdivisions such as large or small scale or cottage industries. Establishment of separate district for industries prevents building of high or hazardous structures in residential areas. Industries are better located at out skirt of the town or city to isolate industrial pollutants such as smoke.

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Recreational Zone�

• Recreational zones include: beaches, swimming pools, hotels, camps, motels, clubs, sport fields, etc. These places accommodate many people per day mainly those who wants to relax themselves especially on holidays or weekends. Such areas used for mental refreshment should be considered during town planning, and logically zoned as a separate unit in the town.

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Institutional Zone �

• Zoning of institutions e.g. schools, hospitals, etc. is carried out with respect to proximity to source of noise, possibility of safe and adequate water supply, solid and liquid waste disposal systems, accessibility to roads, etc.

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BUILDING CONTROL

• The planning system works mainly through the central government and local authorities. Planning legislation and regulations from central government are provided through local authorities. The local authorities undertake most development control to decide planning applications submitted for development. Planning permission is usually required before any development can be carried out.

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No person shall erect or begin to erect any building until he has:

• made an application to the Local Authority in form obtained from the Local Authority;
• Furnished the Local Authority with the drawings and other documents
• Obtained from the Local Authority a written permit "building permit", to erect the building, together with a signed copy of the plan approved by the Local Authority,

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No person shall erect or begin to erect any building until cont...

• Every person who intends to erect a building shall send or deliver to the Local Authority two copies of a plan of each floor and sections of each storey, floor and roof of the building and elevations.

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Plans and what they should show

• The position, form and dimensions of the foundations, walls, floors, roofs, rooms, chimneys, and the several parts of the building including outside kitchen, servants' quarters, stables, garages, etc.,
• The form and dimensions of any water closet, earth closet, privy or cesspool to be constructed in connection with the building;

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Plans and what they should show cont…

• (2) He shall also send or deliver to the Local Authority copies of a block plan of the building and showing-
• (a) The size and position of the building in its relation to the boundaries of the plot to be built upon
• (b) The position and width of any street, adjoining the cartilage of the building
• (c) The size and position of any yard or open space belonging to the building;

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Plans and what they should show cont…

• The position of any water closet, earth closet or privy, and of any cesspool and well in connection with the building;
• The lines of drainage of the building and the size, depth and inclination of each drain and the means to be provided for the ventilation, inspection and cleansing of the drains;
• The position and level of the outfall of the drains and the connected or, where no sewer is provided, the means to be adopted for the disposal of all liquid waste produced in the building

Grounds on which plans may be disapproved

• (a) That they show a contravention of Town and Country Planning Regulations;
• (b) That the system of drainage of the proposed building or of the plot or sub-plot upon which the building is to stand is not, in the opinion of the Local Authority, satisfactory;
• (c) That sufficient facilities for access of sanitary carts are not, in the opinion of the Local Authority, provided;

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Grounds on which plans may be disapproved cont….

• That, in the case of a building to be erected on a plot on which a building or buildings already stand, no scheme of plot subdivision has been sanctioned by the Government, or that such building is not in conformity with a scheme of plot subdivision which has been so sanctioned;
• That latrine accommodation and, where considered necessary by the Local Authority, servants' accommodation are not adequately provided for;
• That the site upon which it is proposed to build is unfit for human habitation;

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Grounds on which plans may be disapproved cont….

• That they do not adequately provide for the strength and stability of the building, nor for the sanitary requirements thereof;
• That the site of any of the proposed buildings on the plans is such that the erection of such buildings would contravene or render abortive any town planning scheme or proposed town planning scheme for the township;

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Grounds on which plans may be disapproved cont….

• That the plan is not accompanied by an undertaking in writing by the person submitting such plan that the building operations will be supervised by a qualified architect or other competent person approved by the Local Authority so as to ensure that the building complies with the plan.

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Grounds on which plans may be disapproved cont…

• Public buildings, buildings of the warehouse class and domestic buildings, not used, adapted or designed as dwelling-houses, shall not be so erected that more than two-thirds of such plot on which each building stands or is to stand shall be built over:

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Grounds on which plans may be disapproved cont….

• Buildings used or adapted or designed to be used as dwelling-houses shall not be so erected that more than one-half of such plot on which each building stands or is to stand shall be built over.

Note: The person to whom the Local Authority has granted a permit to erect any building shall commence the same within six calendar months of the date of such permit; should he fail to do so, the said permit shall be deemed to have lapsed as if the same had not been given.

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Powers of local authority

• The Local Authority or its authorised officers shall have power to inspect any building in course of erection or completion, and, if any portion or detail thereof shall be found not to comply with any of these Regulations, may, by written notice, require the person erecting the building to make, within a time to be specified in such notice, such alteration as may be necessary to comply with these Regulations, and any failure to comply with such notice shall be deemed a breach of this regulation.

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Powers of local authority cont…

• The applicant or his authorised agent shall give notice in writing to the Local Authority when the building is completed, and no person shall occupy or suffer to be occupied any new building until such building has been certified by the Local Authority and, in their opinion, in every respect fit for occupation, or, in the case of a domestic building or dwelling-house, fit for human habitation. The Local Authority shall cause an inspection of the building to be made within forty-eight hours from the date of completion.

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Powers of local authority cont…

• Where a Local Authority is satisfied that it is not unreasonable to occupy a portion of any building before the completion of the whole building, and, where available, a Medical Officer of Health agrees to such occupation, the Local Authority may authorise the granting of a certificate for the occupation of such portion only.

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CHANGE OF LAND USE

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CHANGE OF LAND USE

• Urban land is demarcated into different land use such as residential areas, commercial areas, etc. The process of demarcation is referred to as zoning. In the recent past, it has been observed that residential areas especially those near the CBD are being encroached by other land uses especially commercial activities. The result is a conversion of land use from the originally planned use to another.

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Introduction cont…

• The Town and Country Planning Act require that before land is converted from one use to another, authority should be obtained for its conversion. This entails that the local authority is mandated to made modifications to the approved development plan every time a change of land use is approved.

Procedure for change of land use

• Application forms needs to be obtained from local authority – town planning department. There is an application fee attached to each application.
• Upon receipt of the information requested for in the change of land use form, the site is inspected and the local authority will be required to advertise the proposal to the public.
• The cost of the advert is borne by the applicant. The applicant is advised to collect a copy of the advert at town planning dept. and process it in one of the daily newspapers for three (3) consecutive days.

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Procedure for change of land use cont…

• The period with which the objections may be lodged with the minster of local government and housing or local authority is twenty-eight (28) days from first day of advert.
• When the twenty-eight days have elapsed, the matter is presented to the council for determination
• The council recommendations are sent to the minister of local government and housing for the minister’s determination
• The applicant is finally informed of the final outcome whether positive or negative.

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Environmental Planning: Location of Social Buildings/ Selection of Sites for Development

SELECTION OF SITES FOR DEVELOPMENT

Selection of a site is largely dependent on the nature of proposed development. Sites are sought for development such as:

• Neighbourhood layout plans
• Industrial zones
• Service sites such as power supply stations, water supply and sewerage sites
• Public amenities such as schools, health centres, cemeteries, churches, etc.

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What needs to be considered

In order to choose an ideal site for planning of above facilities, the following factors are taken into consideration:

• Type of proposed development
• Location, accessibility and adjacent land uses
• Ownership status of the land
• Traditional/ historical value of the land
• Physical features on site
• Land safety

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Type of proposed development

• The proposed development will determine the suitability of the land to implement the project. Some projects require large tracts of land while others may require a few square meters. For example, a secondary school will require a huge piece of land where as a nursery school will only require a small piece of land.

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Location, accessibility and adjacent land uses

• Once a bare piece of land is identified, the town planner will have to assess the accessibility to planned areas and the nature of the adjacent land uses. These, when known, help to determine if the proposal will blend in well with existing uses and whether it will be appreciated or complimented by existing land uses and development.

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Ownership status of the land

• Knowing the ownership status of any piece of land is cardinal as this will determine on the procedures to follow in order to acquire it and plan development activities on it. One must ask the following questions:
• Is the land on title?
• Is the land under traditional rights?
• Is the land a government reserve area?

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Traditional/ historical value of the land

• A town planner has to know if the land in question conforms to local rules, norms, practices and what procedures are involved in acquiring it. It will also have to be established if the land holds any significance that could either be historical or religious. It is important to preserve sites of historical importance and if the area has to be developed, efforts should be made to encourage projects that will be in line with the historical significance of the site.

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 �Physical features on site

• Physical characteristic determine the design of buildings and layout plan, the type of materials to e used and cost of preparing the site to develop. The physical characteristics to check include:
• The physical terrain of the area – know if the land is hilly, rocky or flat
• The type of soils in the area – this determines the type of foundations that will be built

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Physical features on site cont…

• The type of vegetation in the area
• Establish if there are any mineral ore deposits so as not to be inconvenience at a later stage due to mining activity.

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Land safety

There are some pieces of land that are not ideal for a number of construction projects and these include:

• Sites with land mines
• Toxic waste disposal sites
• Premature land fills sites
• Water logged areas and quick sand areas

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Land safety cont…

• Tsetse fly infested areas
• Land slide prone areas
• And habitat for wild animals

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Conclusion

• In summary, it must be noted that the suitability of a site will be largely depend on the type of development that is to be implemented. Town planners must take extra care and caution to ensure that the sites that are selected will not be detrimental to the proposal but instead adds value to the land. Preparation of comprehensive environmental impact assessment reports should be promoted for all major development projects especially for those that are industrial in nature.

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Environmental Planning: Lecture 6: Town & Country Planning Policy & Law

Town and Country Planning Policy

In order to solve urgent problems as the location of industrial and housing, the provision of infrastructure facilities such as water supply, roads, drainage, sewage, health facilities, schools, etc. the GRZ came up with far reaching town and country planning policies. These policies were subsequently incorporated to what is known as the Urban and Regional Planning Act 3 of 2015 and also Public Health Act Cap 295

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• Urban and Regional Planning Act # 3 of 2015

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Urban and Regional Planning Act # 3 of 2015 - Purpose

An Act to make provision for the

• appointment of planning authorities,
• establishment of a Town and Country Planning Tribunal,
• preparation, approval and revocation of development plans,
• control of development and subdivision of

land,

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Purpose of Town and Country Planning Act Cont…..

• assessment and payment of compensation in respect of planning decisions,
• preparation, approval and revocation or modification of regional plans; and for
• matters connected with and incidental to the foregoing.

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Section 2. Interpretation

Defines

• "building" includes any structure or erection and any part of a building so defined, but does not include plant or machinery comprised in a building;
• "building line" means a line specifying the minimum distance between the boundary of a stand, lot, plot

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Section 2. Interpretation cont…

• "local authority" means a City Council, a municipal council, township council or district council as defined in the Local Government Act
• "planning authority" means the local or other authority appointed by or under the provisions of section five and shall, for the purposes of Parts V and VI, include the Natural Resources Board

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PART II TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING TRIBUNAL

• Provides for establishment of town and country tribunal.

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OTHERS

• Part III - development plans
• Part IV - procedure for the preparation and submission of development plans and their modification and extension
•  Part V - permission required for development and subdivision of land
• Part VI - compensation for refusal or conditional grant of planning permission

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Others cont…

• Part VII acquisition of land

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First Schedule

• planning authorities with delegated powers and responsibilities on the appointed day

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PLANNING AUTHORITIES

• Central Province Planning Authority
• Copperbelt Province Planning Authority
• Eastern Province Planning Authority
• Luapula Province Planning Authority
• Lusaka Province Planning Authority
• Muching Province Planning Authority
• Northern Province Planning Authority
• North-western Province Planning Authority
• Southern Province Planning Authority
• Western Province Planning Authority

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Enforcement of planning control

• Section 31 (1) of the Town & Country Planning Act, Cap 283 authorizes planning authorities to take enforcement action in two ways:
• Where development or sub-division of land has taken place without the grant of any planning permission under the act
• Where development has taken place with planning permission but conditions upon which permission was granted are not complied with

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Enforcement of planning control cont…

• enforcement notice specifies steps for restoring the land to its condition before the development or subdivision took place, or for securing compliance with the conditions, as the case may be; and in particular any such notice may for the purpose aforesaid require the demolition or alteration of any buildings or works, the discontinuance of any use of land or the carrying out on land of any building or other operations.

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• Public Health Act Cap 295

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Public Health Act Cap 295 - Purpose

• An Act to provide for the prevention and suppression of diseases and generally to regulate all matters connected with public health in Zambia.

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Applicable Provisions in PHA

• PART IX - SANITATION AND HOUSING
• Section 66 - Duty of Local Authorities to prevent or remedy danger to health arising from unsuitable dwellings
• Section 73 - Demolition of unfit dwellings
• Section 74 - Prohibition in respect of back-to-back dwelling, and rooms without through ventilation

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Public Health Regulations

• Public Health (Building) Regulations
• Provides standards & procedures before, during & after completion of building construction.
• Public Health (drainage and Latrines) Regulations
• Provides drainage and latrine standards

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