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College of Education and Behavioral Sciences

Department of Psychology

Course name: General Psychology (Psyc 1011)

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Why you need to study psychology?

To get in touch with essential terminologies, theories, themes & concepts of psychology.
To identify situations where psychology’s principles & interventions can be used.

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Misconceptions about psychology & psychologists

Anybody who has studied psychology can read people’s personality.
Psychologists can predict fate or destiny.
Psychologists are doctors.
Psychologists give medicines

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Defining the Field of Psychology�

Have you ever read any material or heard anything related to psychology?
If so, what does psychology mean to you?

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Classic definition

The term 'psychology' was derived from two Greek words:

Psyche= Mind, Soul or Spirit
Logos= Study or Discourse

Hence, the literal meaning of psychology was “the study of the soul or spirit’.
The nature of soul or spirit could not be defined objectively.
Therefore, the meaning of psychology in terms of soul or spirit was rejected.

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Psychology is “the scientific & systematic study of human behavior and underlying mental processes”.
Psychology can be represented by the following Greek letter (psi).

II. Contemporary definition

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Aspects of the definition

Science: what do you think is science?

Science is a body of systematized knowledge.
Systematic and controlled extension of common sense
Rely on information that is verifiable through experience.

That is, it must be possible for different people in different places and at different times using the same method to obtain comparable results.

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2. Behavior

Everything we do that can be directly observed.

For example;

Two people kissing
baby crying

3. Mental processes

Thoughts, feelings & motives that each of us experience privately, but which can’t be observed directly.

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Goals of Psychology

Description: What is happening?

Involves observing a behavior & noticing everything about it.

What is happening at a moment?
Where & under what circumstance it happens?

Explanation: Why is it happening?

knowing what caused the behavior.

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3. Prediction:

Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can speculate what will happen in the future.

4. Control:

By applying various techniques of behavior modification, psychologists try to control behavior.

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Historical development of psychology

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Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of the sciences.
It emerged as a separate discipline some 140 years ago.
Psychology broke away from

Philosophy &
Physiology

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It was in 1879 that Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.

This event heralded the beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline.

Wilhelm Von Wundt (1832-1920) considered by many as the ―father of psychology.

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Schools of Psychology

Influential psychologists of the time held quite different views on “subject matter” for psychology.

Should psychology be the study of the mind?
Should it study behavior?
Should both mind & behavior be included?

As a result, different schools of thought formed, having their own assumptions and perspectives.

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Early schools of psychology

These schools of psychology include:

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Schools, in this context are groups of scholars who held common beliefs about

The subject matter of the discipline
The methods of study to be used.

Structuralism
Functionalism
Behaviorism
Gestalt psychology
Psychoanalysis

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Structuralism�

Founders;

Wilhelm Wundt
Edward Titchener

Wilhelm Wundt

Edward Titchener

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Psychology should concern itself with the units & elements, which make up the mind.
Structuralists devised a technique known as “introspection”.
Structuralism declined in the early 1920s.

Major tenets of structuralism

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2. Functionalism

Founder; William James

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Psychology should focus on how the mind allows people to function in the real world.
Concerned with the purposes, functions, of the mental processes.

How people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings,

Major tenets of Functionalism

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3. Gestalt psychology

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Founders;

Max Wertheimer
Kurt Koffka
Wolfgang Kohler

Max Wertheimer

Kurt Koffka

Wolfgang Kohler

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Oppose the atomist approach of the structuralists
People perceive the world in wholes.
The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Major tenets of Gestalt Psychology

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D. Behaviorism

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Founders;

John B. Watson
Edward Thorndike
B.F. Skinner

John B. Watson

Edward Thorndike

B.F. Skinner

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Scientific psychology should study only observable behavior”
Psychology should altogether abandon the study of mental processes
Psychology should focus on the role of experience in shaping behavior.

Major tenets of Behaviorism

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5. Psychoanalysis

Founder; Sigmund Freud

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Our unconscious urges and thoughts (hidden wishes & passions, guilty secrets) make themselves known in

Dreams,
Slips of the tongue,
Jokes

Our early childhood experience determine our personality as an adult.
There is always a conflict among the three personality structures (Id, Ego & Super ego)

Major tenets of Psychoanalysis

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How do these schools of psychology differ?

Basically they differ in terms of three issues:

In their object of study: i.e. what they studied (conscious mind, unconscious mind & overt behavior).
In their goal: analyze the components of the mind or observing the effect of the environment on behavior.
In their method: Introspection, observation, clinical case studies.

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The discourse made by the structural, gestalt & functional schools of psychology have vanished
Behaviorism & psychoanalysis are still, in modified forms.

In conclusion

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Modern schools of psychology

Psychodynamic perspective
Behavioral perspective
The Humanistic Perspective
The Physiological Perspective
The Cognitive Perspective
The Socio-Cultural Perspective

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Psychodynamic perspective�

This perspective focuses largely on

Expanded by Post Freudians;

Carl Jung
Adler
Anna Freud,

The unconscious mind and its influence over conscious behavior.
The role of our early childhood experience on our current behavior
The role of interpersonal conflict in determining human behavior.

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2. Behavioral perspective�

Applications of behavioral perspective

Focus on the influence of the environment.
Argue that learning and experience make the kind of person you become.

Curbing aggression
Resolving sexual problems
Ending drug addiction
Phobia

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3. Humanistic Perspective�

Major tenets

Founders;

Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow

People naturally strive to grow & develop, if they are given opportunity.
Human beings are unique and have freedom to choose their own destiny.

Hence, the aim of psychology should be to help them maximize their potential for psychological growth.

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4. The Physiological Perspective �

Labels attached to these researchers are;

Argue that our behavior, even what we think and feel, is assumed to be linked to our physiological make up.

Hence, understanding of the brain and the nervous system is central in psychological functioning

Biopsychologist
Neuropsychologist
Psychobiologist

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5. The Cognitive Perspective�

Major tenets

Our ways of thinking about the world influence our behavior.
People‘s thoughts & explanations affect their actions, feelings & choices.

The events occurring within a person must be studied if behavior is to be fully understood.

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6.The Socio-Cultural Perspective�

Major tenets

Focuses on how the social and cultural environment outside the person influences our behavior.
We are like fish that are unaware that they live in water; so obvious is water in their lives.

These psychologists study the water (social & cultural environment) that people ―swim in everyday.

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In summary

Not all psychologists feel that they must wear allegiance to one approach, rather they are eclectic.

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Activity 1

How many of the sub-fields of psychology do you know?
Where do you think psychologists are employed to work after graduation?

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Sub-fields of Psychology�

Bio-psychology/Neuropsychology:

Study the biological foundations of behavior.

Developmental Psychology:

Study physical, mental & social development of humans from conception to death.

Personality Psychology:

Study differences in behavior among individuals.

Are our personalities determined more by nature or by nurture?
To what extent do people behave consistently?

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4. Educational Psychology:

Apply psychological principles & theories to improve educational process including;

Curriculum
Teaching
Administration of academic programs.

5. School psychology:

Set up programs to improve student academic performance & school behavior
Provide counseling to students who are having social or academic problems.
Usually, they work in elementary schools & high schools.

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6. Clinical Psychology:

Deal with severe psychological disorders, including;

Causes of severe abnormal behavior.
Diagnosis & treatment of disorders.

7. Counseling Psychology:

Deal with less severe problems than those treated by clinical psychologists. This includes

Educational,
Social,
Marital
Career adjustment problems

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8. Social Psychology:

Study the way we affect and are influenced by other people.

9. Cross-cultural Psychology

Examines the role of culture in understanding behavior, thought & emotion.
Compares the nature of psychological processes in different cultures.

10. Industrial/Organizational psychology

Work to increase productivity in industries & GOs & NGOs by;

Improving working conditions & methods for hiring
Providing training on stress management & burnout.

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10. Forensic psychology:

Work in the legal system.
Study validity of eyewitness testimony
Devise ways to select jurors.
Train police officers

11. Health psychology:

Studies the relationship between psychological variables well-being of a person.

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Research Methods in Psychology

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Research plays an extremely important role in psychology.

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Types of Research Methods

In psychology there are three major types of research methods:

Descriptive
Correlational
Experimental�

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Descriptive Research Method�

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In descriptive research

The researcher simply records what he or she has systematically observed.
It includes

Naturalistic observation
Case study
Survey

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Naturalistic Observation �

This is observing behavior in their natural environment.
Often involves counting behaviors, such as number of aggressive acts or smiles.
Psychologists conduct naturalistic observations at;

Football games
Day-care centers
College dormitories
Shopping malls
Restaurants etc.

Limitation: people who know they are being watched may behave artificially.

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B. Case Study �

This is an in-depth look at a single individual/entity, typically over an extended period of time.
It is used mainly by clinical psychologists

Limitations

Generalization is impossible, as usually only few cases are involved
Time consuming.
More prone to researcher bias.

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C. Survey �

Helps to gather large amounts of data in a relatively short period of time.
Questionnaires & interviews are most frequently used in survey research.

Limitations

Lacks depth or detailed information.
Respondents may distort their responses.
Misunderstanding of the question,
Lack of control over extraneous variables.

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2. Correlational Studies

Correlation is a research method which measures the relationship between two or more variables.
However, based on results from correlational research, we can’t make any assumptions of cause and effect.

Example; a researcher might be curious to know whether or not cigarette smoking is connected to life expectancy.

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(

A correlation coefficient can range from -1 to +1

(−1) indicates a very strong inverse relationship
(+1) indicates a very strong positive relationship.
(0) indicates no relationship between the two variables.

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3. Experimental Research Methods

Experimentation involves manipulation of one or more IVs & then the measurement of the effect of the treatment on one or more DV.

Example; a researcher might be curious to know the impact of music on stress:

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Variables in ER

Independent Variable (IV):

The variable which is manipulated by an experimenter to see its effect on DV.
Music is an IV in the above example

Dependent Variable (DV):

The variable which changes as a consequence of changes in the IV.
Stress is DV in the above example

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Types of groups in experimental research

Experimental group:

A group comprising participants who receive the experimental treatment in an experiment.

Control group:

A group in an experiment comprising participants who don’t receive the treatment.
It serves as a baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared.

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Identify the IV & DV of the following research topics

Activity 2

The effect of reading technique on academic performance.
Did a violent TV program increase aggression in young children?
Are people in good mood more willing to help others more than those in bad mood?

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Steps of Scientific Research �

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Defining the Problem

Noticing something attention catching in the surrounding.

Example-watching horror movies & aggressive behavior in children

Formulating the Hypothesis

Example: children who watch violent cartoons will become more aggressive than those who watch non-violent cartoons‖.

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3. Testing the Hypothesis

Example: Collecting data from children who watch aggressive videos & from those who don’t watch aggressive videos & make comparisons.

4. Drawing Conclusions

An attempt to make generalizations or draw implications

5. Reporting Results

This allows others to predict & modify behavior based on the findings.

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CHAPTER TWO�SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

The meanings of sensation and perception
Sensation and perception are the first important dimensions of human life.

- they are starting points for all of your other psychological processes.

They supply the data we use for learning and remembering, thinking and problem solving, communicating with others, and experiencing emotions and for being aware of yourself.

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sensation
is the process whereby stimulation of receptor cells in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and surface of the skin sends nerve impulses to the brain.
are closely tied to what is happening in the sensory systems themselves.
E.g. Color, brightness, the pitch of tone or a bitter taste

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Perception is the process that organizes sensations into meaningful patterns.
It is the process whereby the brain interprets sensations, giving them order and meaning.
Thus, hearing sounds and seeing colors is largely a sensory process, but forming a melody and detecting patterns and shapes is largely a perceptual process.

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the difference between sensation and perception �

for example, the black marks and letters in this page.
Visual sensation lets you detect the black marks.
Visual perception lets you organize the black marks into letters and works.

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The sensory laws:

Sensory thresholds
sensory adaption

Sensory thresholds: is the minimum point of intensity a sound can be detected.

There are two laws of sensory threshold:

The law of absolute threshold and
the law of difference threshold.

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The law of absolute threshold: The minimum amount of stimulation a person can detect
Limen,
for example, a cup of coffee would require a certain amount of sugar before you could detect a sweet taste.
the minimum level of stimulation that can be detected

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The difference threshold
Is changes in the intensity of a stimulus.
Is the minimum amount of change that can be detected.
For example, a cup of coffee would require a certain amount of additional sugar before you could detect an increase in its sweetness.
the minimum change in stimulation that can be detected
This difference in threshold is called the just noticeable difference (jnd).

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Sensory Adaptation
Is tendency of our sensory receptors to have decreasing responsiveness to unchanging stimulus
lets you detect potentially important change in your environment while ignoring unchanging aspects of it.

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Perception
is a meaning making process
the major characteristics of the perceptual process:
selectivity of perception,
from perception,
depth perception,
perceptual constancy, and
perceptual illusion.

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Selectivity of perception: Attention

the term given to the perceptual process that selects certain inputs for inclusion in your conscious experience, or awareness, at any given time, ignoring others.
What does this selectivity of perception imply?
The selectivity of perception implies that, among other things, that our field of experience is divided into what is known as ―Focus‖ and ―Margin.‖
Events or stimuli that you perceive clearly are the focus of your experience and other items or stimuli that you perceive dimly or vaguely are in the margin of your attention.

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internal psychological states of the observer that affect as to which stimulus on pays attention to or ignore
Psychologists have identified two important psychological factors:
Set or expectancy and
motives or needs.

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From perception

meaningful shapes or patterns or ideas that are made perhaps out of meaningless and discrete or pieces and bites of sensations
To perceive forms (meaningful shapes or patterns), you need to distinguish a figure (an object) from its ground (or its surrounding).
Figure-Ground Perception
is the perception of objects and forms of everyday experience as standing out from a background.

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Factors that determine your attention equally determine what should become the figure and what should become the ground.
what helps you in general to separate the figure from the general around in your visual perception?
This will take you to the second feature of form perception called contours.

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Contours in Form Perception �

Contours are formed whenever a marked difference occurs in the brightness or color of the background.
contours give shape to the objects in our visual world because they mark one object off from another or they mark an object off from the general ground.
When contours are disrupted visually, as in camouflage, objects are difficult to distinguish from the background.

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Organization in form Perception

When several objects are present in the visual field, we tend to perceive them as organized into patterns or groupings.
The Gestalt psychologists studied such organization intensively in the early part of this century.
They emphasized that organized perceptual experience has properties, which cannot be predicated from a simple analysis of the components.
We see objects as objects only because grouping processes operate in perception.

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What are some of the laws of perceptual organization ?

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2. Proximity:

Items which are close together in space or time tend to be perceived as units.

Things that are relatively close to one another tend to be grouped together.

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3. Similarity

Objects of similar shape, intensity, or color are grouped together.

Here, items that look similar will be seen as parts of the same form.

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4. Closure

We tend to perceive a complete object even though parts of it is missing.

We tend to fill out incomplete details to form “good figures”

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Example: read the following passage OUTLOUD:�

Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Hramya Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.

So much for correct spelling, right?

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5. Continuation

lines, patterns or objects tend to be seen as continuing in one direction even if interrupted by another object.

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II. Depth perception

How do we recover a 3-D world from a 2-D retinal image?

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II. Depth perception

Depth perception: the ability to see three dimensional space and to accurately judge distances. (is the ability to judge the distance of the objects.

The retinal image is only two-dimensional; height and width.
From the two-dimensional images, we somehow are able to see three dimensional objects.

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Images of the Eyes and Retina

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Depth Cues:

We determine distance using two different cues:

Monocular cues
Binocular cues

Depth Cues: Features that supply information about distance and space.

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A. Monocular cues

Monocular cues: those cues which can be seen using only one eye.

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Types of monocular cues

Relative Size: larger images are perceived as closer to us, especially if the two images are of the same object.

The rabbits in the top of the image appear to be farther away than the rabbits at the bottom of the image.

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2. Interposition�

Due to overlap, those objects covering part of another object is perceived as closer.

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3. Linear Perspective�

Two parallel lines appear to converge at the horizon, as the further away they get.

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4. Texture Gradient

Objects seen at greater distances appear to be smoother and less textured.

the nearer an object, the more details we can make out and the farther an object, the more details we can make out, and the farther an object, the fewer details we can make out.

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5. Elevation

The higher on the horizontal plane an object is, the farther away it appears.

Objects that are higher in your visual field seem to be farther away. If you paint a picture, you create depth by placing more distant objects higher on the Canvas.

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�Without the monocular cues, pictures seem “flat.”

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B. Binocular cues

Binocular cues: those cues in which both eyes are needed to perceive depth.

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Types of binocular views �

Retinal disparity: The differences between the two retinal images of the same scene as seen by the left eye and right eye.

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Examples of retinal disparity

The gap in the left image differs

from the gap in the right image.

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2. Convergence

As things get closer, your eyes get more crossed or converged.

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Perceptual constancies�

Perceptual constancy: our tendency to perceive objects as keeping their size, shape & color even though the image that strikes our retina changes from moment to moment.

The image of a given object focused on your retina may vary in size, shape, and brightness.
Yet you will continue to perceive the object as stable in size, shape, and brightness because of perceptual constancy.

There are typically three constancies;

Size constancy
Shape constancy
Brightness constancy

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Size constancy:

Our ability to recognize that an object remains constant in size regardless of its distance to the observer.

No matter how far away the balloon is from you, you know how large it is.

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2. Shape constancy;

Our ability to recognize a shape regardless of the angle from which you view it.

Regardless of the angle, we still perceive all the doors as rectangles.

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3. Brightness constancy:

Our ability to recognize that color remains the same regardless of how it looks under different levels of light.

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Perceptual Illusion: Visual Illusion �

Common types of illusions include;

Perceptual illusion: refers an inappropriate interpretation of the physical reality.

Visual Illusion: occurs when two objects produce almost the same retinal image but are perceived as different images.

Ponzo illusion
Horizontal-vertical illusion
Muller-Lyer illusion
Moon illusion

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Chapter Three�Learning & Theories of Learning

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Objectives

At the end of this unit, you are expected to:

Explain the general features of learning.
Use the behaviorist & cognitive theories to explain how learning occur
Design techniques to reinforce behavior & improve memory.

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The Nature of Learning

Learning shapes our thought & language, our motivations & emotions, our personalities & attitudes.
Quite literally we learn all our lives.

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What is learning to you?
What makes it different from maturation & development?

Activity 1

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The Meaning of learning

With reference to Psychology;

Learning: refers to any relatively permanent change in behavior (positive & negative) occurring as a result of experience or practice.

For a layperson;

Learning is knowledge or skill gained through schooling or study that is usually perceived as a positive change.

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Attributes/characteristics of learning

Learning is marked by a change
The change is relatively permanent
Doesn’t include change due to

Illness
Fatigue
Intoxication
Hormones & neurotransmitters.

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Principles of learning

Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally & emotionally ready.
Individuals learn best when they have meaningful practice and exercise.
Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant feeling.
Individuals learn more from the real thing than from a substitute.
Things freely learned are best learned

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Factors Influencing Learning

Motivation
Maturation
Physical health condition
Psychological wellbeing
Learning environments
Length of the working period

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How Do We Learn?

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Theories of Learning

There are three theories of learning that explain how new behavior is learned.

Behavioral Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory
Cognitive Learning Theory

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I. Behaviorism: Learning by Association

There are two theories under Behaviorism

Major arguments

Learning occurs as a result of stimulus-response associations.
Experience plays significant role in governing behavior.

Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning

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Classical Conditioning�

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Founder: Ivan Pavlov (Russian Physiologist)

Born in Sep 26,1849
Awarded a Degree in natural sciences in 1875.
Won the Nobel price in Physiology in 1904
Died in Feb 27, 1936

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Brief overview of Pavlov’s Experiment

Pavlov discovered classical conditioning almost by accident.
Originally, he had been studying the role of salivation in digestion.
He measured how much saliva dogs produce when given meat.
After a few days in the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his laboratory started salivating

When the lab attendant entered the room with the meat dish.

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Video on Pavlov’s Experiment

..\..\..\..\Downloads\Video\Pavlovs Dogs.mp4

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Steps in Classical conditioning ��

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Classical conditioning: is when a neutral stimulus gradually gain the ability to elicit a response because of its former pairing with a natural/unconditioned stimulus.

Stimulus: a physical energy source that has an effect on a sense organ, thus producing a response.
Response: an action, behavior, or reaction triggered by a stimulus.

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The key element in classical conditioning is association.
It means that if two stimuli repeatedly experienced together, they will become associated.

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Basics/Key terms in classical conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

This is a stimulus that naturally brings a response without having been learned

Example; smell of food causes salivation

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

This is a response that is natural and needs no training

Example; salivation at the smell of food

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3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS-Bell)

A stimulus that brings a response while paired with the unconditioned stimulus (meat).

Example; while the bell rings, the dog salivates because, the dog associated the bell with food due to conditioning.

4. Conditioned Response (CR)

It is the learned response that is evoked by the conditioned stimulus.

Example; The dog’s salivation in response to sound of the bell (in the absence of meat)

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Principles of Classical Conditioning

Stimulus generalization: when stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus produce similar response.
Stimulus discrimination: learning to respond to certain stimuli & not to respond to others.
Extinction: unlearning a learned response because of the removal of the original source of learning (US)
Spontaneous Recovery: returning to the original circumstances.

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2. Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

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Why do horses gallop faster when the rider whips them?
Why do we find surprise gifts in the packs of detergents?
Why do employees who earn profit to the organization get a bonus at the end of year?

The answers to all these questions can be found in the operant conditioning approach

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Proponents/founders

Edward Thorndike
B.F. Skinner

Edward Thorndike (1874- 1949)

B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)

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Law of Effect

Behavior that brings about a satisfying effect (reinforcement) is apt to be performed again.
Whereas behavior that brings about negative effect (punishment) is apt to be suppressed.

Thorndike (1874- 1949) was the pioneer in studying this kind of learning.
Skinner (1904–1990) further expanded Thorndike‘s ideas.
Thorndike formulated the Law of Effect.

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According to operant conditioning:

Organisms learn by associating a behavior & its consequence.

There are two concepts in operant conditioning;

Reinforcement
Punishment

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Reinforcement: is anything that causes a response to be more likely to happen again.

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Punishment: stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to occur.

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Types of reinforcement and punishment

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Which type of reinforcement & punishment is applied?

Second-grade students in Dallas, USA were paid $2 each time they read a book & passed a short quiz about the book-PR
If someone nags you all the time to study, but stops nagging when you comply, your studying is likely to increase - because you will then avoid the nagging-NR
Car manufacturers plug a device in their seatbelt systems, which go “beep, beep” until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior-NR

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Schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement: denotes a rule for when reinforcers will be given following the performance of a desired behavior.

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Types reinforcement schedules

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Identify Types reinforcement schedules

Factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured-FR
Gambling-VR
A teacher receives his salary every month-FI
A grade is assigned at the end of every semester-FI�

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When does punishment work?��

Schedule of punishment: punishment is more effective when it is delivered consistently.
Intensity of punishment: intensive physical punishment in childhood is a risk factor for depression, low self-esteem, violent behavior.
Immediacy: punishment should be immediate
Variation of the punishment: varying the type & extent of the punishment enhances effect of punishment .

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3. Observational/Social Learning Theory�

The prime proponent of this theory is Albert Bandura.

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Social learning theory believes that people learn by observing or imitating other people.

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Processes of Observational Learning

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4. Cognitive Learning Theory

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Did we learn as a result of mere association of stimulus and response; or was it learnt just because we were reinforced for it?
Why does a soldier keep resisting the strong enemy without caring for his life even when he can escape?

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According to cognitive learning theory

Learning is more than just stimulus-response association or reward and punishment.
All human intellectual activities and potentials, i.e. thinking, problem solving, and learning require mental processes.
Internal processes are essential in understanding Behavior

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Chapter Four�Memory and Forgetting

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Memory: Overview

“If you lose the ability to recall your old memories then you have no life. You might as well be a cabbage”

James McGaugh (2003)

Without memory, we would be a stranger for every thing.
It is our memory that enables us to enjoy an experience and then mentally replay and enjoy it again.

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Brain storming Questions

What do you think is a memory?
What are the biological bases of memory?

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Biological basis of memory: Hippocampus

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Meaning and Processes of Memory

Memory

Refers to our ability to retain information about past experiences
A process by which we encode, store and retrieve information.

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Processes of Memory

Memory is a process analogous to a computer, which encodes, stores & retrieves information.

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Encoding: getting information in
Storage: retaining information for future use
Retrieval: recovering information from memory storage

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Structures/ Forms/Stages of Memory

Richard Atkinson & Shiffrin (1971) proposed ‘tripartite models of memory;

Sensory Memory/Register (SM)
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Long- Term Memory (LTM)

Stages of memory: indicates how information is represented in memory, how long it lasts and how it is organized.

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How do these memory structures differ?�

Each of the three structure differs in the following ways.

The content of information,
The capacity & duration of information,
The way information is stored,
The causes of information loss

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1. Sensory Memory/Registrar: SM��

Refers the initial, momentary recording of information in our sensory systems.
Lasts only very briefly and then lost, unless it is attended & processed,
Information in this memory is a very accurate & complete representation of the environment but it is unprocessed.

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Capacity of sensory memory

Very large: stores all information reaching our senses for a brief time.

Duration if the information is;

Visual information: Iconic memory

A maximum of 1 second and 11-16 items of info.

Auditory information: Echoic memory

A maximum of 2 seconds.

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2. Short Term Memory: STM�

This is the place where information is temporarily kept for less than 1 minute.
STM is also known as working memory, immediate memory, active memory & primary memory.
The capacity of STM is limited to a very small “bits” of information only 7+2.

More recent research suggests that the average person, free from distraction, can hold about: 7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words.

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The information in STM is fragile and easy to lose.

Ways of retention of information in STM;

Rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information mentally or out loud (e.g., a person‘s name, e-mail address, or phone number)
Elaborative Rehearsal: involves associating the information to different things and persons

2. Chunking:

The process of organizing information into smaller groupings

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Examples of Chunking

How many of the letters do you remember?

U-D-F-O-E-S-R-B-M-T-A-C-I-N-V

USA-DRC-FBI-OMN-ETV

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3. Long Term Memory

Used for relatively permanent storage of meaningful information.
LTM stores information for indefinite periods.
The capacity of LTM also has no practical limits.

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Sub-systems of LTM:

Declarative/Explicit/Memory: refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered.

Episodic memory: memories for firsthand experiences/events that we have had (e.g. graduation day).
Semantic memory: our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world

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Why implicit?

You don’t have to consciously remember the steps involved in these actions to perform them

2. Implicit/non-declarative memory;

Refers to knowledge that we cannot consciously access;

Procedural memory: it is the knowledge of procedures or skills:

Examples;

Riding a bike/car
Tying your shoe laces

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Serial Position Effect

Bed
Fresh
Egg
Teacher
Radio
Alarm
Tomato
Sugar
Blanket
Beer
Hospital
Freedom
Election

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Forgetting: Meaning & Concepts

What is forgetting?
what causes forgetting?
Is forgetting bad/good?

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Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting

It is the apparent loss of information already stored & encoded in the LTM.
It is the inability to recall what has been learned.

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Theories of Forgetting

The Decay Theory
Interference theory
Displacement Theory
Motivated Forgetting
Cue Dependent Forgetting

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Decay Theory/Disuse�

Memory traces/engram fades with time if they are not accessed now and then.

Hermann Ebbinghaus first began to study forgetting using nonsense syllables
He used 3-letter nonsense syllables that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF)

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2. Interference Theory

Forgetting occurs because similar items of information interfere on another in either storage or retrieval.

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Types of Interference

proactive

Interference

Retroactive

Interference

Proactive interference: when old learning interferes with new one (Example: Old password interferes with the new password)
Retroactive interference: when new learning interferes with old one (Example; new phone number interferes with old one)

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3.Displacement Theory

New information entering in the memory can wipe out old information.
Just as recording on an audio or videotape will obliterate/wipe out the original material.

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4. Motivated Forgetting

Freud maintained that people forget those memories that are too threatening or painful to live with.
According to this theory, people forget because they are motivated to forget.

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5. Cue Dependent Forgetting

Often when we need to remember, we rely on retrieval cues

Retrieval cue: items of information that can help us find the specific information we‘re looking for.
This is the “tip of the tongue phenomenon”

When we lack retrieval cues, we may feel as if we have lost the password for our email account.

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Improving Memory

Pay attention and reduce interference
Make a connection between new information and what you already know.
Chunking-Organization
Use distributed practice than massed practice-due to the serial position effect
Testing oneself: than reviewing/rereading
Overlearning: continue to study known material
Communicate: say what you are studying out loud, it helps to order it and learn it

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Chapter Five�Motivation and Emotion

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I. Motivation

The word motivation:comes from the Latin word “Mover’, which means “to move’.
Motivation: any force that initiate, energizes, directs and sustain a behavior.

Intrinsic motivation: when the act itself is satisfying in some internal manner.
Extrinsic motivation: when the act leads to an outcome that is external to a person.

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Approaches/Theories of motivation

Instinct Theory
Drive-reduction Theory
Arousal Theory
Incentive Theory
Cognitive Theory
Humanistic theory

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1. Instinct Theory

States that motivation is the result of innate, genetic programming (unlearned).

Examples of instincts;

Curiosity
Migrating
Sucking
Grasping
Parental love

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2. Drive Reduction Theory

Drive theories assume that people are always trying to reduce internal tension (Physiological need)

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3. Arousal Theory

Our needs go beyond reducing drives.
This is engaging in certain activity to increase excitement

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4. Incentive Theory

According to incentive theory, motivation comes from the environment around you.

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5. Humanistic Theory

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) suggested that human motives are organized in to a hierarchy of needs.
He said that lower level needs must be met before higher level needs.

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

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II: Emotion

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II: Emotion

Emotion is derived from the Latin word “Emovere” means “to excite/ agitate”.
Emotion: a state characterized by

Physiological arousal (heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration etc.
Behavioral changes (facial expressions, gestures, posture),
Subjective feelings (labeling it as: anger, fear, happiness, sadness)

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Theories of emotion

James- Lang Theory of Emotion

Argued that physiological changes precede emotional experiences.
“I am afraid because I am aroused’, I’m embarrassed because my face is red

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2.Cannon-Bard Theory

Argued that physiological & psychological reactions occur at the same time.

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3. Schechter-Singer

Proposed that the physical arousal and labeling of the arousal have to happen before emotion occurs:

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Chapter Six�Personality �

Who am I?

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Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

Explain what personality is in general
Explain personality using the different theories
Identify the basic features of personality theories

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What is personality?

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Definition of Personality

The word personality comes from the Latin term "persona“ (mask) worn by Greek actors)

Individual’s consistent patterns of feeling, thinking & behaving across time & situations.
The sum total of characteristics on the basis of which people can be differentiated from each other.

Personality includes everything about the person

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Theories of Personality�

The Psychoanalytic Perspective
The Learning Perspective
The Humanistic Perspective
The Biological Perspective
The Trait Perspective

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I. Psychoanalytic Theory

Level of consciousness
Structure of personality
Defense mechanisms
Psycho-sexual stages

Freud’s theory involves four components:

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The Levels of Consciousness

The Conscious mind : contains all the things of which a person is aware at any moment.
The Preconscious mind : contains information that a person is not aware of at the moment, but easily accessible when needed.
The Unconscious mind: a safe haven for our recollection of painful experiences that determines human behavior & personality.

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II. Structure of personality

Freud held that personality consisted of three separate, but interacting components:

They are not actual physical structures found in certain part of the brain.
They represent aspects of personality that describe the interaction of various processes and forces.

Id
Ego
Super Ego

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A. Id: If it feels good, do it

Unconscious immoral part of the personality that exists at birth.
Contains all of the basic biological drives, for example, hunger, thirst, sex, aggression.
These drives are fueled by―psychic energy (libido), as Freud called it.
Operates according to the pleasure principle.
Its goal is reduction of tension and the maximization of satisfaction.

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B. The Super Ego: The Moral-Watchdog

Helps to integrate broad moral values of society.
These broad moral values are learned through

Socialization process in the family
Religious institutions
From the community at large.

Super ego has two parts,

The conscience: prevents us from doing immoral things.
The ego ideal: motivates us to do what is morally proper.

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C. Ego: The Executive Director

Conscious, rational & logical than the Id.
Makes decisions, controls actions, and allows problem solving of higher order
Mediates opposing tendencies of the id & the superego and enables to adjust to the environment.
Ego develops around the second year of child's life when the child interacts with reality.

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Example

A person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality.
However, imbalances in the system can lead to neurosis (negative emotions & unhealthy behavior)

A person who is dominated by his Id might be

Narcissistic
Impulsive.

A person with a dominant Superego might be

Controlled by feelings of guilt
Restrain from socially acceptable pleasures
Overly defensive

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III. Defense Mechanisms�

For Freud, our personality is the outcome of continual battle among the id, the ego & superego.
Their struggle for dominance sometimes produces anxiety & guilt.
To protect against anxiety and guilt, people use “psychological Defense mechanisms”.

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1. Repression

Involves banishing threatening thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious.

Example

Let’s say your car is making a strange noise, but because you don’t have the money to get it fixed, you just turn up the radio so that you no longer hear the strange noise. Eventually you forget about it.
A person who witnesses his parents having sex is later unable to remember anything about the event.�

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2. Regression

This is a retreat to earlier or primitive forms of behavior.

3. Denial

This is refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation.

Example; A five-year-old child who resents the arrival of a newborn sibling may act like a baby and revert to drinking out of a bottle.

Example; Denying that your physician's diagnosis of cancer is correct and seeking a second opinion

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4. Rationalization

This is giving a plausible and acceptable reason for one's behavior in order to hide one's real motives.

Example

Stating that you were fired because you didn't kiss up the boss, when the real reason was your poor performance.
A woman with a closet full of dresses buys a new one because she doesn't have anything to wear.

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5. Displacement

Involves expressing feelings toward a person who is less threatening than the person who is the true target.

Example:

Slamming a door instead of hitting the person,
yelling at your spouse after an argument with your boss.

6. Projection

Involves attributing one's own undesirable feelings to other people.

Example;

When losing an argument, you state, “You're just Stupid”.

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7. Reaction Formation

This is taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes anxiety.
Acting in a manner exactly opposite to our true feelings.

Example;

Someone may be extremely calm and relaxed, but may have a lot of repressed hostility and anger that they are unaware of on a conscious level.

8. Undoing

This is the attempt to take back an unconscious behavior or thought that is unacceptable or hurtful.

Example

After realizing you just insulted your significant other unintentionally, you might spend then the next hour praising their beauty, charm & intellect.

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9. Sublimation

Involves expressing sexual or aggressive behavior through indirect, socially acceptable outlets.

Example:

Sublimating your aggressive impulses toward a career as a boxer;

10. Compensation

Involves psychologically counter-balancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other arenas.

Example

When a person says, “I may not know how to cook, but I can sure do the dishes!,” they’re trying to compensate for their lack of cooking skills by emphasizing their cleaning skills.

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IV. Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development�

According to Freud

If people look at the development of their behavior, they could gain insight into their current behavior.
The first five years have a decisive effect on the development of adult personality.
From birth on we have an innate tendency to seek pleasure through stimulation of parts of the body that are sensitive to touch:

Mouth,
Anus &
Genitals.

Freud called these parts Erogenous Zones.
All people pass through five critical stages of personality development.

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Conflicts that are not fully resolved can result in fixation.

The child may grow into an adult but will still carry emotional and psychological “baggage” from that earlier fixed stage.

Fixation:

Reversing to an earlier stage of psychosexual development and displaying the childish behavior.
Being developmentally arrested or stopped at a particular stage.

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Oral Stage (Birth-18 months) �

The “baby‘s mouth” is the focal point of pleasure.
The infant interacts with the world mainly through “eating”.
Infants at this stage suck, and bite anything that will fit into their mouth.

Infants who receive either too little or too much gratification become fixated or locked in the oral stage

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A child with too little oral gratification will have the following characteristics

Over eating & drinking too much,
Chain smoking & talking too much,
Nail biting & gum chewing and
Aggressive and pessimistic

A child with too much oral gratification will have the following characteristics

Dependent and optimistic
Demand satisfaction from others
Act in a needy way.

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2. Anal Stage (18 months-3 years) �

The major source of pleasure changes from the mouth to the anal region.
Children are trained about toilet.
Children derive considerable pleasure from both retention & expulsion of feces.

If this toilet training was either too harsh or too lenient, children would become fixated in the anal stage and become likely to regress to this stage

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Anal expulsive personalities: If parents had been too lenient

Messy
Careless
Disorganized
Prone to emotional outbursts

Anal retentive personality: If parents had been very harsh

Stingy
Stubborn
Excessively neat
Orderly
Punctual.

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3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years )

Interest focuses on the genitals and pleasure is derived from fondling them.

Pleasure comes from masturbation & sex play.
The penis is the focus for both boys & girls.

Children at this engage in a childhood game called “I will show you mine, if you show me yours.”

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I. Girls experience Penis Envy & Electra Complex

A. Penis Envy

Girls would feel that they were missing something vital (Penis) and could not be complete without it, leading to feelings of inferiority called “penis envy”.

B. Electra Complex

Similarly, girls develop sexual attractions to their fathers and jealousy of their mothers.

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II. Boys experience Castration Anxiety & Oedipus Complex:

Castration Anxiety

Boys up on seeing that the girls had no penis, would think that the penis can be lost or cut off and develop a fear of losing the penis.

B. Oedipus Complex:

Boys develop both sexual attractions to their mothers and jealousy of their fathers during this stage.

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Fixation in the phallic stage involves

Immature sexual attitudes
Promiscuous sexual behavior & being very vain.
Adult males behave in a brash, boastful, and reckless manner.
Men may be “mamma’s boys” who never quite grow up
Women may look for much older father figures to marry.

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4. Latency Stage (6-11 years)�

At this stage:

Children will remain in dormant sexual feelings.
Children develop intellectually, physically & socially but not sexually.
Boys play with other boys, girls play only with girls, and each thinks the opposite sex is pretty awful.

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5. Genital Stage (Age 12 and above) �

During this stage

Sexual feelings reemerge & the focus is on mature adult sexuality (sexual intercourse).
The focus of sexual curiosity & attraction will become

Other adolescents,
Rock stars,
Movie stars and
Other objects of adoration.

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II. Behaviorist view of personality

Behaviorists do not believe in biological determinism:
They do not see personality traits as inborn.
They view personality as significantly shaped by the reinforcements and consequences.
Believe that environment was solely responsible for all behavior.
Argue that personality is best understood by looking at features of a person‘s environment.

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III. Biological Approaches

Bio-psychologists believe that personality is inherited & physiological processes determine differences in personalities.

How much of our personality is inborn?

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In the field of behavioral genetics, the Minnesota Study of Twins conducted research on 350 pairs of twins from 1979 to 1999.
Findings of the study indicated Identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities.
These heritable traits includes;

Leadership skills
Obedience to authority
Intelligence
Resistance to stress & fear

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Constitutional psychology examines the relationship between the structure of the human body and behavior.
According to William H. Sheldon, your body type can be linked to your personality.
Sheldon proposed three body types (somatotypes)

Ectomorphs
Endomorphs
Mesomorphs

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Ectomorphs: are thin with a small bone structure and very little fat on their bodies.

Personality type:

Anxious, self-conscious, artistic, thoughtful, quiet, and private.
They enjoy intellectual stimulation and
Feel uncomfortable in social situations.

Endomorphs: Endomorphs have narrow shoulders and wide hips, and carry extra fat on their round bodies.

Personality type:

Relaxed, comfortable, good-humored, even-tempered, sociable, and tolerant.
Endomorphs enjoy affection and detest disapproval.

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3. Mesomorph

have large bone structure, well-defined muscles, broad shoulders, narrow waists, and attractive, strong bodies.

Personality type:

Adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless.
They are curious and enjoy trying new things, but can also be obnoxious and aggressive.

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Skinner

Human beings are infinitely changeable.
Personality develops over our entire life, not only in the first few years.
Our responses can change as we come across new situations;

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IV. Humanistic Theories of Personality �

Founders;

Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers

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Abrham Maslow (1908-1970)

Studied people who were considered to be healthy, creative, and productive.
Motivational processes lie at the very core of personality development.
Depicted the human being as a ‘’wanting organism’’ who rarely reaches a state of complete satisfaction.
Humans have five hierarchy of needs.

Physiological needs
Safety and security needs
Belongingness and love needs
Self-esteem needs
Self-actualization needs.

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Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Human beings are always striving to fulfill their innate capacities and become everything they want.
An important tool in human self-actualization is the development of self-concept.
Positive regard is vital to cope with stress and to strive to achieve self-actualization.

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If your response is primarily positive,

You tend to feel good about who you are
You see the world as a safe & positive place.

If your response is mainly negative,

You may feel unhappy with who you are.

How would you respond to the question, “Who am I?”

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The self is divided into two categories:

The Ideal Self: The person that you would like to be;
The Real Self: The person you actually are.

We need to achieve congruence between these two selves.

High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth & productive life
Great discrepancy between ideal & actual selves lead to abnormality.

This can be achieved by giving unconditional positive regard.

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Major tents of Humanistic theory

Each of us is responsible for who we are and what we become.
Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself.
Each person is the chief architect of his/her behavior and experience.
We are solely responsible for the choices we make.

WE ARE OUR CHOICES!

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V. Trait Theories

All people possess certain traits, but that the degree to which a particular trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified.
The most common way to describe people is to list these traits or qualities possessed by them.
The following theorists are famous for their work on personality studies using traits.

Golden Allport
Raymond Cattell
Hans Eysenck
Robert McCrae & Paul Costa (Five-factor)

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The Big Five: Five factor Personality model

This is the recent approach to understand personality traits.
The five factors are

Openness to experience
Conscientiousness,
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism (Emotional stability)

These can be remembered by using the acronym “OCEAN”

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Openness to experience	Open	Rigid
Openness to experience	Curios, Imaginative Creative	Uncreative Conforming predictable
Conscientiousness	Conscientious	Impulsive
Conscientiousness	Responsible persevering self-disciplined Punctual	Quick to give up Fickle Careless Negligent
Extraversion	Extroversion	Introversion
Extraversion	Outgoing Talkative Sociable Adventurous Optimistic	Shy Silent, Lonely Watchful

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Agreeableness	Agreeable	Antagonistic
Agreeableness	Good natured Cooperative Trusting Friendly	Irritable Harsh Suspicious Jealous
Neuroticism	Neurotic	Emotionally stable
Neuroticism	Anxious Impulsive Worrier Insecure	Calm Secure Relaxed Stable

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Chapter Seven�Abnormal Behaviors & Psychotherapy �

At the end of this unit, you are expected to:

Identify the criteria used for defining psychological disorders.
Distinguish the different types, features and symptoms of psychological disorders.
Use different theories to explain the nature of abnormality.

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Have you ever had an encounter with a person with mental disorder?
How do you know that the person is with mental disorder?

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Historical Definition of Abnormality

Ancient people assumed that people who were behaving oddly were possessed by evil sprits.

As a result they used trepanning & exorcism as a healing technique.

Trepanning: cutting holes into the skull of a living person aiming to release the “demons”.

Exorcism: formal casting out of the demon through a religious ritual.

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Contemporary Definition of Abnormality

There are different ways in which abnormal behavior can be defined. These are:

What is Abnormality?

Statistical Deviation
Subjective Discomfort
Maladaptiveness

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Frequently occurring behavior would be considered normal, and behavior that is rare would be abnormal.

When someone behaves in culturally unacceptable ways, this person is most likely to have a psychological problem.

Statistical deviation

However, a mere deviation from the mass can’t be sufficient for diagnosis.
Hence, we need to consider the context in which a person‘s behavior happens.

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Examples of statistical deviation & Abnormality �

But, if you felt extremely depressed;

So much that you lost interest in activities
Had difficulty eating or sleeping
Felt utterly worthless, and
Contemplated suicide

Your feelings would be atypical, would deviate from the norm, and could signify the presence of a psychological disorder.

If you ask a classmate for a date & you are rejected, you probably would feel a little disappointed. Such feelings would be normal.

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Statistical deviation but not Abnormality �

Although, red hair is considered an atypical characteristic, but it is not considered disordered, it’s just unusual.

For example, only about 4% of people in the United States have red hair.

Just because something is atypical, however, does not necessarily mean it is disordered.

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This refers experiencing a great deal of discomfort or emotional distress while engaging in a particular behavior.

2. Subjective Discomfort

However, all abnormal behavior does not necessarily create subjective discomfort in the person communicating the act.

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This refers inability to function normally & fit into society.

This is when the person finds it hard to adapt to the demands of day-to- day living.

3. Maladaptiveness

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In general

Psychological disorder is any pattern of behavior, thoughts & inner experiences that is;

Deviant
Distressful
Dysfunctional
Dangerous

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Perspectives on Psychological Disorders�

Assumes that mental disorders arise from such physical causes such as;

Genetic factors
Chemical imbalances &
Brain abnormalities

The Biological Perspective

Example

A person with schizophrenia would be diagnosed by prescribing drugs to restore the balance of dopamine.

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Freud believed that the human mind consists of three interacting forces:

Id: pool of biological urges
Ego: mediates between the id & reality
Superego: represent society‘s moral standards

2. Psychoanalytic perspective

Therefore, abnormal behavior is caused by the ego’s inability to manage the conflict between the opposing demands of the id and the superego.

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People acquire abnormal behaviors through the various kinds of learning.

People's ways of thinking (internal dialogue) about events in their life determines their emotional and behavioral patterns.

Self-defeating thoughts lead to the development of negative emotions & self-destructive behaviors.

3. Learning perspective

4. Cognitive perspective

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Classification of Psychological Disorders

Currently, there are two classification systems.

DSM: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
ICD: International Classification of Diseases

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For our purpose, we will see eight classifications of psychological disorders

Anxiety Disorders
Obsessive-Compulsive Related Disorders
Somatoform Disorders
Dissociative Disorders
Mood Disorders
Personality Disorders
Schizophrenia
Sexual Disorders

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1. Anxiety Disorders�

Disorders characterized by excessive or unrealistic anxiety.
An anxiety disorder has five different categories.

Phobic Disorders
Social Anxiety Disorder
Panic Disorder
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

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This is an irrational & persistent fear of something.
The “something” might be an object or a situation.

Phobic Disorders

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Examples of Specific Phobias

Phobia	Feared object/Situation
Acrophobia	Heights
Aerophobia	Flying
Arachnophobia	Spiders
Claustrophobia	Enclosed spaces
Cynophobia	Dogs
Hematophobia	Blood
Ophidiophobia	Snakes
Mysophobia	Fear of germs or dirt
Astraphobia	Fear of thunder and lightning
Trypanophobia	Injections
Zenophobia	Strangers
Zoophobia	Fear of small animals

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Involve a fear of interacting with others or being in a social situation.

People with a social phobia

Are afraid of being evaluated in some negative way by others.
Tend to avoid situations that could lead to something embarrassing.

B. Social Anxiety Disorder

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Some anxiety provoking situations include;

People with social phobia typically perform safety behaviors.

Public speaking
Having a conversation
Meeting strangers
Eating in restaurants &
Using public restrooms

Safety behaviors: mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in social situations.

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Some examples of Safety behaviors

Avoiding eye contact
Rehearsing sentences before speaking
Assuming roles in social situations that minimize interaction with others
Ask people many questions to keep the focus off of oneself
Wearing bland, neutral clothes to avoid drawing attention
Self-medication, such as drinking alcohol

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People with panic disorder experience recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks.

Along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks,

C. Panic disorders

A panic attack: is defined as a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly & reaches a peak within 10 minutes.

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Accelerated heart rate
Trembling
Choking sensations
Hot flashes or chills
Dizziness or lightheadedness
Fear of losing control or going crazy
Fears of dying

Symptoms

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This is a relatively continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable & pointless worry and apprehension.

D. Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Example

An individual may worry about her health and finances, the health of family members, the safety of her children, or minor matters (e.g., being late for an appointment) without having any legitimate reason for doing so.

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For a person to be diagnosed with PTSD, he/she must be exposed to, witness, or experience traumatic experience, this includes;

E. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Sexual violence
Combat
Natural disasters
Terrorist attacks
Car accidents
Imprisonment

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..\..\Disorder videos\PTSD\Impact Short Film Exploring PTSD by Elle Smart FIRST ACTS.mp4

Symptoms

Re-experiencing of the traumatic event: Flashbacks & nightmares
Avoidance of stimuli connected to the event
Persistent negative emotional states (fear, anger, guilt & shame)
Feelings of detachment from others

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2. Obsessive-Compulsive Related Disorders

Involve intrusive & unpleasant thoughts & repetitive behaviors.
Classified into three categories.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Hoarding Disorder

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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Experiencing thoughts & urges that are intrusive & unwanted (obsessions)
Engaging in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions).
This includes

Spending hours each day washing your hands
Constantly checking whether a stove or light has been turned off
Counting

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B. Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Perceived flaw in ones physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable.
A belief that a person is ugly or deformed.
This causes them to;

Constantly looking in the mirror
Hide the offending body part
Make comparisons with others
Engage in cosmetic surgery

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C. Hoarding Disorder:

These individuals accumulate excessive amounts of usually worthless items.
They have great difficulty parting with items because

They believe the items might be of some later use
They form a sentimental attachment to the items

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3. Mood Disorders�

What is the difference between mood & emotion?

Types of mood disorders

Common cold of psychological disorders.
Severe & pervasive distortion of ones emotional states.
Extreme mood fluctuations & inability to function normally.

Major Depressive
Bipolar Disorder

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A. Major Depressive Disorder/Unipolar

Depressed mood, nearly every day
Feeling sad, empty, hopeless
Low self esteem
Appearing tearful to others
Loss of interest & pleasure in usual activities. Such as;

Sports
Sex
Social events
Spending time with family

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Significant weight loss/weight gain
Significant decrease or increase in appetite
Difficulty falling asleep/Sleeping too much
Fatigue or loss of energy
Feelings of worthlessness or guilt;
Poor concentration
Suicidal ideation/Suicidal thought

To receive a diagnosis; one must experience a combination of the following symptoms.

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B. Bipolar disorder/Manic Depression

Experiencing mood states that vacillate between depression & mania
People with BPD are characterized by;

Extreme talkativeness with rapid speech
Excessive energy despite lack of sleep
Inflated but unjustified self-esteem
Assume many tasks simultaneously
Irritable & restless
Conversations with strangers

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4. Personality Disorders�

Personality disorders: are marked by inflexible, disruptive & enduring behavior patterns that impair social & other functioning-whether the sufferer recognizes that or not.

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The DSM-5 recognizes 10 personality disorders, organized into 3 different clusters.

Cluster A disorders: Odd & Eccentric

Paranoid personality disorder
Schizoid personality disorder
Schizotypal personality disorder

Cluster B disorders: Impulsive, Dramatic, Erratic

Antisocial personality disorder
Histrionic personality disorder
Narcissistic personality disorder
Borderline personality disorder

Cluster C disorders: Nervous & fearful

Avoidant personality disorder
Dependent personality disorder
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

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Cluster A disorders: Odd & Eccentric�

Paranoid:

Pervasive & unjustifiable suspiciousness & mistrust of others
Reluctant to confide in or become close to others;
Reads hidden & threatening meaning into caring events.
Often jealous, guarded, secretive, overly serious.
Takes offense easily and bears grudges (complaints);

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B. Schizoid

Lacks interest to form relationships with others;
Aloof and shows emotional coldness and detachment;
Indifferent to approval or criticism of others;
Humorless, distant, daydreamer & absorbed with own feelings
Lacks close friends or confidants.

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C. Schizotypal

Exhibits oddness in thought, perception, emotion & speech
Peculiar or eccentric manners of speaking or dressing.
Strange beliefs & magical thinking
Difficulty forming relationships.

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II. Cluster B disorders: Dramatic & Erratic�

Antisocial

Continuously violates the rights of others
Often lies, fights, and has problems with the law;
Impulsive and fails to think ahead;
Deceitful and manipulative in order to gain profit or pleasure;
Irresponsible and fails to hold down a job or pay financial debts;
Lacks remorse over misdeeds.

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B. Histrionic

Excessively overdramatic, emotional, and theatrical;
Feels uncomfortable when not the center of others’ attention;
Grandiose language, provocative dress, exaggerated illnesses, all to gain attention.
Believes that everyone loves them.
Emotional & enthusiastic.

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C. Narcissistic

Overinflated & unjustified sense of self-importance.
Preoccupied with fantasies of success;
Assumes others will recognize they are superior.
Good first impressions but poor longer-term relationships.

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D. Borderline

Unstable in self-image, mood, and behavior;
Can’t tolerate being alone & chronic feelings of emptiness;
Mood swings, identity problems,
Unstable and intense relationships with others;
Impulsive, unpredictable, and self-damaging Behavior.

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III. Cluster C disorders: Nervous & Fearful�

A. Avoidant

Socially inhibited & oversensitive to negative evaluation;
Avoids occupations that involve interpersonal contact.
Feels inadequate and views self as socially inept and unappealing;
Unwilling to take risks or engage in new activities.

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B. Dependent

Allows others to take over and run their life;
Are submissive, clingy, and fears separation;
Can’t make decisions without advice & reassurance from others;
Lacks self-confidence; cannot do things on their own;
Feels uncomfortable or helpless when alone.

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C. Obsessive-Compulsive

Pervasive need for perfectionism;
Preoccupied with details, rules, order & schedules;
Excessive devotion to work at the expense of leisure & friendship.
Rigid, inflexible, and stubborn;

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5. Schizophrenia�

Schizophrenia: severe & devastating disorder characterized by

Disturbances in thought, perception, emotion & behavior.
Significant impairment in many day-to-day activities

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Symptoms of Schizophrenia�

Delusions:

False beliefs about the world that tend to remain fixed even in the face of evidence.

Paranoid/Delusions of Persecution:

A believe that others are trying to hurt them in some way.

Example; a person may believe that his mother is plotting with the FBI to poison his coffee

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B. Delusions of Reference

A believe that other people, television characters & books are specifically talking to them.

C. Delusions of Influence:

A believe that they are being controlled by external forces, such as the devil or cosmic forces.

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D. Delusions of Grandeur;

People are convinced that they are powerful people who can save the world or have a special mission.

E. Somatic Delusion

A belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one’s body (e.g. One's kidneys are being eaten by cockroaches).

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II. Hallucinations

Conditions in which people hear voices or see things or people that are not really there.

III. Speech Disturbance

Schizophrenic people will string words together on the basis of sounds (called clanging), such as

“Come into house, louse, mouse, mouse & cheese, please, sneeze”,

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IV. Disorganized motor behavior

Becoming unusually active & engaging in purposeless movements.
Exhibiting silly child-like behaviors (giggling & self-absorbed smiling),
Displaying odd facial expressions & gestures.
Maintaining rigid & bizarre posture for long periods of time.
Complete lack of movement and verbal behavior.

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Example

A person might laugh when it would be more appropriate to cry or show sorrow.

V. Emotional Disturbance

Noticeable decreases and absences in certain emotions or drives.
Emotions can also be excessive or inappropriate.

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Thank you!