B.Sc.- Third Year�Semester-VI�Paper Name –Applied Parasitology-II� � Paper No. – XIV-B

SWAMI RAMANAND TIRTH MARATHWADA UNIVARSITY , NANDED

Gramin (ACS)Mahavidyalaya vasantnagar, Kotgyal Tq. Mukhed Dist. Nanded

Dr. S. K. Pawar

Head and professor

Department of Zoology

(Parasitic Nematodes and Arthropods)

Syllabus

B. Sc. Third Year,

Semester -VI,

Paper no. – XIV - (B).

Paper Name:- Applied Parasitology - II (Parasitic Nematodes and Arthropods),

1. Introduction, Classification, General Organization of Animal Nematodes.

2. Study of Systematic Position, Geographical Distribution, Morphology, Life-Cycle, Pathogenicity, Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Treatment of :-

i) Enterobius Vermicularis.

ii) Ancylostoma duodenale.

iii) Wuchereria bancrofti.

3. Parasitic adaptation in Nematodes :-

i) Morphological adaptation.

ii) Physiological adaptation.

4. Larval forms in Animal Nematodes :-

i) Filaria form Larva.

ii) Rhabidity form Larva.

iii) Microfilaria Larva.

Unit -I

Unit -II

Parasitic Nematodes : (Plant Nematodes)

1. Introduction, Classification, General Organization of Plant Nematodes.

2. Study of Systematic Position, Geographical Distribution, Morphology, Life-Cycle, Pathogenicity, Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Treatment of :-

i) Meloidogyne (Root Knot Nematode).

ii) Heterodera (Cyst Nematode).

iii) Tylenchulus (Citrus Nematode).

Unit -III

Parasitic Arthropods

1. Introduction of Parasitic Insects

2. Systematic Position, Geographical Distribution, Morphology, Life-Cycle, Diseases and Control Measures of :-

i) Acarina-Ticks.

ii) Mites.

iii) Parasitic Hemiptera – Bed Bug (Cimex Lacturalis).

3. Parasitic Files-outline, Classification, Morphology, Role as Vector of Human Diseases and Control Measures of :-

i)House fly (Musca domestica).

ii)Bot Fly (Dermatobia hominis).

Unit -IV

1. Morphology Pathogenicity and Control Measures of :-

i) Siphonaptera.

ii) Anopluran.

iii) Mallophagan.

iv) Hymenoptera.

2. Mosquitoes as a Vector in the Transmissions of :-

i) Malaria.

ii) Dengue-Fever.

iii) Elephantiasis.

iv) Yellow fever.

v) Chikungunya.

3. Insects Control Methods :-

i) Chemical Control of Insects.

ii) Biological Control of Insects.

UNIT-I

Parasitic Nematodes:- (Animal Nematodes)

Introduction:-

• Phylum nemathelminths having one in important class called nematode.
• The most of the nematodes are parasites, very few are free living and soil nematodes.
• They are unsegmented worms without any appendages.
• They are elongated filiform in appearance.
• The size show a great variety in nematodes.
• The smallest nematodes is of 5 mm lie trichinella spiralis. Some nematodes are attaining a length of 1 m. for examples – Dracunculus medinesis.
• The body is covered with a hot cuticle, the worm passes a body cavity in which various organs, such as digestive, genital etc. floats.
• The excretory and nervous system are rudimentary.

• The elementary canal is complete, mouth cavity, oesophagus intestine and a sub-terminal anus mouth is provided with cutting plates on teeth.
• Parasitic nematodes of man all the dioecious lie the sexes are separate.
• There is a clear sexual dimorphism.
• The male is generally smaller than the female, the posterior end of male is curved or coiled ventrally male reproductive system consist of along convoluted tube, which is differentiated into testis, vasa, differentia, seminal vesicle & ejaculatory ducts.
• The genital duct and intestine has a common passage, cloaca.
• In male cloaca is surrounded by spines like structure called spicules & plate like structure gubernaculums.
• These are accessory copulatory organ these helps in the ejaculation of sperm in female during copulation.

• The female reproductive organs consist of ovary, oviduct, seminal receptors, uterus, vagina, vulva.
• The female genital aperture may be in the middle of the body or near the mouth.
• The female nematodes may be viviparous, oviparous & -viviparous, viviparous are giving birth to the larva Ex-D. medinensis.
• Oviparous are those nematodes which are laying eggs. Ex-Ascaris.
• Ovoviviparous are laying eggs consisting larva, which are immediately hatched out.

Ex- strongyles stercoral is.

• Mode of infection parasite may be –

(1) By infection.

(2) By penetration of skin.

(3) By blood sucking insects.

(4) By involution of infected dust, which is contaminated with embryonated eggs.

Classification: -

• Class nematode is divided into 2 sub-class, Aphasmidia & plasmodia, Aphasmidia is nematode without caudal chemoreceptors.
• Phasmid a are having quadlet chemoreceptors. Sub-class-Aphasmidia consist of one order called Neoplasia, Consisting one parasitic called Trichinella Spiralis.
• Sub-Class Phasmid a Consist two order Rhabditid & spirurida order Rhabditida divides into 4 super families, these are Rhabditida, strongyloidiasis, oxyroidea, Ascariditoidea.
• The super family strongytoida consist ancylostoma duodenale.
• The super family oxyroidea consist one parasitic nematode called enterovirus vermicularis.
• The super family aschorodea includes parasitic nematodes called Ascaris lumbricids.
• The second order of sub-class phasmid a is Spiro idea.
• It is classified into two super families these are filaricide includes wuchereria Bancrofti.
• The super family dracunculus includes one parasite nematodes called as Dracunculus medinensis.

General organization of Animal nematodes: -

• Phylum nemathelminths has a group of parasites.
• It is molded in class nematode.
• The nematodes are unsegmented worms, without any appendages.
• They are elongated cylindrical or filiform in appearance.
• The size shows a great variation as we studied in the introduction.
• The size & shape of the lip differs from nematodes to nematode.
• Each lip has a forked fleshy care and bears denticles at its inner margin and sensory papillae on its outer surface the position of lip differs from the nematodes to nematodes.
• Generally these are present on middorsal and lateral ventral in position.
• The excretory pore is situated mid-ventrally behind the mouth.
• In female the genital pore & anus open separately.

• The genital pore is situated mid-ventrally & anus in the form of transverse pore at the posterior end.
• The outer surface of each lip bears the some sensory outgrowths called papillae.
• The structure size & position papillae differ from individuals to individuals.
• There are also some species reduced papillae called amphid.
• The amphids are probably chemo receptor and sensory papillae are tango receptors.
• In the same way the posterior end of nematode particularly male has pre and post anal papillae.
• The papillae of the male & smaller with posterior end recurved in male on the dorsal side of cloaca a sac like structure is presents.
• It is called pineal sacs or specular pouch.

• The spicules are lodging in the specular pouch.
• The spicules are provided with protector & retractor muscles.
• In some nematodes anterior end is provided with wing like expansions.
• It is called survival alae.
• The large & conspicuous buccal capsule is lined with a hard substance and is provided with 6 teeth & 4 hooks.
• Nematodes are the most numerous multicellular animals on earth.
• Adult nematodes are compressed of approximately 1,000 somatic cells & potentially hundreds of cells associated with reproductive system.
• A handful of soil will contain thousands of microscopic worms, many of them parasitic of insects.

• Plant co-animals free living species are abundant including nematodes that feed on bacteria fungi & other nematodes yet the vast majority of species encountered are poorly understood biologically.
• There are nearly 20,000 described species classified in the phylum Nemati / Helminths / Nematoda.
• Nematodes are structurally simple organism.
• Nematodes have been characterized as a tube within a tube referring to the alimentary canal with extends from the mouth on the anterior and to the anus located near the tail.
• Nervous, excretory and reproductive systems, but lack a discrete circulatory or respiratory system.
• In size they range from 0.3 mm to over 8 meters.

Enterobius Vermicularis: -

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Nematoda

Class - Chromadorea

Order - Rabditida

Family - Oxyuridae

Genus - Enterobius

Species - E. Vermicularis

Geographical Distribution :-

• Common name is Threadworm, pinworm seat worm.
• It is cosmopolitan in distributing being found all over the world.

Morphology:-

Adult Worm :-

• Adult worm is small, spindle-shaped & white in colour.
• It resembles a short piece of thread.
• Both male and females worms possess a pair of wing like expansions at the anterior end, named as cervical alae.
• Male measures 2 to 4 mm in length & 0.1 to 0.2 mm across its girth.
• The posterior third of the body is curved in male but straight in female.
• The size of female is 8 to 12 mm in length & 0.3 to 0.5 mm across its thickest part. Male usually dies after fertilizing the female.
• The gravid female after oviposition dies within 2 to 3 weeks.

Egg :-

• Colorless lie not bile-stained.
• Planoconvex in shape lie flattened on the ventral side and convex on the dorsal side.
• 50 to 60 μm x 30 μm (length x breadth).
• Contains a tadpole like larva.
• Surrounded by a transparent shell.
• Floats in saturated solution of common salt.

Life-Cycle :-

• No intermediate host is required each of the eggs, newly laid on the perianal skin, containing a tadpole like larva complete its development 24 to 35 hours’ time in the presence of oxygen.
• Infection occurs by ingestion of this eggs.
• The egg shells are dissolve by digestive twice & larva excess in the small intestine where they develop into adolescent worms.
• After the worms become sexually mature.
• The male fertilize the females.
• The gravid female then migrates from the small intestine down to caecum & cotton & remain there until the eggs develop.
• The fertilized female then wonders down the rectum & works it way out the anus during the night to deposit eggs on the whole life cycle is completed in 2 to 4 weeks’ time.

Pathogenicity :-

• Infection of E. Vermicularis in man is known as anaerobiosis.
• Mode of infection :-
• Children’s are the usual victims and familial infection is common transmission is affected from one person to another person the ingestion of eggs.
• The first infection is either contagious from close association or due to contaminated food and drinks person bonding the night cloths & bed lines of infected persons often contract the infection there is also a possibility of the infection being air borne specially is an infected place.

1. Autoinfection :-
1. The movement of the worms at the time of egg laying causes intense itching inducing the patient to scratch the affected parts & there by carrying the eggs containing the infective larvae on their fingers these eggs are subsequently transparent food and swallowed by the patient himself or the infection may occur direct from anus to mouth a very common habit with children.
1. Retro infection: -
1. This is a process in which the eggs laid on the perinatal skin immediately hatch into the infective stage of larva and migrate through the anus to develop into adolescent forms in the colon.

Diagnosis :-

• is commonly used.
• Use of double – stick tape on a tongue depressors.
• This is pressed against the perianal folds where eggs will stick to the tape.
• Tape is then stuck on to a microscopic slide & examined for eggs.
• Do test immediately after waking up several samples might need to be examined.
• Detection of adult on anal skin.
• Microscopic demonstration of characteristic eggs in the perianal or perineal scraping is the methods of choice for the diagnosis of enterobiasis.
• Anal & perianal specimens can be collected by either National Institute of health (NIH) swab, cell: hance swab or scotch tape swab method.

Prophylaxis :-

• Personal hygiene such as hand washing, fingernail cleaning and regular bathing.
• Frequent washing of night clothes and bed-line.
• Treatment of infected persons.

Treatment :-

• Pyrantel pamoate, mebendazole albendazole and piperazine citrate are effective against infection with E. Vermicularis.

Ancylostoma duodenale: -

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Nematoda

Class - Chromadorea

Order - Rabditida

Genus - Ancylostoma

Species - A. Duodenale

Geographical Distribution :-

• The common name is old word was hook worm.
• It is widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical countries, occurring in places wherever humidity and temp. are favorable for the development of Larva in the soil.
• It is found in Europe, North Africa, India (Punjab & utter Pradesh) Shrilanka, central and North China and America.

Morphology:-

• It is small, greyish white, cylindrical worm.
• When freshly passed the worm has a reddish brown Colour due to the ingested blood in its intestinal tract.
• The anterior end of the worm is bent slightly dorsally hence the name hook worm.
• This bond is in the same direction as the general body curvature.
• The oral aperture is not terminal but directed towards the dorsal surface.
• The large and conspicuous buccal capsule is lined with a hard substance and is provided with six teeth’s, 4 hooks.
• The sexes are easily differentiated by their sizes, shape of the tail and the position of the genital opening.

Life-Cycle :-

• No intermediate host is required and other helminths, multiplication of worms does not occur inside the human body.
• Man is the only definitive host for a duodenale.
• The following are the various stages of the life cycle

Stage-1 :- (Passage of eggs from the infected host)

• The egg’s containing segmented ova with four blastomere's are passed out in the faces of the human host.

Stage-2 :- (Development in soil)

• From each egg’s a rhabditiform larva (250 μm length) hatches out in the soil is about 48 hours.
• The rhabditiform larva mount's twice on the third day and the fifth day.

Stage-3 :- (Entrance into a new host)

• The filariform larvae are infective to man.
• The larva cast off their sheaths and gain entrance to the body by penetrating the skin.

Stage-4 :- (Migration of larva)

• On reaching the substances tissue the larva enter into the lymphatic’s or small venules.
• They pass through the lymph vascular system into venous – circulation and are carried via the right heart into the pulmonary capillaries where they break through the capillary walls and enter into alveolar spaces.
• The period taken for such migration is about 10 days.

Stage-5 :- (Localization and laying of egg’s)

• The growing larva settle down in the small intestine undergo a fourth molting and develop into adolescent worms at this stage the provisional toothless buccal capsule, formed previously is cast off the definitive buccal capsule complete with teeth is formed.
• In 3 to 4 weeks time are they are sexually mature and the fertilized females begins to lay egg in the faces.

Pathogenicity :-

• The worm causes hook worm disease of ancylostomiasis.
• The filariform larva penetrate directly through the skin with which they come in contact.
• The most common sites of their entry are –

1. The thin skin between the skin.

2. The dorsum of the feet.

3. The inner side of the soles.

• The larvae can penetrate any part of the skin which is sufficiently thin.
• Infection may also occur by the accidental drinking of water contaminated with filariform.

Pathogenic effect :-

These may be considered under two points –

1. Pathogenic effects caused by ancylostomiasis larvae.
2. Pathogenic effects caused by adult worms.

Diagnosis :-

1. Microscopic identification of eggs in the stool is the most common method for diagnosing hookworm infection.
2. Finding hookworm egg in faces by direct or concentration technique.
3. In old stool sample Larvae may hatch.

4) Brine floatation is the method of first choice.

5) Direct fecal smear.

6) Hookworm larvae in sputum

7) CBC, PBP.

8) Histopathology.

Prophylaxis's :-

1. Attack on adult parasite :-

Treatment of carriers and diseased person simultaneously with wholesale treatment of community.

1. Attack on Larva :-

Prevention of soil – pollution by proper control of sewage disposal, disinfection to faces or soil.

Personal Hygiene :-

Wearing of boots and gloves.

Treatment :-

For the treatment of hookworm infection the following steps are to be taken –

1. Expulsion of worms by anthelmintic.
2. Treatment of anemia.
1. Specific anthelmintic treatment should not be started in the hemoglobin is below 30%.
2. In such as cases anemia is to be treated first with iron & after the hemoglobin has come above 50% specific anthelmintic is to be ad mistered.
3. Hookworm anemia responds readily to oral iron folic acid & vit.
4. B2 may be indicated in some cases.

Systematic Position :-

Phylum - Aschelminthes

Class - Nematoda

Order - Filarioidea

Genus -Wuchereria

Species - W. bancrofti

Wuchereria Bancrofti : -

Geographical Distribution :-

• The parasite is largely confined to the tropics and subtropics occurring in India, the West Indies, Japan, West & Central Africa & South America.
• In India it is distributed chiefly along to the sea coast & along the banks of river.
• It has also been reported of big rivers. Rajasthan, Punjab utter Pradesh Delhi.

Morphology :-

Morphology :-

1. The female is larger than male.
2. These are long hair like.
3. The creamy white in colour.
4. The male measure 2.5 to 4 cm in length.
5. The female measures 8 to 10 cm in length.
6. It is tail end is narrow & pointed.
7. It is endoparasite.
8. Adult worms are filariform & cylindrical in shape & both body end terminate blunt.
9. Sexes are separate & there is a district sexual dimorphism.
10. Mouth aperture is simple, without lips pharynx or oesophagus.

W. bancrofti passes its life-cycle in two host’s, man and mosquito: -

• The definite host is man; in whose lymphatic system the adult worms are harbored.
• Live embryo (microfilariae) are discharged which find their way into the blood stream.
• The embryos are capable of living in the peripheral blood for a considerable time without undergoing any developmental metamorphosis, they are subsequently taken up by the female culex mosquitoes during their blood-meal.
• The intermediate host is mosquito in which the microfilariae undergo further development, after which they become infective to man.
• A large no. of species of mosquito belonging to the genus culex.
• Aedes and Anopheles acts as intermediate host for W. bancrofti.

Stage in the development of microfilaria in the mosquito :-

1. Seated microfilariae ingested by the mosquito during it’s blood-meal collect around the anterior end of the stomach.
2. In the next two days the slender snake like organism changes to a thick short sausage shaped form with a short spiky tail-measuring to 250 μm in length by 10 to 7 μm in breadth.
3. In 3 to 7 days’ time the Larva grows rapidly mounts once or twice & at the end of this stage measures 225 to 330 μm in length by 15 to 30 μm in breadth (2^nd stage Larva).
4. On the 10^th or 11^th day the metamorphosis becomes complete the tail atrophies to a mere stamp of the digestive system body cavity and genital organ are now fully developed.
5. This is third stage larva which measures 500 to 2000 μm in length by 18 to 23 μm in breadth & has 3 subterminal caudal papillae.

Entrance into man and Development into the adult worms: -

• When the infected mosquito bites a human being the third stage larvae are not directly ingested into the blood stream like malarial parasites but are deposited on the skin near the site of puncture.
• The third stage *infective larvae) having penetrated the skin, reach the lymphatic channels settle down at some spot (Inguinal, scrotal or abdominal lymphatics).

Pathogenicity :-

• The morbid change initiated by W. bancroftian is essentially confined to the lymphatic system. Infection with this parasite is called “Wuchereriasis” or “Filariasis”.
• Filariasis is caused by blockage of lymph channels by W. bancroftian the young accumulating in blood vessels.

• Because lymphatic vessels return tissue fluid to the circulatory system.
• When the filarial worms block these vessels, fluid tend to accumulate in peripheral tissue, this fluid accumulation causes enlargement of various appendages a condition called elephantiasis.
• The nematode worms lives principally in the lymph nodes & lymph vessels notably those draining the legs & genital area where the adult worms induce allergic reaction in the sensitized tissue.
• The initial inflammatory stage is characterized by granulomatous lesions swelling and unpaired circulation this stage is followed by enlargement of the lymph nodes and dilation of the lymph channels.

Diagnosis :-

1) Night Blood Sampling :-

i) Collect blood specimen from 7 p.m. to 4 a.m. – thick smear (Gilma or H & E).

ii) Microscopic examination for microfilariae.

iii) Nontechniques (increased sensivity).

2) Antigen – Detection (ELISA) :-

To detect CFA (circulating filarial antigen).

3) Search for microfilaria :-

In chylous urine, lymph exudates and hydrocoele fluid.

4) Search for adult worm :-

i) Lymph node biopsy.

ii) X-ray (calcified worm)

iii) Ultrasonography (dancing worm (filarial dance sign).

5) Xenodiagnoses: -

Mosquito stomach blood not very helpful.

Prophylaxis :-

• Even after the adult worm die lymphedema can develop. You can ask your physician for a referral to see a lymphedema from therapist for specialized care.
• Prevent the lymphedema from getting worse by following several basic principles.

1) Carefully wash the swollen area with soap & water every day.

2) Elevate & exercise the swollen arm or leg to move the fluid & improve the lymph flow.

3) Disinfect any wounds use antibacterial or antifungal cream if necessary.

Treatment :-

• Infection may be reduced or eliminated by eradication of microfilariae from circulation by administering heterzan & compounds of antimony or arsenic.
• The most effective therapeutic drugs are diethyl carbona zine & sodium cartazolate which kill the adult worms & microfilariae.

Parasitic adaptation in Nematodes :-

• Parasites are those living with expanses of the another living organisms.
• Thus parasites may be defined as those species which exist at expanses of certain other species called host parasites are biologically and economically closely connected with host throughout their life.
• This association is called parasitism.
• Parasites live in the body of host.
• They have to modify their body spectrally & physiologically.
• This change & modification in the body of parasites for parasitic mode of life is called parasitic adaptation.
• Adaptation is fitness of an organism to its environment the parasitic nematodes particularly here undergone profound adaptation to suit their parasitic mode of life as it is stated that these adaptations are morphologically as well as physiologically forms.

A) Morphological adaptation :-

1. Body Covering :-
1. The body of parasite is covered by a thick covering called “Tegument”.
2. A tegument is also with the scales to give protection to the parasite.
3. The tegument is probably a protoplasmic layer but continuously and renewed by the cells forming it.

2. The shape of body :-

• Nematodes are very small, minute filiform & measuring very few mm in length so they required minimum space in the body of host.

3. Organs of body :-

• For grip and attachment to the body of host & tissue.

• Parasite have some special organs of attachment.
• In nematodes anterior cephalic end is some what tapering bounded by lip for adhesion.

4. Organs of Nutrition :-

• Being parasitic mode of nutrition the food of parasite is already digested and semi-digested forms, Elaborate organs of nutrition, is not needed.
• In nematodes through there is development of some parts of alimentary canal.
• But lip and rhythmic pumping action of pharynx helps parasite to suck food, observed by intestinal canal.

5. Neuro sensory organ :-

• It is required by the free-living animals for quick & efficient response to stimulate but not needed in parasitic life.
• In nematodes it is somewhat developed because of its complicated life history & hosts.

6. Reproductive system :-

• Reproductive system is enormously developed in the parasite it may help to produce to the large number of eggs inspire of various complication of life histories.
• These are better chances of survival & maintain continuity of race.
• In nematodes there is clear sexual dimorphism testes may be monarchies or polydipsic condition is seen.
• The fertilized egg age produced numerously.

B) Physiological adaptation :-

1. Protective mechanism :-

• The alimentary canal of parasite & the body are variously modified to protect themselves from the action of digestive juices.
• Nematodes are also secretes antienzymes to neutralize digestive enzymes of the host.
• The other covering of the parasite is called ‘cuticle’ or ‘integument’.
• It is tough, hard & protective.
• In some nematodes cuticle is occasionally renewed.

2. Anaerobic respiration :-

• Parasites requires anaerobically by breaking down glycogen because environment in the gut & various parts of the body of hosts is without free oxygen.

iii. High fertility :-

• Fertilized eggs are produced by parasites have very uncertain features.
• It is due to complex life histories hence, the parasites are producing large number of ova and bring about fertilization & large number of fertilized eggs.

iv. Polyembryony :-

• Polyembryony is the process in which asexual multiplication of larval forms occur.
• In case of various parasites like echinococcus produces several solaces each of which is a potential type worm.

Larval forms in Animal Nematodes :-

i) Filaria form Larva:-

• The larva of nematode, whose esophagus is long, compared to the length of the larva, the esophagus is not bulb like structure as a found in the nematode larva.
• The filariform Larva infects a host by chance contact with the skin most generally they penetrate the soft skin on the sides of the feet & hands, through hair follicles.
• The hatched larva has mouth, pharynx & a simple intestine.

2. Rhabdity form Larva :-

• Early development larval stages (first & second) of soil borne nematodes such as Nicator, Ancylostoma & strongyloidiasis, which precede the infectious third stage filariform larva.
• The length of oesophagus is short as compared to the length or Larva.
• Oesophagus posteriorly terminated in a bulb like structure Rhabdity-form larva are born by viviparous nematode.
• The larva measures 200 to 250 μm length & nearly 50 μm width.
• They have short mouth.

3. Microfilaria form Larva :-

• The super family filaridia characterized due to viviparous.
• The nematodes give birth to eggs characteristics larva called microfilaria the microfilaria larva has important taxonomic value.
• These helps in the identification of various genera of filoridia microfilaria are of two types sheath & unsheathe microfilaria.
• Sheath microfilaria are covered by a sheath called hyaline sheath.
• It is structureless sheath is much longer than the larval body.
• So that the larva can more forward or backward with in it.
• The sheath is again covered by piper in covering called membranes.
• Microfilaria without such hyaline sheath and covering are called as unsheathe microfilaria.

UNIT-II

Parasitic Nematodes (Plant Nematodes)

Introduction :-

• Plant nematodes attack all plants grown in Florida.
• They cause farmers and nurserymen millions of dollars in crop loss annually, but also can cause problems in the urban world by damaging turfgrasses, ornamentals and home gardens.
• We are often unaware of losses caused by nematodes because much of the damage caused by them is so subtle that it goes unnoticed or is attributed to other causes.
• Some scientists estimate that there are over 1 million kinds of nematodes, making them second only to the insects in numbers.
• However, few people are aware of nematodes are very small, even microscopic and colorless; most live hidden in soil, under water, or in the plants or animals they parasitize; and relatively few have obvious direct effects on humans or their activities.

• Of all the nematodes known, about 60 percent are small animals living in marine environments and 25% live in soil or fresh water and feed on bacteria, fungi, other decomposer organisms, small inverted brutes or organic matter.
• About 15% are parasites of animals, ranging from small insects and other invertebrates up to domestic & wild animals are the largest nematodes known, some from grasshoppers can be several inches long and one from whales can reach lengths of more than 20 feet only about 10% of known nematodes are parasites of plants.

Classification :-

1. Above ground feeders :-
1. Feeding on flower buds, leaves & bulbs :-
1. Seed gall nematode :- Anguina tritici
2. Leaf & bud nematode :- Aphelenchoides
3. Stem & bulb nematode :- Ditylenchus
1. Feeding on tree trunk :-
1. Red ring nematode :- Rhadinaphelenchus cocphilus
2. Pine will nematode :- Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.

1) Below ground feeders :- 3 types

1. Endoparasite :- (1) Sedentary
1. Cyst nematode

Heterodera SPP

Blobodera SPP

1. Root-knot nematode

Meloidogyne SPP

(2) Migratory

i) Lesion nematode

pratylenchyus SPP

ii) Burrowing nematode

Rhadopholus similes

Hischmanniela SPP

1. Semiendoparasite :- i) Citrus nematode

Tylenchulus semipenetrans

ii)Reniform nematode

Rotylenchulus reniformis

1. Ectoparasite :- (1)Sedentary
1. Sheath nematodes

Hemicriconemoides SPP

Hemicy cliphora SPP

Cacopaurus SPP

(2) Migratory

i) Needle – nematode : Longidorus SP

ii) Dagger Nematode : Xiphiaema SP

iii) Stubby nematode : Trichodorus SP

iv) Pin nematode : Paratylenchus SP

• According to feeding habits, the nematodes can be divide into –
• Ectoparasitic nematodes.
• Semi endoparasitic nematodes.
• Endoparastic nematodes.

​

2) Ectoparasitic nematodes :-

• These nematodes live freely in the soil & move closely or on the root surface, feed intermittently on the epidermis and root hairs near the root tip.

Migratory ectoparasite :- (e.g.) criconemoides SPP. Paratylenchus SPP and Trichodrus SP. These nematodes spend there entire life cycle free in the soil. When the roots are disturbed they detach themselves.

1) Sedentary endoparasite :- (e.g.) Hemicycliphora arenaria & cacopaurs pestis etc. In this type of parasitism the attachment of nematode to the root system is permanent but for this it is similar to the previous one.

2) Semiendoparasitic nematodes :-(e.g.) Roylenchulus renifomis & Tylenchulus semipenetrans. The anterior part of the nematodes, head and neck being permanently fixed in the cortex & the posterior part extents.

3) Endoparasitic nematodes :-

The entire nematode is found inside the root the major portion of nematode body inside the plant tissue.

1. Migratory endoparasite :- e.g. pratylenchus SPP. These nematodes moves in the cortial parenchyma of host root which migrating they feed on cells, multiply and cause necrotic lesions.
2. Sedentary endoparasite :- e.g. Meloidogyne SPP. The second stage larvae penetrate the root lets & become sedentary through out the life cycle inside the root cortex.

General organization of plant nematodes :-

• Nematodes are colloquially referred to as roundworms but this is rarely rejected in their gross appearance and refers mainly to their shape in cross section.
• The complete worms are often thread-like cylindrical, generally fusiform, more rarely sac-like (e.g. female tera meres and Meloidogyne).
• They vary in length from microscopic (e.g. the females of Amphilochids bicaudate which only reach up to 0.47 mm long) to several meters in length (e.g. the females of placentome gigantism which have been recorded as over 8 meters long).
• The body is covered with a cuticle which may or may not exhibit any number of variations of complex ridges, spines or hooks.
• The body has no internal segmentation & beneath the cuticle the wall is composed of an epidermis (hypodermis) & a single layer of muscle cells.

• The mouth or oral opening which is generally terminal may or may not be surrounded by lips & sensory organs.
• The mouth opens into a mouth cavity of stoma which is more commonly referred to as the buccal cavity.
• This is followed by the pharynx, intestine & rectum which opens to the exterior via an anus in the female and Larvae & a cloaca formed by the vas deferens joining the rectum in the male.
• The anus and cloaca may be terminal or subterminal. If subterminal then they always open ventrally. The majority of nematodes exhibit sexual dimorphism.
• The male reproductive system opening to the exterior via the anterior and posterior ends of the body . Nematodes have a secretory-excretory system & a complex nervous system.
• The Nematoda are split into two sub-classes the Adenophora & secernate.

• The Adenophora are characterized by having few or no male caudal papillae a secretory excretory & system which has no lateral canals or terminal ducts lined with cuticle the absence of phasmids the presence of epidermal glands.
• Nematodes are among the most abundant animals on Earth.
• They occur as parasites in plants or as free-living forms in soil fresh-water marine environments & even such unusual places as vinegar, bear malts & water filled cracks deep within Earth’s crust.
• The number of named species is about 20,000 but it is probable that only a small proportion of the free-living has been conducted on the parasitic forms because most them have some medical veterinary or economic imp.
• he sexes are separate in most species but some are hermaphroditic (i.e. have both male & female reproductive organs in the same individual).

• Nematodes range in size from microscopic to 7 meters (about 23 feet) long, the largest being the parasitic forms found in whales.
• Nematodes parasites of animals occurs in almost all organs of the body but the most common sites are in the alimentary circulatory & respiratory systems.
• Some of these worms are known by such common names as hookworm, lungworm, pinworm eelworm etc.
• Nematodes can cause a variety of diseases (such as filariasis, ascariasis) & parasitize many crop plant & domesticated animals.
• In addition, two species, Halicephalobus mephitic & plexus equalities, which inhabit subterranean water seeps as deep as 3.6 km (2.2 miles) beneath Earth’s surface are the deepest living multicellular organisms.

​

• The averaging 1 mm to about 15-35 elm in width plant parasitic nematodes range from 250 μm to 12 mm in length.
• Most land plants can become infected by plant parasitic nematodes in the field.
• Plant parasitic nematodes can be free-living or endoparasites & they usually infect plant roots.
• Most damaging are endoparasites, which form feeding sites insides plants roots that damage the root system & redirect nutrients towards the parasite.
• This process involves developmental changes to the root in parallel with the induction of defense responses.
• Plant flavonoids are secondary metabolites that have roles in both root development & plant defense responses against a range of micro-organisms.

• Here, we review our current knowledge of the roles of flavonoids in the interactions between plant & plant parasitic nematodes flavonoids are induced during nematode infection in plant roots & more highly so in resistant compared with susceptible plant cultivars, but many of their functions remain unclear flavonoids have been shown alter feeding site development to some extent but so far have not been found to be essential for root-parasite interactions.
• Certain flavonoids have also been associated with functions in nematode reproduction, although the mechanism remains unknown, much remain to be examined in the area especially under filed conditions.

Plant – Nematode Interaction:-

• Plant nematode interactions often begin in the soil where the PPNs perceive various host cues using chemo sensing mechanoenzyme, thermoses redox, potential sensing, humidity.

Meloidogyne:- (Root Knot Nematodes) - Goldi-1887

Systematic Position :-

Phylum - Nematoda

Order - Tylenchida

Family - Meloidogynidae

Genus - Meloidogyne

Species - M. incognita

Geographical Distribution :-

• The root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita is worldwide in distribution.
• It is widespread in Asia, southeast Asia and usually occurs in warmer areas.

Morphology :-

• Root knot nematodes are plant parasitic nematodes from the genus Meloidogyne.
• They exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters.

• About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes & they cause approximately 5% of global crop loss.

Drawing of a Meloidogyne (A) male and (B) female body with associated structures and organs.

• Root-knot nematode larvae infect plant root, causing the development of root-knot galls that drain the plants photosynthate & nutrients infections of young plants may be lethal while infections of mature plants causes decreased yield.
• When M. incognita attacks the roots of plant it, sets up a feeding location, where it deforms (destroys) the normal root cells & establishes giant cells.
• The roots become gnarled or modulated (knobby, rough & twisted) forming galls, hence the term root-knot nematode.
• M. incognita has been found to be able to move along shallower temperature gradients (0.001 c/cm) than any other known organism, an ex- of thermotaxis the response is complicated & through to allow the nematodes to move toward an appropriate level in soil.
• While they search for chemical cues that can guide them to specific roots.

Life-Cycle :-

• In addition to the adult and egg there are four juvenile stage & four moults in the life-cycle of M. - incognita.
• The first stage Juvenile develops in the egg & the first moult usually occurs within the egg shell giving rise to the second stage Juvenile, which emerges free into the soil or plant tissue of once the nematode being feeding on tissue of a favorable host the second third & fourth moults occurs giving rise to the third fourth & fifth or adult stages respectively.
• Between moults there is further growth and development of the nematode with concurrent development of the reproductive systems in the two sexes upon maturity the female’s deposits eggs & the life-cycle is repeated.
• Its life cycle is similar to Heterodera but the generation time 4-8 weeks is shorter.

Host Range :-M. incognita has a very wide host range including weeds Meloidogyne SPP attack virtually all plants.

Management :-

Cultural Control :-

Crop rotation :-

• Non-host crops or resistant crops can be planted when nematode population is high.
• Addition of organic amendments chicken manure is very effective reducing nematode egg masses by 56%.
• Use of trap crops and antagonistic crops planting tagetes erect and crotalaria spectabilis in nematode infested soil is effective against the root-knot nematode. 

Biological Control :-

• Paecilomyces lilaceous a fungal egg parasite was found effective against root-knot attacking sweet potato.
• The parasite reduced egg masses by about 50%.

​

Host resistant :-

• There are many varieties of sweet potato found resistant to the root-knot nematode. Some of these are W-86, LG-89, BPA-4 and sinibastian Jasper, Jewel, miracle, Georgia, Red, Garcia, Yellow & Travis.
• However some populations of M. incognita can infect even some of the resistant cultivars.

Chemical Control :-

• Several nematicide have been very effective against the root-knot nematode in sweet-potato.

Ex- are Nonagon, Mocap, Dasani, Nemur, furazan, Temika, Videte.

Pathogenicity :-

• Pathogenicity of root-knot nematode. Meloidogyne incognita on Lens Culinaris (Medic) effects of the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) on lentil (Lens culinaris) were studied under greenhouse conditions.
• An increase in income level caused enhancement in galling, egg mass production & nematode population.

Diagnosis :-

1. Meloidogyne Chitwood and M. fall ax are serious pests of potato and both species have been recently designated as quarantine organism in the European community & in Canada.
2. The sympatric & less damaging species M. help is often found associated with both of them under temperate climates.

3) Here we describe the use of satellite DNA sequences previously isolated from these three root-knot nematode species for the development of specific diagnostic procedures.

4) The same result were obtained with radioactive or digoxigenin-labeled probes with no loss of sensitivity in detection. M. Fall ax & M. Chitwood could not be distinguished.

Prophylaxis :-

1. Root knot nematodes can be controlled with biocontrol agents paecilomyces lilaceous, Pasteurian penetrans & Juglone.
2. The flooding of the infected area reduce the incidence.
3. It kills the larvae easily than the eggs.
4. Trap cropping by trap crops is also a method to control.
5. These nematodes marigold, crotalaria, spectabilis, Tagetes species, citrus species.

6) The soil disinfection is done by methyl bromide at one 16 per 100 sq. feet.

7) It is useful in garden land.

Treatment :-

1. This treatment is repeated after 2 to 3 years.
2. The methyl bromide kills all pathogens & soil organism.
3. The nematode are killed by 25% granular nonagons (1.2 – dibromo 03 – chloropropane) at 30 to 35 lbs.
4. It temperate regions D.O. (50% by volume 1:3 chloropropane & 50% 1-2 dichloro propane) at 7.5 to 10 gallons per acre.

Heterodera:- (Cyst Nematode)

Systematic Position :-

Phylum - Nematoda

Order - Tylenchida

Super Family - Tylenchidea

Family - Heteroderidae

Sub-family - Heteroderinae

Genus - Heterodera

Species -H. schachtii

Geographical Distribution :-

1. The species of this genus are commonly called as “Cyst nematodes”.
2. The Heterodera species are common in India European & North American Countries.

3) Generally Heterodera species with few exceptions are not associated with woody perennial plants.

4) The well known species are Heterodera rosto chiensis (potato root eel worm).

5) H.scnachtii (sugar beat nematode), H. avenue (oat cyst nematode).

6) More than 50% of the crop is damaged by this nematode in Rajasthan.

7) H. venae complex widely distributed in grassy.

Morphology :-

Females :-

• Anterior neck like region; swollen body shape-lemon round or pyramid shape cab out 0.5 – 0.6 mm diam).
• Weak cephalic framework.
• Moderate stylet with small rounded knobs.
• Metacarpus enlarged & fills neck region.
• Diovarial; prodelphic; ovaries coiled or reflexed.
• Vulva subterminal; anus foraminal.
• Posterior region important taxonomically :
• Vulval cone.
• Vulva position.

1. Developing gonads visible.
2. By 2009 more than 40 species of the genus heterodera had been molecularly characterized by sequencing the ITS – rRNS genes & by PCR – RFLP profiles.
3. These tools are so far the best available for identifying cyst forming nematodes.
4. When it is not possible to use sequences of ITS – rRNS genes & PCR – RFLPS in diagnostic work, morphometries Characteristics are still useful.
5. Intraspecific polymorphism in the ITS sequence can make identification & more conclusive molecular identification tools are needed.

Life-Cycle :-

• The embryonic development of the cyst nematode, Heterodera oryzicola & its emergence from egg misses was completed within 8 to 9 days.
• The eggs were laid in gelatinous matrix secreted by the females within 22 days & the females turned into brown cysts by 24 days.
• A single During development, female breaks through cortex to surface so that most of the body of adult female remains outside root.
• Sugar beet cyst nematode molts at 6, 12 & 15 days after entering root; matures in 19 days at 25 C males are needed for reproduction in most species.
• This microscopic nematode exhibit sexual dimorphism.
• The female is rounded & white & measure 680 by 930 micrometers.
• The male is vermiform & transparent & measures 40 by 1300 micrometers.

• The eggs are oval & the vermiform Larva mount four times.
• The second instar Larvae are mobile and can travel distances of up to thirty centimeters looking for and invading roots of suitable host species.
• Here they develop growing into sedentary bottle-shaped third instar larvae & rounded fourth instar ones.
• These then develop into either females or males and mating takes place.
• The female retains the majority of the several hundred eggs she produces inside her body. She turns into a brown cyst by the end of plant growth seasons, as her external surface hardens & her internal parts die.
• The larvae may remain in anabasis within this cyst for several years until suitable host plants become available.
• The cyst can withstand harsh conditions & can be spread in soil by agricultural machinery by animals by wind by dust storms or other means.

Pathogenicity :-

1. Twenty-one isolates of 18 fungal species were tested on water agar for their Pathogenicity to eggs of Heterodera glycine’s.
2. Plant weights & heights generally increased in the soil treated with the fungi.

Diagnosis :-

1. Random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis of Heterodera Cruciferae and H. sachachtii cysts, there by indicating that the RAPD technique is a useful diagnostic tool for nematode. Diversity of selected taxa of Glob Odera & Heterodera and their interspecific & intergeneric hybrids identification of Heterodera cysts by terminal & cone top structure.
2. A rapid method for the identification of the soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycine’s using duplex.

PCR :- The soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycine’s Ichi-nohe 1952 is a major pest on soybeans or several species in a mixture by a single PCR test, decreasing diagnostic time & this technology has found wide application in medicine for diagnosis of infective & genetic.

1. Diagnostic DNA markers for cereal cyst nematode resistance in bread wheat.
2. Heterodera leachiest the Japanese cyst nematode parasitizing corn in northern Italy: integrative diagnosis & bionomics.
3. Identification of the Beet cyst Nematode Heterodera Schachter by PCR.

Prophylaxis :-

1. A nematode parasitic fungus, Pneumatophore gynophilic gen. et spa nova which attacks females of cyst nematodes (Heteroder & spa) is described & placed in the Leptolegniellaceae disk parasitized females’ nematodes fail to form cysts as the fungus destroys the body wall and cuticle & eventually replace the body contents with a mass of resting spores.

1. A loganiaceous fungus is reported which also kills female cyst nematodes.
2. The release of zoospores by both fungi is described & their significance in biological control is discussed

Treatment :-

1. Heterodera is a plant nematode which cause serious damage to the crop.
2. Heterodera is controlled by spraying chloroform, benzene.
3. Crop rotation is also used to control heterodera.
4. The plant debris & infected plant remove from the field & burn it.
5. Ploughing of field during summer.

Tylenchulus :- (Citrus Nematode)

Systematic Position :-

Phylum - Nematoda

Class - Secernentea

Order - Tylenchida

Family -Tylenchulidae

Genus - Tylenchulus

Species - T. semipenetrans

Geographical Distribution :-

• Tylenchulus semipenetrans (citrus nematode, citrus root nematode) is a species of plant pathogenic nematodes & the causal agent of slow decline of citrus.
• These nematodes are considered as major plant parasitic nematodes because they can cause 10-30% losses reported on citrus trees.

Morphology :-

• T. semipenetrans is the only species of Tylenchulidae that are economically important to agriculture.
• Citrus nematode range from 0.25 – 0.35 mm long.
• They have an amalgamated procorpus and metacarpus, distinct isthmus & a bulb-shaped post corpus.
• They are distinct in Juveniles.
• Both the Juvenile stages & the adult male stage are vermiform in shape.
• The male has significantly reduced esophagus & stylet.
• The posterior end of the female citrus nematode becomes swollen upon feeding.
• She contains a single ovary & the vulva is subterminal.
• The female will lay up to 100 eggs deposited in a gelatinous matrix secreted from the nearby excretory pore.
• The pore is surrounded by small, irregularly shaped lobes & the excretory ducts is directed forward.
• The rectum & anus are atrophied or absent, non-functional.

Life-Cycle :-

• The life cycle of the female citrus nematode is 6-8 weeks long whereas the male citrus nematode only lives for about 7-10 days.
• These nematodes reproduce by amphimixis & parthenogenesis.
• The first stage juvenile (J1) undergo one molt while still in the egg.
• The J1 has no stylet.
• The second stage Juveniles (J2) hatch from the eggs & the sex can be distinguished at this stage.
• The J2 male is short & fat.
• Juveniles will undergo two more molts into the J3 & J4 before becoming young adults.

• The citrus male nematodes are required for reproduction with females when their posterior end is exposed on the root surface.

• The J2 male has a stylet while the J3 & J4 have a weaker stylet.
• The J2 female is longer & thinner than males & they do not molt until feeding site is established.
• The female juveniles begin feeding ectoparasitic ally on epidermal root cells.
• It is not until the female citrus nematode becomes a young adult that she becomes the infective stage.
• The anterior end of the young female penetrates into the cortex of the root & begins feeding on 3-6 nurse cells.
• This intense feeding by the adult female will cause the posterior end to enlarge outside the root & start producing eggs.
• After fertilization, the female lays its eggs outside of the root in a gelatinous matrix extruded from excretory pore located near the vulva.

Pathogenicity :-

1. It causes wilting of the plant.
2. Chlorosis of leaves takes place.
3. Yellowing of leaves.
4. It losses yield of the crop
5. It causes serious damage to the plant.
6. Food is not edible.

Diagnosis :-

Microscopical examination of soil present under the plant.

​

Prophylaxis :-

1. The infected plant & debris remove from the field & burn away from the field.
2. The flushing of field at summer.
3. Crop rotation & sanitation.
4. Choose sites with no history of infection with this nematode.
5. Apply a follow period before replanting old infested orchids.

Treatment :-

1. The Tylenchlus plant Nematode is controlled by spraying.
2. Nematocide is helpful for control the nematode.
3. Use certified diseased free root stock and nematode free soil.
4. Improve the sanitation of the field of necessary.
5. Always consider an integrated approach with preventive measure together with biological treatment if available.

UNIT-III

Parasitic Arthropods

Introduction of Parasitic Insects:-

• Many insects are our potential enemies since the beginning of the human race, pathogenic organisms such as parasitic worm fungi and virus are transmitted by this insects his domestic animal.
• The mosquitoes, flies, bugs & rat fleas spread the notorious diseases of man.
• This domestic animal even the ignorable housefly is dangerous to man as it is responsible for spreading a no. of disease such typhoid diarrhea dysentery tuberculosis plague hookworms etc. typhus is a type of the serious fever transmitted from rat to man by the lice.
• The disease producing germs are spread by the insects either mechanically or biologically from the source of infection.

• Most of the flies brings about the spread of the disease because of their habit of frequenting and lacking the substances used by man for improvement.
• They simply serve as the mechanically carriers by their habits & this type of transmission.
• This may be direct or indirect the indirect mechanical transmission is simplest method.
• They simply pick-up harmful organisms from the bodies or from the excretion of man or animal or the eggs of parasitic worms present in the organic matter and deposit them on our food or drink.
• Thus they contaminate our food & water.
• The commonest carriers of this type of the housefly.

Ticks :- (Acarian)

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Class - Archnida

Sub-class - A cari

Super order - Parasitiformes

Order - Ixodida

Super Family - Ixodoidea

Geographical Distribution :-

• Ticks of the genus Ixodes are the arthropod hosts of a number of human and animal pathogens, although in Africa the only disease known to be transmitted by an Ixodes ticks is tick paralysis of domestic stock.
• However, the imp. Of these ticks should not be minimized & more.

Morphology :-

Morphology :-

• They belong to order Acari and family Ixodidae (Hard ticks) and Agamidae (soft tick).
• Ticks are usually 3 mm or more in length.
• Ticks have leathery body covering with few short hairs a toothed hypostome (In adult) & Haller’s organ.
• Ticks are playing important role in human economy as they acts as pest and also they transmit many disease e.g. – Texas-fever.
• The external visible segmentation is lacking & prosoma (cephalothorax) is fused with opisthosoma (abdomen).
• Ticks are mostly ectoparasite of vertebrates have blood sucking mouth parts with recurved teeth adopted for placing.
• Respiration is by tracheae & tracheal spiracle is located behind 3^rd & 4^th pair of coxae.
• The common genera are Argus (bird ticks). Dermacentor (dog tick). Ixodes (sheep tick).
• The eyes are present on scutum.
• Walking legs four pair & provided with claws & adhesive pads.

Life-Cycle :-

• Ticks can cause medical problems such as rashes, vomiting fevers skin ulcers & rapid pulse.
• They can also cause stomach pain sensitivity to light tiredness & paralysis.
• But ticks aren’t ALL bad.
• You may be familiar with ticks as pests that affix themselves to your body & drink your blood, but how much do you truly know about them?
• A tick is an arachnid is related to scorpions and spiders.
• There are more than 850 tick’s species.
• There ae two main tick categories hard ticks which have a plate-like structure on their back & soft ticks which look kind of wrinkly.
• The life cycle of a tick can be divided into four sections: Larvae, nymph, adult & egg.
• Since there are so many different tick species the duration of this life cycle varies greatly from a few months to years.

• Below is a general summarization of the tick life cycle which can vary depending on the type of tick.

Stage-1 :- The Larvae

• Let’s start just after an egg hatches & a six-legged larvae or a tick that isn’t fully formed emerges.
• The larvae cannot jump onto a potential host.
• So it climbs on a piece of vegetation & waits for a small animal like a lizard or rodent to walk by at which point it attaches.
• Ticks can sense a host is present through several factors including the release of lactic acid.
• Carbon dioxide & ammonia as well as body heat.
• Once it senses a host the ticks start moving its front legs around to grasp & cling on.

• Some species can attach anywhere on the host, whereas others seek particular spots like ears or other thin skinned areas.
• Once attached the tick will become engorged with blood & increase4 in size.
• After the larvae are filled with blood they release themselves from the host & begin to molt or shed their skin as they grow into the next stage.

Stage-2 :- The Nymph

• In stage two the larvae are larger and they grow two more legs thus becoming nymphs which is another immature stage of the tick.
• Nymphs usually do not feed during the winter months but once ready they (like the larvae) set out to find a host.
• They typically choose larger animals such as a raccoon or a fox.
• As in the larvae stage the Nymph feeds on the blood of its host & then detaches & molts.

​

Stage-3 :- Adult

• The Tick has now reached the adult stage.
• It still requires blood to grow so (as seen in stage 1 & 2) it waits for a passerby & attaches.
• This time it seeks the largest host such as a human deer or dog.
• The adult tick spends the fall reason feeding and then mating (more on mating in the next section).
• In many species the males die after mating & the female dies after laying her eggs.

Stage-4 :- The Egg :-

• Some females lay eggs on the host, others on the ground.
• Depending upon the tick somewhere between 1,000 & 18,000 eggs are released.
• The eggs will hatch in the summer thus beginning the larvae stage again.

• Before we delve into tick reproduction let’s take a moment to note some differences between the hard & soft ticks.
• Soft ticks typically do not die after mating & the female will have several egg batches throughout her life.
• Soft ticks may molt numerous times during the nymph stage.
• The adult female hard ticks look different from the adult males.
• Primarily females are larger & a different colour.
• The male & female soft ticks look more alike.

Diseases :-

1. Ticks – borne diseases which afflict humans and other animal are caused by infectious agents transmitted by tick bites.

1. Ticks borne illnesses are caused by infections with a variety of pathogens including rickettsia and other types of bacteria viruses & protozoa.
2. Diseases that can be transmitted by ticks –
1. Lyme disease caused by borrelia burgdorferi is a potentially serious bacterial infection affecting both humans & animals.
2. Anaplasmosis.
3. Babesiosis.
4. Powassan virus disease.
5. Rocky mountain spotted fever.

Control measures :-

• The most of parasitic ticks are illuminate by construction of improved houses and cleanliness.
• The spraying with B.H.C. powder on houses & walls up to 1 feet height.
• In some day dusting of “chlorinated hydrocarbons” or “organic phosphate” compound is also give effective though there is occasional spraying and dusting a precaution is taken not improve infection ticks.
• Hence to keep area clean is essential.
• In some cases elimination of rats is also suggested.
• Argus eliminations from poultry houses by spraying turpentine and cresols ticks are illuminated spraying pine oil.
• Ticks on domestic animals well controlled by sodium arsenate occasional washing of animals, eradicate the various cattle’s for ticks.
• The animal may also treated with methoxy chlorine within maximum 30 days it will kill the ticks & it is an important insecticides

MITES: -

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Sub-Phylum - Chelicerata

Class - Archnida

Sub-class - A cari

Geographical Distribution :-

• The genus mononychellus is represented by 28 herbivorous mites.
• Some of them are notorious pests of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz, a primary food crop in the tropics with the exception of mononychellus tanasoa (Bondar), their geographic distribution is not widely known.
• This article therefore reports observational and specimen based occurrence data of monoychellus species associated with cassava.
• The data set consists of 1,513 distribution records documented by International center for Tropical Agriculture between 1975 & 2012.

Morphology :-

Morphology :-

Morphology :-

1. They belong to order Acari and family Dermanyssida (Dermanyssue) gallinae fawl mite 1 chicken mites). Sarcoptide (sarcoptes scabiei mange mites on human & other animals) & family soroptide (psoroptid mite on ship).
2. The mites of medical importance they are rarely more than 1 mm in length & when unfed have a white or pale yellow colour.
3. Body is often membranous and or heavily sclerotized frequently with many long hairs, sensory in function.
4. Hypostome without teen & haleness organ absent lacking.
5. They are sac like without body division & abdominal segmentation.
6. Mouth parts produces head like structure the gnathostome which bears a pair of chelicerae and a pair of pedipalp.

7) Legs are in 4 pairs.

8) They are free living as well as parasitic.

9) They majority of parasitic mites are ectoparasites of both vertebrates and invertebrates & also plant parasites.

10) The most common parasitic species are the human hitch mite (sarcoptic) cause intense itching inflammation and surveilling different varieties attacks on livestock dogs and rabbits.

Life-Cycle :-

Life-Cycle :-

There are four important stages are found during the development & size of life-cycle of mites these four stage are –

1. Eggs. 2) Larvae. 3) Nymphs. 4) Adults.
1. The eggs are generally laid under the surface of soil or under the skin of the host eggs hatches to second stage called larvae.
2. It feed become the 8 legged “Nymphs” is the 3^rd stage of development of mites.
3. Nymphs feed mounts & metamorphs to an adult.
4. In the life-cycle the mounting does not occur during the adult stage.
5. Some mites are exclusively internal parasite found in the lungs of the snakes; various some parasitic mites are parasites of human urinary bladder.
6. Some of the parasite mites are mentioned below.

1. Sorcoptes scabici. 2) Hair follicle mites. 3) Red bugs.

1) Sorcoptes scabici :-

• These are itch mites.
• They are usually minute, whitish creatures the body is usually covered by cuticle with many bristles and hairs.
• They have no eyes and trachea.
• The mouth parts consist of a pair of minutes chelicerae and a pair of 3-joined triangular palpi.
• The legs are short stumpy and with the suckers like organ at the tip of the legs.

2) Hair follicle mites :-

• The common hair follicle on face mites is deowodex diseases follicle on face mite. These mites belong to family beuodecidae.
• It is worm like creature not looking like mite.
• It lives in hair follicle & scabicies glands of various mammals.
• In man it is found on the face & also in ear wax.
• These mites are also short stumpy 3 joined legs are there. Its abdomen is elongated with fine, transverse striations.
• The females are 0.35 to 0.40 mm long.
• The females are small multiplication.

1) Red bugs :-

• These are called chiggers. It belongs to family tribicusidae.
• It is very deadly than any other parasitic arthropods.
• It also transmits the diseases like germs of serobtyphus.
• The red-bugs are 6-leged even the larva is deadly parasite various insect is deadly parasitic to them.
• But advanced stage larva is always parasitic on vertebrates.
• The nymphs & parasitic larvae are red, hence called red-bugs.

Diseases :-

An overview is given of studies on diseases of mites –

• The house mouse mite is the only known vector of the diseases rickettsia pox.
• House dust mites, found in warm & humid places such as beds, cause several forms of allergic diseases, including high fever, asthma & eczema & are known to aggravate atrophic dermatitis.
• In fact the most crucial infectious diseases transmitted by mites are rickettsia pox & scrub typhus.
• The most common ectoparasitic dermatoses are caused by chiggers & scabies mites.

Control measures :-

• By elimination of vegetation intensive cultivation by spraying the ground with dieldrin emulsion of & dusting with chlorinated hydrocarbon & petraries is effective particularly for red-bugs.

Parasitic Hemiptera :- (Cimex Lacturalis) Bed-bugs :-

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Class - Insecta

Super order - Condylognatha

Order - Hemipera Linnaeus, 1758

Family – Cimicidae

Genus - Cimex

Geographical Distribution :-

• Hemiptera are found on plants & animals or in water.
• Some of them cause considerable plant damage by their feeding.
• Some are beneficial because they prey on other insects.

Morphology :-

• Two pairs of wings the hemelytra, with exceptions thickened at the base with the apical portions membranous & overlapping when not in use.
• Mouth parts typically piercing and sucking without palpi and arising from the front part of the underside of the head.
• Gradual metamorphosis.
• A plate usually triangular in out line the scutellum located between the base of wings.
• Body built usually broad and flattened dorsoventrally.
• Any insect or animal resembling as insect is known by the layman as bugs.

• Bugs are among more common insect they are worldwide in distribution but greatly diversity in tropical level or regions.
• Bugs are generally considered as plant feeder and a no. of important plant belong to this order some are also parasites of man and animals.
• Wingless parasites feeds on blood of mammals and birds.
• Wings are absent but vestigial front wings are usually present.
• Body is flattened dorsoventrally so that the bugs are reading in cracks & cervices.

Life-Cycle :-

• The two species of bed bugs (Insect a Hemiptera (miticide) usually implicated in human infestations are cimex lectularius and C. hemipter’s.
• Although rare humans may become incidental hosts of cimex species of bats & birds.
• Adults & all nymphal stages of cimex SPP need to take blood meals from warm-blooded hosts, which are typically humans for C. lectularius and C. hemipters although other mammals and birds can be utilized in the absence of a human host female bed bugs lay about five eggs (1) daily throughout their adult lives in a sheltered location (mattress seams cervices in box springs space under baseboards etc.).
• Eggs hatch in about 4-12 days into first instar nymphs (2) Which must take a blood meal before molting to the next stage.

• The bugs will undergo five nymphal stages (2), (3), (4), (5), (6) ) each one requiring a blood meal before molting to the next stage, with the fifth stage molting into an adult.(7)Nymphs, although lacking wings buds, resemble smaller versions of the adults.
• Nymphs and adults take about 5-10 minutes to obtain a full blood meal.
• The adults may take several blood meals over several weeks, assuming a warm-blooded host is available mating occurs off the host and involves a unique form of copulations called traumatic insemination whereby the male penetrates the female’s abdominal wall with his external genitalia and inseminates into her body cavity.
• Adults live 6-12 months and may survive for long periods of time without feeding.

Diseases :-

1. A parasitic disease also as parasitosis is an infectious disease caused or transmitted by a parasite.
2. Many parasites do not cause diseases as it may eventually lead to death of both organism and host.
3. Parasitic diseases can affect practically all living organism including plants and mammals.
4. The study of parasitic diseases is called parasitology.
5. Some parasites like ‘Toxoplasma gondii’ and plasmodium SPP can cause disease directly but other organisms can cause disease by the toxins that they produce.

Control measure :-

1. Methods –
1. Hygienic method.
2. Biological method.
3. Physical method.
4. Need a pest exterminator.
1. Chemical methods –
1. Insecticides.
2. Rodenticides.
3. Fumigation.
4. Heat treatment.
1. Benefits of natural methods.
2. Clean all surface after eating.
3. Wash all used dishes, cutlery utensils, caps-glasses, pots & pans when you’re finished cooking.

Store food in containers with a tight seal.

Parasitic Flies

• Parasitic flies are deadly parasitic arthropods, because they are blood sucking and disease carrying flies.
• They are included in the order dipteral of (two-wings) class insect.
• They transmit organism to cause malaria, African trypanosomiasis, Leishmania, Viral fever, dengue, sand fly fever etc.
• Many species of flies of the two-winged type, Order Diptera, such as mosquitoes, horse-flies, blow-flies and warble-flies, cause direct parasitic disease to domestic animals, and transmit organisms that cause diseases.
• These infestations and infections cause distress to companion animals, and in livestock industry the financial costs of these diseases are high.
• These problems occur wherever domestic animals are reared.

• This article provides an overview of parasitic files from a veterinary perspective, with emphasis on the disease-causing relationship between these flies and their host animals.
• The article is organized following the taxonomic hierarchy of these flies in the phylum Arthropoda, order insect.
• Families and genera of dipteran flies are emphasized rather than many individual species.
• Disease caused by the feeding activity of the flies is described here under parasitic disease.
• Disease caused by small pathogenic organisms that pass from the flies to domestic animals is described here under transmitted organisms; prominent examples are provided from the many species.

i)House fly :- (Musca domestica)

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Class - Insecta

Order - Diptera

Family - Muscidae

Sub-family - Muscinae

Genus - Musca

Species - M. domestica

Morphology :-

• Housefly is the common fly often found in houses.
• The Latin name for the housefly is musca domestica.
• This species is always found near humans.
• It is the most common species found on hog poultry farms, horse stables and ranches.
• Not only are house flies a nuisance but they also carry disease causing organisms files are not only an irritant to farm workers but may be a public health concern.
• The female housefly usually mates only once & stores the sperm for later use.
• She lays batches of about 100 eggs on decaying organic matter such as food waste, carrion or faces.
• These soon hatch into legless white larvae known as maggots.

• After 2 to 5 days of development these metamorphose into reddish-brown pupae about 8 mm (0.3 in) long.
• Adult flies normally live for 2 to 4 weeks, but can hibernate during the winter.
• The adults feed on a variety of liquid or semiliquid substances as well as solid materials which have been softened by their saliva.
• They can carry pathogens on their bodies & in their faces contaminate food & contribute to the transfer of food borne illnesses while in numbers they can be physically annoying for these reasons they are considered pests.
• House files have been used in the laboratory in research into ageing and sex determination flies appear in literature from ancient Greek myth & Aesop’s.
• The impertinent insect onwards authors sometimes choose the fly to speak of the brevity of life as in William Blakes 1794 poem “The fly” which deals with mortality subject to uncontrollable circumstances.

Role as vector of Human Disease :-

1. The housefly (Muscat domestica) is a fly of the suborder Cyclorrhapha. It is believed to Houseflies play an important ecological role in breaking down & recycling organic as a disease vector.
2. Some of the most common house fly disease transmitted in the U.S. include food poisoning dysentery and diarrhea. These pests may also transmit the eggs of parasitic worms which cause their own issues. Other disease carried by house flies include anthrax.

As a Disease Vector: -

1. Houseflies can fly for several miles from their breeding places carrying a wide variety of organisms on their hairs mouthparts vomitus & faces. Parasites carried include cysts of protozoa e.g. Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia & eggs of helminths e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiara, Hymenolepis nana and Enterobius vermicularis.

2) Houseflies do not serve as secondary host or act as a reservoir of any bacteria of medical or veterinary importance, but they do serve as mechanical vectors to over 100 pathogens such as those causing typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis bacillary, dysentery, tuberculosis, anthrax, ophthalmia and pyogenic cocci, making them especially problematic in hospitals & during outbreaks of certain disease – causing organism on the outer surface of the fly may survive for a few hours but those in the crop of gut can be viable for several days. Usually too few bacteria are on the external surface of the flies. (except perhaps for shigella) to cause infection so the main routes to human infection are through the fly’s regurgitation & defecation.

Control measure :-

• The best cultural method is to properly dispose of any organic matter such as vegetable or other food by products where houseflies might lay eggs. Place these materials in garbage bags & tie the bags securely. Remove all food residues & clean your garbage cans weekly.

ii) Bot Fly :- (Dermatobia Hominis)

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Class - Insecta

Order - Diptera

Family - Oestridae

Sub-family - Cuterebrinae

Genus - Dermatobia

Species - D. hominis

Morphology :-

• The human botfly, dermatobia hominis (Greek & Latin hominis of a human), is one of several species of flies, the larvae of which parasitise human (in addition to a wide range of other animals including other primates).
• It is also known as the torsalo or American warble fly.
• The warble fly is in the genus Hypoderma & not Oermatobia and is a parasite on cattle & deer instead of humans.
• Botflies also known as warble flies heel flies & gadflies are a family of flies technically known as the oestridae.
• Their larvae are internal parasites of mammals, some species growing in the host’s flesh & other within the gut.
• Dermatoid hominids is the only speckles of botfly known to parasitize humans routinely, though other species of flies cause amylases in humans.

• Role as vector of Human Disease :-
• The fly is not known to transmit disease causing pathogens, but the larvae of Dermatobia, but the larvae of Dermatobia hominis will infest the skin of mammals & live out the larval stage in the subcutaneous layer causing painful poustules that secrete fluids.
• The infestation of any fly larvae inside the body is known as myiasis.
• Control measure :-
• Effective control requires breaking the Bot fly life cycle.
• Bot fly eggs can be stimulated to batch by wiping the legs down with a warm (110^o) wet cloth.
• Bot fly eggs can also be removed with a comb or brush.
• Insecticidal washes or sprays are available to kill the larvae.

UNIT-V

Morphology, Pathogenicity and Control Measures of :-

Siphonaptera :- (xenopsylla)

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Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Class - Insecta

Order - Siphonaptera

Morphology :-

• These are commonly called as fleas’ fleas are small wingless, laterally compressed parasites that feed on the blood of mammals & birds.
• It is a small order of Insects with only about 1100 known species in world.
• However this is important group due to some of them are transmitters of disease others are intermediate hosts of tapeworms and at most man and animals by their feeding.

General characters of this order: -

1. Wings are absent.
2. Piercing – sucking mouth parts.
3. Complete – metamorphosis.
4. Body compressed laterally; legs modified for jumping.

• The bodies of fleas are greatly modified for their parasitic way of life.
• They are oval & compressed in form which combine with a broad, smooth body with backward projecting bristles & spines, permits them to slip easily through the hairs & feathers of the hosts & makes capture difficult.
• Their antennae are 3-jointed, small and are found in grooves on the sides of the head.
• Bristles on body & the short stout comb like spines ctenidia which are often present the head & pronoun.
• Adult fleas are relatively long lived.
• Some may live for more than a year may exists without food for many years i.e. human fleas live without food for a month’s fleas sexes are separate & there is a clear sexual dimorphism.
• The eggs are white rounded at the ends relatively large may laid on host on ground or nests of animals.
• Fleas are transmitter of “bubonic plague” which is a one of the dreaded disease of mankind.

The fleas found in human house are of 3-types.

1. Plex (Human flea).
2. Cat & dog fleas (cofilins & c. canes).
3. Rat & mouse fleas (xenopsylla).

Fleas & Diseases :-

• Fleas are main disease transmitting parasites it transmits human organisms to cause plague, endemic or marine type of typhus fever.
• Fleas are transmitters of bubonic forms of plague.
• It is caused by Bacillus (bacteria) essentially a disease of Rodents among which it is transmitted fleas man become infected when bitten by infected flea.
• The plague is also called block death disease.
• The bacillus Pasteurella pest is introduced into skin the lymphatic gland become enlarged & inflamed.
• This is one type of plague called Bubonic plague.

Pathogenicity :-

1. Biting – The Chief method of transmission in case of plague is the bite of hungry blocked flea. Some flea which ingest plague bacilli become blocked due to the multiplication of plague bacilli in their stomach flea affected in this wag are called blocked flea. So due to this blockage flea are unable to obtain further blood feed. Because of hunger flea begin to bite more forcefully to suck the blood so instead of sucking blood it injects plague bacilli to the wound. Such blocked flea plays a great role in the spread of plague.
2. Mechanical Transmission: - It takes place from the proboscis of the flea which had fed recently on infected rodent.
3. Faces: - The fecal drop of infected flea may contain numerous bacilli.

Control Measures :-

• Control of fleas consist of essentially in riding the animal of the parasites & their eradication in breeding places.
• Powders containing rotenone, pyrethrum malathion or methoxychlor may be used to control fleas on both cats & dogs.
• Fleas on rodents may be eliminated by dusting their run ways & areas between the walls of building with malathion & carbaryl & then poisoning the rodents.

Morphology, Pathogenicity and Control Measures of :-

Anopleura :- (pediculus)

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Class - Insecta

Order - Phthiraptera

• Small depressed wingless insects which live as ectoparasite only on mammals.
• Mouth parts formed for pricing sucking head is narrow usually pointed in front.
• Metamorphosis is gradual but approaching on ametabolous condition due to the parasitic habits.
• Eyes vestigial or wanting.
• The order Anopleura is having blood sucking lice, these are important one because they feed on blood of mammals & are vectors of various disease.
• It attacks only on mammals never found on birds this is a small order of inset consisting of less than 300 species.
• The apex of the mouth is excreted with small hooks which are attached to the skin during feeding activities.

• The legs are fitted for grasping.
• It is common with mallophagan only are obligatory, ectoparasite and are quite restricted to specific hosts under normal conditions entire life cycle is on only one host animal.
• Transferred one to another chiefly by body conducts.

The head & body louse: -

• These are most important louse of man.
• The research has established that they are varieties of same.
• These occurs on man where overcrowding & substandard living conditions exist.

Pathogenicity :-

• The blood sucking lice are permanent host specific ectoparasites of mammals.
• These results suggest that genetic variants of Ana plasma spy may differ not only in pathogenicity but also in their host tropism.
• Host influences on the Pathogenicity of heteroring habits megados.

Control Measure :-

1. The use of D.D.T. powder efficiently controlled the pest & eliminate sporadic out breaks of typhus fever.
2. Head lice may be eliminated by dusting with my / powder or rotenone.
3. In some case lice are resistant D.D.T. in that case, use of other insecticides such as index had to be used.
4. Personal protection measure, such as repellents & protective clothing are effective against all of them.
5. Bed nets are effective against dipteral that bite at night measure to make houses & shelters insect – proof work against species that enter houses to feed & rest.

Morphology, Pathogenicity and Control Measures of :-

Mallophaga :-

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Class - Insecta

Order - Phthiraptera

Sub-Order - Mallophaga

Morphology :-

Mallows = wool; phage in mallophagan characterized by –

• Small wingless insects which live as ectoparasite of birds & mammals.
• Metamorphosis gradual but approaching on ameba bullous condition the due to the parasitic habits.
• Mouth parts formed for chewing but modified.
• Body considerably flattened and hard, the head generally large & the eyes degenerate.
• The chewing and biting lice have been generally known as bird lice because they found chiefly on these hosts, sometimes found in fur of mammals.
• The mallophagan feed primarily on the host. Recently certain species have been found obtaining blond by puncturing the base of young feathers.
• The principle injury produced is through constant irritation of the hosts.
• Birds dust themselves to obtain relief from the parasite chewing lice are not known to be as vector of any disease.

Pathogenicity :-

• Pathogenic involvement of mallophagan: - Very little attention has been paid towards the role of mallophagan in reservicing and transmitting infectious agents amongst their hosts.
• A survey of literature reveals that two hematophagous mallophagans infesting poultry birds can act as vectors of pathogens.
• Hematophagous behaviors of mean acanthus eurysternids such species cause harm to the host directly by reducing vitality and productivity & indirectly by acting as reservoir & transmitter of pathogenic strains of infectious disease.

Control Measures :-

• The effective ness of moxidectin a compound with ivermectin – like activity in controlled release bolus as one herd to maintain pressure for reinfestation from the infested control animals.
• Multicide was found on the body surface of lice collected from hens dying of Pasteurella’s and having open wounds.
• Live and virulent past.
• Multicide was found in the gut of men acanthus gut of man acanthus stramineous and menoponid studied.
• Their biological control with predators and parasites has not been explored yet.
• However, the entomopathogenic fungus metarhizium anisole has been reported as effective in vitro and in vivo experiments against Ramalinga bevies infestation on cattle.
• Tested products mainly contained bioactive principles from two meliaceous, Azedarach indica and carap a Guianese's.
• High efficiency of neem-borne preparations was reported, leading to the development of several products currently marketed.
• Behavior-based control of mallophagan, using pheromone-based lures or even the sterile insect technique (SIT).

Morphology, Pathogenicity and Control Measures of :-

Hymenoptera :- (Sawflies, Ants, Wasps, Bees)

Systematic Position :-

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Arthropoda

Class - Insecta

Order - Hymenoptera

Morphology :-

• Hymenoptera are a large order of insect with more than 90,000 known species.
• It is thought to be the most beneficial order as it contains very parasites and predictors of injurious insects as well as most important insect pollinators of plants bees.
• It members may be recognized by the following general characteristics.
• Wings usually present.
• Pairs membranous hind pairs smaller velation specialized and more or less reduced.
• Mouthparts for chewing or for chewing & sucking.
• Abdomen of female usually provided with a saw piercing organ or sting.
• Nearly 12,0000 species with have been studied out of them nearly 50% are parasitic.
• The meaning of word Hymenoptera is generally accepted as membrane wing but this also shared by number of other species.

• So perhaps the interpretation marriage on the wings is more appropriate.
• The hind wings are smaller than front wings.
• The both wings are held by small hooks & complicated.
• It’s head is very short and with thorax and abdomen mouth parts of bees are exhibit marked modification specialized mouth parts for sucking or lapping.
• The female adults of the order usually have a well-developed ovipositor.
• This organ is variously modified for egg deposition a sting in the more highly developed forms.

• The Hymenoptera have a complete metamorphosis.
• The larva has a distinct head, chewing mouth parts and spiracles along the sides of the abdomen.
• In order ‘Symphytum’ larva is cater pillar like in form and thoracic legs & also usually abdominal prologs.
• Larva and aporetic suborder are grublike or maggot like and legless pupae are of exarate type.
• Not only adults but larvae are of economic importance in that serves a natural pathogen in the control of various destructive insects such as by mecopteran larvae are called parasitoids.

Pathogenicity :-

1. The control of Acronymic leaf – cutting ants is necessary due to the severe damage they cause to diverse crops.
2. A possibility was to control them using the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (But) that characteristically produces insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPS).
3. In & series of tests 9,057 larval honey bees.
4. Apish mellifera L. of various ages from hatching to recently sealed were inoculated with spores or with a mixture of rods and spores from pure cultures of Bacillus pulvifaciens Katznelson by ingesting treated food.

Control Measure :-

• In control measures of this parasitic form by using various insecticides like D.D. is common use for spreading and dusting.
• The spreading of Benzocaine is also giving good result.
• The fumigation and burning of Sulphur around the cattle yards & pastures.
• Spraying with B.H.C. ordinarily is very effective.
• If there is heavy infection spraying with emulsion of dendric with kerosene is more effective.
• The occasional plastering house walls and huts with cow dung may be control the parasites in the houses.

Mosquitoes as a Vector in the Transmissions of :-

Malaria:-

• Malaria as a chill and fever disease is known to mankind for a long time sir Ronald Ross, Doctor in Indian army first observed oocytes of plasmodium in female Anopheles and won the 1902 Noble Prize for his work on Malaria.
• Five different types of human malaria are recognized and these five types of malaria are transmitted by Anopheles species.
• A healthy person acquires infection, when a female anopheles mosquitoes containing infective stages (sporozoites) of the parasite in it’s salivary gland.
• The mosquito punctures the human skin it’s proboscis and first introduces some of the blood stream.
• Along with the saliva sporozoites contained therein are also incubated the purpose of pouring saliva is to check the blood coagulation as it contains anti-coagulants.
• They transmit disease producing organisms which undergo development or multiplication in their body.

• Malaria is a serious and sometimes fatal disease caused by a parasite that commonly infects a certain type of mosquito which feeds on humans.
• People who get malaria are typically very sick with high fevers, shaking chills, and flu-like illness.
• Four kinds of malaria parasites infect humans:- 

(1)Plasmodium falciparum, (2) P. vivax,(3) P. ovule, and (4) P. malaria. 

• In addition, P. Knowles, a type of malaria that naturally infects macaques in Southeast Asia, also infects humans, causing malaria that is transmitted from animal to human (“zoonotic” malaria). 
• P. falciparum is the type of malaria that is most likely to result in severe infections and if not promptly treated, may lead to death.
• Although malaria can be a deadly disease, illness and death from malaria can usually be prevented.

Dengue-Fever:- (Break bone fever)

• In India Dengue is a epidemic form of disease.
• This infection is transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito and is characterized by the sudden on set of fever headache, pain in bone, joints & muscles, hence it is called as break bone fever.
• It is caused by four strains of arbovirus.
• The worm countries.
• This disease transmitted by a vector i.e. Incubation period in mosquito is about 10-12 days after which the virus become infective.

• Dengue is fast emerging pandemic-prone viral disease in many parts of the world.
• Dengue flourishes in urban poor areas, suburbs and the countryside but also affects more affluent neighborhoods in tropical and subtropical countries.
• Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral infection causing a severe flu-like illness and, sometimes causing a potentially lethal complication called severe dengue.
• The incidence of dengue has increased 30-fold over the last 50 years.
• Up to 50-100 million infections are now estimated to occur annually in over 100 endemic countries, putting almost half of the world’s population at risk.
• Severe dengue (previously known as dengue hemorrhagic fever) was first recognized in the 1950s during dengue epidemics in the Philippines and Thailand.
• Today it affects Asian and Latin American countries and has become a leading cause of hospitalization and death among children and adults in these regions.
• The full life cycle of dengue fever virus involves the role of mosquito as a transmitter (or vector) and humans as the main victim and source of infection.

Elephantiasis:-

• Causal organism is Wuchereria bancrofti filariasis is caused by blockage of lymph channels by w. bancrofti, the young accumulating in blood vessels near the skin these elongate thread like worms live in the lymphatic system where they block the vessels return tissue fluid to the circulatory system, when the filarial worm block these vessels fluid tend to accumulate in peripheral tissues.
• This fluid accumulation causes the enlargement of various appendage a condition is called elephantiasis.
• It is caused by Nematodes in man and wuchereria “malagi”.
• The intermediate host are several types of mosquitoes, culex, Aedes, Anopheles, the larvae of wuchereria is blood of infected person by mosquitoes which serve as vector.
• The microfilaria grow in mosquito bites a man.

Elephantiasis:- 

• Lymphatic filariasis, a mosquito-borne parasitic disease caused by tiny thread-like worms that live in the human lymph system.
• Best known from dramatic photos of people with grossly enlarged or swollen arms and legs.
• The parasitic worms responsible for the disease include Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and B. tamari.
• The disease currently affects 120 million people worldwide, and 40 million of these people have serious disease.
• When an infected female mosquito bites a person, she may inject the worm larvae, called microfilariae, into the blood.
• The microfilariae reproduce and spread throughout the bloodstream, where they can live for many years.
• Often disease symptoms do not appear until years after infection. As the parasites accumulate in the blood vessels, they can restrict the circulation and cause fluid to build up in surrounding tissues.
• The most common, visible signs of infection are excessively enlarged arms, legs, genitalia, and breasts.
• Medicines to treat lymphatic filariasis are most effective when used soon after infection.

Yellow fever:-

• Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration. 
• In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains particularly in the back, and headaches.
• Symptoms typically improve within five days.
• In about 15% of people, within a day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and liver damage begins causing yellow skin.
• If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and kidney problems is increased.
• The disease is caused by yellow fever virus and is spread by the bite of an infected female mosquito. 
• Infects only humans, other primates, and several types of mosquitoes.
• In cities, it is spread primarily by Aedes aegypti, a type of mosquito found throughout the tropics and subtropics. 
• The virus is an RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus.
• The disease may be difficult to tell apart from other illnesses, especially in the early stages.
•  A safe and effective vaccine against yellow fever exists, and some countries require vaccinations for travelers.
• Other efforts to prevent infection include reducing the population of the transmitting mosquitoes. 

Chikungunya:-

• Chikungunya is an infection caused by the Chikungunya virus (CHIKV). 
• Symptoms include fever and joint pains.
• These typically occur two to twelve days after exposure. 
• Other symptoms may include headache, muscle pain, joint swelling, and a rash. 
• Symptoms usually improve within a week; however, occasionally the joint pain may last for months or years. 
• The virus is spread between people by two types of mosquitos: Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti. 
• The virus may circulate within a number of animals including birds and rodents. 
• Diagnosis is by either testing the blood for the virus's RNA or antibodies to the virus. 
• The symptoms can be mistaken for those of dengue fever and Zika fever. 
• The best means of prevention is overall mosquito control and the avoidance of bites in areas where the disease is common.
• Recommendations include rest, fluids, and medications to help with fever and joint pain.
• The term is from the Kimakonde language and means "to become contorted".

• The chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an arthropod born virus.
• Transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes to humans.
• The word chikungunya means that which bends up an allusion to the posture of the suffering patients.
• The most common symptom is joint pain.
• The chikungunya is a relatively rare form of viral fever caused by an alphavirus that is spread by mosquito bites from the Aedes aegypti mosquito. 

Treatment :-

1. Self-limiting & will resolve with time.
2. No specific treatment for chikungunya.
3. Supportive or palliative medical care with Anti inflame matures.
4. Aspirin & nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, chloroquine phosphate (250 gm/day) has given promising result.

Control :-

1. Aedes species is the main target of control.
2. Eliminate other breeding places in and around houses.
3. Introduction of carnivorous fish, namely Gambusia in water tanks & other water sources.

Prevention of Mosquito Bite :-

1. Mustered oil citronella oil & ant mosquito clear can be used for application of the exposed parts of the body.
2. Mosquito nets & clothing should be used to keep insects away from the human body.
3. House in mosquito infected area should have close netted windows & doors.
4. Destruction of the adult by insecticides or D.D.T. by pyrethrum.
5. By burning Sulphur tarcomphor or other derivatives of the naphtha.

Insects Control Methods :- (These are of two types )

i) Chemical Control of Insects:-

• To eradicate and to have less infection.
• The various measures are adapted.
• These are called control measure.
• The various chemicals are used for the destruction of parasitic insects.
• The secretion of chemical depends upon the immunity of the parasites for a particular chemical.
• The ectoparasite are destroyed by merely dusting & spraying of various chemicals.
• The dusting is mainly brought about by the apparatus called dusters.
• The chemicals are to be used finely grind of very small particles.

• Generally dusting chemicals may be 39 μ to 50 μ in size.
• Some parasites are also removed & destroyed by making the smokes of various chemicals such chemicals are called fumigants.
• The burning of Sulphur produces Sulphur smokes & parasites in the cattle house’s survival.
• These chemicals now a days are also available in the form of gaseous vapors etc.
• These gaseous and vapors are thrown at the site where there is very heavy infection.
• Some fumigants are also in form of liquid.
• These produces smoke by spraying of various chemicals is brought about more efficiently by mixing these chemicals with a suitable solvent.
• The spraying method is generally on large scale is by air compressed type.

• A sprayer break-up the liquid into the fine droplets of effective size.
• It also helps to distribute chemicals uniformly over the surface of the host or heavily infected areas.
• In the sprayer important part is nozzle.
• The nozzle functions with a great pressure.
• The following various types of sprayers are used as the hand sprayers.
• Compressed sprayer, buttery, sprayer, bucket sprayer, wheel sprayer, side pump sprayer foot sprayer.
• The control of mite by vegetation intensive cultivation and proper spraying the spraying the ground with chlorinated hydrocarbons it is more effective for red bugs.

• The ticks are brought under the control by occasional spraying the flour and walls are spread with a suspension of BHC dusting with BHC or other chlorinated hydrocarbons or organic phosphorus compounds gives the effective results.
• Dusting cracks is more essential for various ticks.
• Argus can be illuminated from poultry houses by a spraying wall with chlorinated hydrocarbons, Cleo sole or cool oil.
• Here ticks are illuminated by a spraying is pine oil contains 1% Lindane or 5% chloride ticks on sodium arcinate dips methoxychlor is best for dusting on cows to remove the ticks mite.
• Postures and yards are sprayed with dieldrin every 5 to 6 weeks the various repellants are also used against these insects.
• The most effective repellants are diethyl toluamide aerogels silica m. 1961.

• The illumination of lice is by regular dusting of DDT.
• The dusting of 10% DDT in hydro-phyllodes is more effective 1% of Lindane pyrethrin powder are also used for dusting for head or crab lice.
• Kinesin, emulsion is more effective.
• These emulsion consist 60% of benzyl, benzoate 6%, DDT 12%, benzocaine nearly 10%, tween 80%.
• Lice infection through close is avoided by Deeping the cloth in 5% DDT so in or emulsion.
• The fleas are brought under control by eradication of rats.
• The rats are destroyed by fumigation with hydrogen cyanides CH₃Br or burning Sulphur the dusting with 10% DDT and chlordane in the rat burrows is also one of the important methods of controlling rats, ants are most common rodenticides.

• The control of various blood sucking & disease carrying fleas is spraying of dieldrin BHC emulsion spraying and painting DDT is also suggested the various fleas of the cattle are brought under control by a spraying with pyrethrin.
• The heavily infected areas are brought under control by a aerial spraying diethyl tole my is a good repellant to avoid flies bite.
• The housefly is controlled by occasional spraying with DDT.
• The adults are controlled by parathion or diazinon.
• These chemicals are used after mixing with sugar or spray or syrup.
• The intermediate host of trypanosome is Glossina pil-pils is insecticides.
• Before the discovery of insecticides tobacco was used in France, pyrethrin is used to kill the fleas, leaf eating cant her pillars are destroyed by extracts of various plants called the Role hone but recent vat inventions in the modern synthetic insecticides D.D.T. B.H.C. are used.

2) Biological Control of Insects :-

The following measures are suggested for destruction and irradiation of arthropod parasitic insects.

1. Removal of Vegetation: -
1. Generally the fertilizer, females lay eggs in the marshy, damp places, and also at stagnant water and at the sight of vegetation.
2. All such places are properly clean.
3. The various steps of mosquitoes are illuminated, destroyed by removing stagnant water and attaches Garage kitchen camps street markets and outer rowdy places must be regularly clean.
4. In villages for the agriculture, the face should be collected in the pits or spread twinkly over the field to expose to sunlight.

b) Proper Sanitary Disposal and Allied Measures :-

• The farces of human must properly disposal by contracting the guested proper sanitation & proper toilet’s, the personal hygiene is essential as re-infection occur, hence one should not use the other’s cloths under wares, bed sheets, towels etc.

c) Proper Cooking of Vegetables:-

• The eggs of the various insects adhered to the leafy vegetables such as leafy vegetables are properly washed by worm water and then cooked.
• The cooked food in the kitchen should be covered, larvicidal fishes like sticker but minnows, gambusia trout, ducks are kept in the stagnant water, lakes, ponds etc.
• The various adults insects like Dragon fleas, are the natural enemies of the various insects particularly of mosquitoes.

• These may be introduce in the fountain ditches ponds, lakes, canals, tanks other water reservoirs etc.
• The large water bodies should be free from aquatic vegetation a no. of aquatic plants are planted in the lakes these are insectivorous plants.
• Such as bladder watt, limina, these insectivorous plants feed on larva and other insects.
• The proper washing of animal, drinking pans, vessels, is also suggested.
• The cleaning of spit us are used and these are clean.
• The covering and treating of drinking water with various chemicals, also help in controlling the various insects.