Subdivide a building into smaller areas

Can also separate various functions within a structure

• Freestanding fire walls are self-supporting; independent of the building frame
• Tied walls require support from the surrounding structure; often lighter; may be double-wall

Can be constructed as freestanding walls or tied walls

• Must have the same degree of fire resistance as that required for the fire wall
• Must have sufficient strength to resist the lateral pull of collapse on either side
• No combustible structural members may penetrate

Structural members

• If framed into a fire wall, they must be designed to fall away freely from the wall under fire conditions

Combustible members

When the floor area of a building is subdivided with fire-resistive partitions or walls, it is said to be compartmentalized or part of a compartmentation system

• Designed to contain fire to one area
• Not self-supporting and free-standing like fire walls

Fire-rated partitions or fire barriers

• Doors, windows, access panels
• Nullify the value of the partitions unless protected

Openings

• Fire doors
• Shutters
• Other rated building components

Protection of openings

Recent technological advancements, increased energy costs have created a market

Commonly referred to as solar panels

Convert energy from the sun into usable electricity

Can be found on both residential and commercial buildings

Provide electrical power to the building

Sends electricity into the public utility grid; can provide rebates to owners

Recent technological advancements, increased energy costs have created a market

Commonly referred to as solar panels

Convert energy from the sun into usable electricity

Can be found on both residential and commercial buildings

Provide electrical power to the building

Sends electricity into the public utility grid; can provide rebates to owners

Can generate up to 8 amps and 600 volts of electricity

During a daytime fire, the system may continue to produce electricity

Disconnect switch prohibits the electricity from the switch to the structure’s main electrical system

Electricity between the PV panels and the disconnect switch continues

All conduit and system disconnect switches should be marked according to model codes

Systems are designed to produce the maximum amount of electricity they can

More PV panels mean more electricity

Design is a problem for firefighters to access/egress pathways to and on a roof

Once on the roof, areas must be provided for smoke ventilation operations

Model building codes have criteria for the paths and ventilation points

Conversations with the responding fire fighting support companies could be beneficial before a fire occurs

Only standardized test method currently universally accepted by building codes

Evaluates the ability of structural assemblies to carry a structural load and to act as a fire barrier

Information about performance of assemblies constructed with components or lengths other than those tested

Evaluation of the extent to which the assembly may generate smoke, toxic gases, or other products of combustion

Measurement of the degree of control or limitation of the passage of smoke or products of combustion

Fire behavior of joints between building elements such as floor-to-wall or wall-to-wall connections

Measurement of flame spread over the surface of the tested material

• Electrical outlets and plumbing openings
• When the continuity of an assembly is destroyed, it cannot function as a fire barrier
• Fire-resistive assemblies may be penetrated
• Penetrations may be made for ductwork, plumbing, electrical, or communication purposes
• May not be adequately firestopped

Effect on fire endurance of openings in an assembly

• When the continuity of an assembly is destroyed, it cannot function as a fire barrier
• Over time, and particularly during renovation, fire-resistive assemblies may be penetrated
• Penetrations may be made for ductwork, plumbing, electrical, or communication purposes
• Penetrations may not be adequately firestopped

Particular interest to building and fire prevention inspectors

Floor finishes

Ceilings

Stairs

There are two classes of floor finishes: Class I and Class II

Class I can withstand higher temperatures

The more critical the fire exposure, the higher the classification required

Generally, the exits, exit passageways, and corridors require Class I interior floor finishes

Automatic sprinkler system will decrease the requirement to Class II

Materials can be attached directly to the underside of floor joists or trusses

Materials can be installed at a distance below the floor supports, creating a large concealed space

Common for old buildings to have a new ceiling installed below an existing ceiling

Ceiling materials can conceal the type of floor or roof structure above

Space above the ceiling, called interstitial, can be used to conceal ducts, wiring, piping, etc.

Verify wires, ducts, pipes, etc. are noncombustible or rated for plenum use

Materials can be attached directly to the underside of floor joists or trusses

Materials can be installed at a distance below the floor supports, creating a large concealed space

Common for old buildings to have a new ceiling installed below an existing ceiling

Ceiling materials can conceal the type of floor or roof structure above

Space above the ceiling, called interstitial, can be used to conceal ducts, wiring, piping, etc.

Verify wires, ducts, pipes, etc. are noncombustible or rated for plenum use

Access or convenience stairs are not required to be a part of the means of egress system; typically connect no more than two levels

Can be classified as either interior or exterior

Stairs that are a part of the required means of egress must be evaluated so occupants can travel to safety

Stairs meeting these requirements are called protected or enclosed

Fire escapes, escalators, and fixed ladders are no longer allowed as components in the required means of egress

The slide escape was another device used for some time that is no longer permitted for newly constructed buildings

• Code may permit an opening in a 2-hour-rated stairwell enclosure
• Openings need to be protected with a 1½-hour-rated fire door rather than a 2-hour-rated door
• Code may also require two 3-hour-rated fire doors to protect an opening in a 4-hour-rated wall
• May not permit a 3-hour-rated door to be used in combination with a 1½-hour-rated door to satisfy the requirement
• A 1/3-hour-rated door may be found being used as a smoke barrier and an opening to a corridor

Use locally adopted code

Flammable interior finishes can intensify fires

UL and other organizations developed testing methods to establish flame-spread ratings

Ratings based on smoke development were also developed

Fire-retardant coatings have also been developed, tested, and approved

Be aware that modifications to buildings can affect a component’s fire rating

Modifications or repairs should conform to the same level that was originally approved

Research original plans to determine these fire ratings

• For evaluating surface-burning characteristics

Most commonly used method

• Flame spread rating
• Smoke developed index

Numerical evaluation of the flammability of interior materials

• Under controlled test conditions
• Red oak flooring is the standard; all materials are tested against it
• Red oak flooring is assigned a rating of 100

Means of comparison

• Use the ratings to establish some control over interior finishes

Building codes

• Three classifications for interior finishes
• Used to establish control material uses in occupancies

Classifications

• Room shape and dimensions and fuel load within the compartment have a significant effect

Not an absolute measure

• Be aware that differences between field applications and test conditions create a differing behavior in the field

Application differences

• Does not apply
• However, if used for a wall or ceiling finish, it must meet the same flame spread criteria as other wall and ceiling finishes

Floor coverings

• Relative surface burning can be assumed for some interior surfaces, such as concrete block or plaster
• Other materials can usually be assumed to have a higher flame spread rating
• However, the ratings of many materials cannot be determined in the field unless the manufacturer can be identified and contacted

No way that flame spread ratings can be positively determined in the field

Another measure of flammability

Measure of the relative visual obscurity created by the smoke from a tested material

Measured by means of a photoelectric cell and a light source located at the end of the tunnel furnace

Red oak is used as a standard; assigned rating of 100

Not an indication of the toxicity of products of combustion of interior finish materials

Will not detect or measure a completely transparent product of combustion such as carbon monoxide

Does not measure the combined effects of heat, irritation, and toxicity

• Intumescent paints
• Mastics
• Cementitous (cement-based) and mineral-fiber coatings
• Topical fire-retardant coatings

Types of coatings

• Intumescent paints expand upon exposure to heat to create a thick, puffy coating
• Mastic coatings form a thick, noncombustible membrane over the surface

Behaviors

• Only effective when applied as directed
• Susceptible to misuse

Limits

Buildings contain a variety of services and subsystems

• Designed to provide safety, convenience, and comfort for occupants

All services and subsystems can impact fire and life safety

• Must be appropriately designed, installed, inspected, tested, and maintained
• Defective subsystems can have detrimental effects on the entire system

Inspector’s responsibility

• Verify that the designer and owner have installed and maintained building services in compliance with the locally adopted fire and life safety building codes

Designed primarily for occupant comfort

Regulate the intake of outdoor air and the recirculation of indoor air

Reviewing maintenance records

Conducting field observations

Outside air intakes

Fans

Air filtration devices

Exhaust properly sealed into chimneys

Air heating and cooling equipment

Air ducts

Smoke/fire dampers

• Protect duct penetrations through fire-rated assemblies
• Usually is actuated by an associated smoke detector
• Usually closes by active mechanical action
• May also be actuated by an automatic alarm signal from the building fire alarm system

Smoke dampers

• Protect duct penetrations through fire-rated assemblies
• Usually a spring-loaded shutter
• Held open by a fusible link

Fire dampers

• Close in response to either heat or smoke

Combination smoke and fire dampers

• Most codes require them
• Automatically turns off the system
• Intent is to prevent the system from spreading and recirculating smoke
• Should never be considered a substitute for area smoke detectors

Internal duct smoke detection devices

Fire detected, HVAC system fan deactivates

Dampers activate at points where the HVAC ducts pass through smoke or fire-barrier walls

Compartmentalizes the fire

Dampers should be inspected by a qualified person and also exercised

Main supply ducts

Downstream of the air filters and cleaners

Return air ducts

Locations depend on the mechanical building code under which they were installed

Air is drawn from the fire area and discharged to the outside

Return air supply to all or part of the building ceases

Fire dampers are usually omitted

Common in covered malls, underground buildings, and high-rises

Lengthy time for evacuation

Aerial ladders cannot reach upper floors

Strong air-flow patterns are found in vertical shafts

Also important in underground structures where exit travel is into upper floors

Must be capable of maintaining smoke- and heat-free exit route

Must be designed to allow for sufficient evacuation time for occupants

Inspector must verify

Measures do not include smoke-control measures that have been implemented as equivalent methods or alternatives permitted by objective-based codes

Be familiar with the testing requirements and the frequency for testing these systems

Always request documentation that the required testing and maintenance has been performed by a qualified person

Installed in buildings to add or remove heat

• Building occupants
• Processes/items

Controls the air temperatures for heating and cooling

• Preserve foods
• Maintain the temperature of pharmaceuticals
• Ensure that certain hazardous materials do not become unstable

In commercial buildings, these systems are also used to

ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers)

ASHRAE Standard 34, Designation and Safety Classifications of Refrigerants, is used to classify refrigerants

Amount of refrigerant in the system and its classification dictate when the jurisdiction's fire code requirements for these systems are applicable

ASHRAE 34 uses an alphabet-numerical system for classification of refrigerants

Type B refrigerants are more toxic

Type A refrigerants are less toxic than Type B

Class 1 refrigerants

• Noncombustible

Class 3 refrigerants

• Flammable

Used to alert facility personnel of possible refrigerant leaks

Must also activate occupant notification devices

Alarm must be transmitted to an approved location

Codes require this system to provide a means of exhausting the room in the event of a refrigerant leak

Activated by the gas detection system

Used if the gas detection or mechanical ventilation system fails to operate

Model fire codes require a break-glass type switch near the machinery room in an approved location

Switch should shutdown compressors, pumps and automatic valves

A second emergency switch is also required to manually activate the mechanical ventilation system

Must post health, flammability and instability hazards

Model fire codes require signs that comply with NFPA® 704, Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response

Equipment may be installed in separate rooms, vaults, or separate buildings

May be above or below grade level or on individual floors

Codes may require electrical system components be separated from the rest of the building by fire-rated construction

Distribute the electrical power that arrives at the panel into individual circuits

• Evenly distribute the electricity
• Prevent wiring from becoming overloaded
• Ensure adequate power for equipment

Circuits are designed to

• Turn off power to the circuit if there is a short

Circuit breakers

• Circuit breakers have replaced fuses
• However, fuse boxes are still found in structures built before 1950
• May still be found on air-conditioning units

Fuses and fuse boxes

• Present within either the circuit breaker or fuse box service panel
• Control all the electricity that enters the panel
• These switches/fuses may be used to turn off power to the building

Master control switches

• Electrical power stations
• Industrial complexes
• Electrical equipment rooms

Where they are found

• Multiple circuit breakers or switches that will prevent a short in the system or reset it after a short has occurred

What they contain

Supply backup power during an emergency

May be limited to operating the fire protection systems and emergency lighting systems

May have the capacity to provide power to the entire building

Generally located outside a building; may also be found in basement areas

Natural gas and diesel are the main types of fuel

Power transfer switch starts the generator when there is a loss of power; turns it off when the primary power supply reengages

• Convert high-voltage electricity supplied to an appropriate voltage for use in a building
• Some power special systems and equipment in industrial and commercial buildings
• They generate heat; air cooling and oil cooling are the two most common cooling methods

Characteristics

• Use the surrounding air to cool the transformer
• Has fins and heat sinks installed on the body
• Also called dry transformers

Air-cooled

• Contains oil to conduct heat away from the core and to electrically insulate internal components
• Hazard of being energized electrical equipment
• Have the potential to be the source of a combustible liquid leak

Oil-cooled or oil-filled

Can act as a vertical chimney; spread fire and smoke throughout a building

If not vented at the top, the hot gases and smoke may accumulate and spread horizontally to the upper floors

Model building codes require venting at the top of nearly every hoistway built today

Hoistway enclosures are usually required to be fire-rated assemblies

Any penetrations through the hoistway walls must be done with the installation of an appropriately rated assembly

No wiring, ductwork, or piping should be run within the hoistway unless it is required for the elevator itself

Rated assemblies that work in conjunction with the car doors

Depend upon the car doors for their power

Same types as car doors with one addition: a swinging door is installed on some hoistways

May not completely prevent the passage of smoke from the hoistway into the building because some door clearance is required for operation

Fire-resistance rating should be clearly visible on the label, which is on the hoistway side of the door

Assembly must be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions

Any hardware, such as floor sill, header, and closure equipment, must also be labeled

Can provide a vertical path for smoke and fire

Can serve as the area of origin

Vertical shaft enclosures are built with fire-rated construction methods; contain combustible materials

These areas are critical for the inspector to verify that the required firestopping has been installed and maintained

Must be constructed of noncombustible material with rated doors

A fire-rated enclosure must surround the chute

Automatic sprinklers may be required at the top of the chute; in its termination room

Poor maintenance or loss of operational integrity can result in some smoke escaping

Be aware of these weak points; evaluate that components are intact

They serve more than one exhaust hood

Duct is smallest as it leaves each single exhaust hood

Size increases in cross-section as it joins with another branch duct

Typically have separate fire suppression systems for each hood

Each branch duct operates simultaneously for the protection of the common duct

Normally found in such areas as food courts in shopping malls

If not properly maintained, fire may spread over large areas within the building

Known as extractors

May be located in false ceiling spaces, in a mezzanine, or on the roof

May present hazards due to accumulation of grease on filters and fusible links

Some design applications include horizontal ducts

Most of this equipment is installed on the roof

May also be located in ceiling spaces

Some systems are designed with water wash or odor-control chemical spray systems

• Filters
• Electrostatic precipitators
• Catalysts
• Odor absorbers
• Gas-fired afterburners

May contain