Unit : III

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Metro and Mega Cities: Problems and Issues, Growth trends and processes, characteristics, problems, concepts and concerns of urban sustainability, concepts and concerns of urban sustainability, issues related to diversity and unintended growth, economic, social and environmental sustainability, quality of life, inclusivity and equity, climate change, transit oriented development, participatory planning. Inner city – issues and problems, approach to development.

METRO AND MEGA CITIES�PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

1. PAUCITY OF LAND

Foremost to over spilling of urbanization beyond the municipal limits like Mumbai: The population of suburbs grew from 1.38 million in 1961 to 4.95 million in 1981 and 5.2 million in 1991 with a growth of 70.91% over 1971-81 as compared to only 7.1% in the island.

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2. LAND USES PROPOSALS AND LAND CLASSIFICATION

• Land Uses Proposals

Western replica used. Concept of mixed land use overlooked.

• Land Uses Classification

Detail land use classification not proper to be more precise confusing. Ex. The residences within academic institution as group housing but by definition they are part of institutional area. Likewise surface drainage classified as public utilities whereas it is a part of water body.

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3. DISTORTED LAND ASSEMBLY AND LAND DISTRIBUTION POLICIES

Over 70% of the underprivileged and low income categories have access to 20% of land whereas 30% middle and higher income have access to 80%. Shortage for low income group results in slums The quality of human settlement created either impulsively through the landing of squatters on public and private land, road margin, railway track, greens or through planned settlements by public and private agencies display two versions of depth of poverty and heights of prosperity.

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4. DISTORTION IN LAND MARKET
1. COST OF LAND NOT ACESSBLE TO POOR LEADS TO CREATION OF SLUMS
2. INCREASING FSI – DENSITY PROBLEM LEADS TO SERVICES PROBLEMS
1. While the cost of land and development should reasonably are 20-40% of the overall cost of house and the balance contributed by the building construction cost. There are many situations where of land and development cost alone accounts for 80-90% of the cost of the product with only 10% going into building construction cost.

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• Today development boards across the country are auctioning land parcels to private developers at exorbitantly high prices. Thus making housing inaccessible to poor the only way the vicious cycle can be broken is through the creation of substantial amount of developed land in all the major cities and towns. The optimum utilization of land with mixed uses, low-rise-high density and high-rise-high density developments holds the key too many of the vexatious problems and housing access.

5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

GENERALLY THE RESULT OF INTOLERABLE LIVING CONDITIONS ARE:

• SLUMS,
• UNEMPLOYMENT,
• CRIMES,
• DELINQUENCIES,
• BEGGING,
• CORRUPTION,
• DRUG ABUSE,
• ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION,

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Urban problems spring from concentration of population. Again, the political economy of the State and the correlation of class forces are primarily responsible for the plight of not only the rural poor but also the urban poor. Slums, unemployment, crimes, delinquencies, begging, corruption, drug abuse, environmental degradation, etc. are all urban problems which are generally the result of intolerable living conditions in town and cities. In city life, anonymity increases cases of riots, communal conflicts and agitations. Social Problems and Social Change in India. Societies often face problems because of the imbalance in the forces of caste, race, gender, class, and so on. Social change is change in the patterned roles, or a change in the network of

the patterned roles, or a change in the network of social relations, or in the structures and organisation of a society. Social change is never complete or total; it is always partial. It can be minor or fundamental. Further, the change can be spontaneous or planned. Planned change is to achieve some set of collective ideals. For example, after Independence, India also had set some collective goals to achieve. Some of the important changes that we find in our society since Independence are:

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PROBLEMS DUE TO SOCIAL CHANGES ARE:

• Change from tradition to modernity in certain values and institutions

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• Change from ascribed status to achieved status
• Change from predominance of primary groups to predominance of secondary groups
• Change from non formal means of control to formal means of control, change from collectively of individualism
• Change from non scientific methods of investigation to scientific methods of investigation
• Change from folkloric knowledge to rationalist knowledge
• Change from homogeneity to heterogeneity

Change in the increasing awareness of rights among various sections of society due to the spread of education, weakening of the caste system and religious fundamentalism (needs critical debating), weakening of traditional sources of security, occupational mobility, enactment of several social laws, and so on. Though we have achieved many of the set collective goals, many contradictions have also set into our system. For example, accessibility to the legal system has become a problem for the common masses of our country. At times the forces of fundamentalism and parochialism destroy the ethos of nationalism by practising castes, regionalism, communalism, linguist, extremism, terrorism, and so on. Many laws have been enacted but either these laws are full of loopholes or they are not properly implemented. Impartiality is preserved in the Preamble of the Constitution of India but the State enforces discrimination in more ways than one.

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6. DEMOGRAPHIC

Housing

1. Population growth and concentration in Mega cities
2. Uneven population Distribution in various parts of cities
3. Problem of Floating population.
4. Pavement Dwellers

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7. POPULATION GROWTH AND CONCENTRATION IN MEGA CITIES

situation. Another problem is gap between the projected and actual population while preparing master plans Delhi is a typical example. Of the total urban population in 2001 nearly one fifth (48.8 million) lives in four mega cities. In 1991-2001 Delhi had a growth rate of 52% whereas Mumbai had a growth rate of 30% and Kolkata grew by 22%.The population of Delhi doubled in 30 years (1901-31).It increased to more than three times in next thirty years (31-51 partition) due to large influx of population after partition It almost doubled again in next ten years (51-61) Even after that Delhi’s population is showing an average increase of 50% in ten years. The Rapid growth of urban population has caught the urban planners, municipal administrators and other associated with urban development unprepared to meet the the situation. Another problem is gap between the projected and actual population while preparing master plans Delhi is a typical example.

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8. PROBLEM OF FLOATING POPULATION
1. Housing Shortage
1. Housing is one of the three basic needs of mankind, in India. The modern concept of housing is the home in which all the basic needs of a family are fulfilled. In India most of the population lives in the slums. At present there is acute shortage of houses in the urban area and much of the available accommodation is quality of sub-standard type. Due to unplanned industrialization, the problem of housing has become grave in urban area.
2. More than 90% of this shortage is for poor and low income category leading to unauthorized construction and slums & pavement dwellers. According to NBO (National Building Organization). In Mumbai, half of city’s 12 million residents are either slum dwellers or homeless (occupying 6% of city’s land) more than 45% of Kolkata population lives in bustees or slums.

2. PROBLEMS OF INFRASTRUCTURE
1. Water Supply
1. Quantity of available water
2. Quality of water
3. Duration of water supply
2. Sewerage and sewage disposal system
1. It is estimated that in India about one lakh metric ton of municipal waste is generated daily.
2. The collection efficiency ranges from 70 to 90 percent in metro cities.
3. Many systems were designed for a much smaller clientele and cannot meet the demands of today.
4. The capacity and the effectiveness of sewage system have been further reduced due to the massive development of low-lying vacant plots.

3. Solid Waste Management
1. Inadequate Solid Waste Management system in mot of the mega cities Health risk to those handling the waste as well as those living in the vicinity of the disposal site.
2. Poses risk of surface, ground water pollution and their interface with food chain.
4. Pressure on Transport
1. Traffic congestion (fuel loss, efficiency loss, Time loss), Accidents, Pollution, Poor public transport forces urban users to use private modes of transport.
2. Public transport system should be improved to minimiise the Traffic congestion fuel loss, efficiency loss, Time loss, Accidents, Pollution etc.
3. Resource Consumption: About 15 to 20% of developed land is under transport and parking. Hence there is a need for transport planning for following reasons:
1. Multitier road System,
2. Cost effective Technology,
3. Transport Planning Authority for single ticketing,
4. Cycle Tracks, Monorail, Elevated Ring Road, Integrated Rail Bus Transit System and High Capacity Bus System may be incorporated.

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LINKAGES BETWEEN SPATIAL STRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT EFFICIENCY

The type of urban structure often defines the most efficient mode of transport. The type of spatial structure—i.e., the degree of mono centricity and density—has a direct impact on trip length, the feasibility of transit being the dominant mode of transport, and pollution.

1. Densities, mono centrism and trip length
1. The higher the density, the smaller the built-up area.
2. Not forming large isolated areas like satellite towns—trips will be shorter in length in cities with high densities than in cities with low densities.
3. Density, however, is not the only factor that influences trip length. In a dominantly mono centric city, trips usually are shorter as the majority of trips are from the periphery to the CBD. In most dominantly mono centric cities, the population’s center of gravity coincides with the CBD, as is the case in New York, London, Paris, Moscow, and Shanghai. In this case, the larger the proportion of trips to the CBD, the shorter the trips will be since, by definition, the center of gravity is the point from which the sum of distance weighted by population is the shortest.
4. The effect of the spatial distribution of density on trip length is often underestimated. The theoretical graphs in Figure 7 show the large variations in trip length produced by different spatial arrangements trip pattern.

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CONCEPTS AND CONCERNS OF URBAN SUSTAINABILITY

The Concepts:

"Development" can be the evolution of living standards and the achievement of ideal conditions in the field of economic, social and cultural which bring the realization of the concepts of freedom, justice, social mobility, human development and economic, social, and cultural growth. Also the development is considered as discovering methods to achieve evolutionary movement, and it makes the phenomenon of social, economic and cultural well-balanced and harmonious, as well it provides modern conditions for social, economic mobility and social justice achievement (SOCIAL JUSTICE) provides.

The sustainable development

The concept of sustainable development refers to this undeniable fact that considerations of ecology can and should be used in economic activities. These considerations include the idea of creating a reasonable environment that the claim of development in order to improve the quality of all aspects of life is challenged by them.

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THE FIELDS RELATED TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The principles of the sustainable development:

According to the definition, the foundation of sustainable development can be pointed as the following conditions and achieving the sustainable development requires paying attention to them.

• Putting the strength potential of human beings.
• Ecosystem is much more important than the current perception and imagination.
• Justice and equality include the equality within a generation, equality within countries, gender equality, equality between countries, and equality between generations.
• The reconciling the development and sustainability which is the main philosophy for the sustainable development is the reconciliation between the development and the sustainable through adequate attention to all targets of systematic and holistic vision.
• Broad participation and consensus in decision-making is one of the prerequisites for the sustainable development, makes decisions legitimate and supports their implementation.
• Human centralization is a basic principle and it is consistent with the sustainability paradigm, its philosophy and the principle of participation and consensus.
• Comprehensive programs and sustainable development activities must include all the issues through the continued expansion and create a system of appropriate integration of all related activities, as well activities short-term to long term.
• Rational use of resources means using the renewable and observing the things in the consumption of non-renewable resources.

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The concept of the sustainable urban development:

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• Sustainability is now widely used in the global context in which human and natural systems are able to survive in the distant future, but the original concept of the sustainable development has been defined by Peter Hall: the today's shape of development that can ensure the future continuous development of cities and urban communities.
• Sustainable urban development theory is the result of environmental debate done about environmental issues and especially the urban environment was presented in the direction of “sustainable development theory” to support the environmental resources. Sustainable urban development is required to identify environmental limitations in order to human activities associated with cities and matching design techniques in these limitations. In this theory, resources for present and future maintenance issue are raised through the optimum use of land and convert wastes into renewable sources.

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A theory of sustainable urban development suggests:

• Preventing from pollution of urban and regional environment,
• Reduction of production capacity of the national, regional and local environmental pollution.
• Supporting of recycling, discouraging the development of harmful environment
• And eliminating the gap between rich and poor.

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The theory studies the city shape sustainability, sustainable pattern of settlements, the effective pattern of transportation in fuel consumption and city in the hierarchy of urban area, because accept the urban development just for the enjoyment of urbanites.

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The necessary features of the sustainable city:

World Commission on Environment and Development, the following principles announces as the essential features of a sustainable city:

• Increasing the economic and social opportunities, so be enough for the population of urban residents;
• Reducing the share of energy in urban growth;
• Optimal use of water, land and other resources required for such urban growth;
• Minimizing the waste produced and maximizing the recycling of waste;
• Create enough power and performance management systems to achieve the objectives of economic, social and environmental;
• Directing the technology used in the city towards sustainable development goals;
• Strengthening different areas of the city, in order to prevent or respond to threats and objectives with economic, social and environment as a result natural or human factors arises, as well as enhancing the flexibility in the face of unexpected disruptions in the city;

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The sustainable City Indicators by experts

The urban sustainability criteria are different at various levels and are not measurable in the same condition. Some of the topics under the investigation of the sustainable development are directly related to cities. These issues include:

• Sustainable development through land use planning;
• Reconstruction of the city;
• Sustainable Buildings;
• Urban shape and energy;
• Sustainable transportation;
• Urban shape and Pollution;
• Density role in achieving sustainability;

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The seven functional points for the shape of appropriate city

• The vitality

To what extent has the city shape included the vital functions, human biological needs and abilities, and most importantly how to survive life possible?

• The meaning

To what extent can the city be clearly perceived, can mentally be identified?; To what extent can its residents bring it to visualize in space and time?; To what extent does the mental structure associate with the values and concepts of society, the environment adaptation to the emotional, mental abilities and the cultural structures?

• The proportionality:

To what extend does the shape and capacity of the spaces, pathways and equipment of a city match with the quantity and pattern of activities which people are involved in it for they are accustomed to it or will be involved?, The adequacy of substrates of behaviour and adaptability to future activities.

• The accessibility:

How is the ability to access other people, activities, resources, services, information and places (Including the quantity and variety of elements that can be accessed)?

• The monitoring and having the authority power:

To what extend is using and having access to spaces and activities and making corrections and managing them done by those who use them or in which they live?

• The efficiency:

How much does it cost to build and maintain the city in different levels (how much does it cost the vitality, relevance, meaning and so on)?

• The justice:

How is the way of environmental distribution of profits and losses between individuals according to certain principles such as need equality, intrinsic value, solvency, efforts, potential aid, power (how much is the share of each individual from each of the five primary factor)?

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The objectives of sustainable development such as:

• Providing of basic needs;
• Improving the life for all classes;
• Maintaining and operating biological systems and achieving to future safer and more prosperous;
• Caring about the habitats of creatures (environment) and around canvas (inanimate objects);
• Supplying the tools technologies and intellectual facilities and tools for the growth required;
• Use of renewable sources in amounts that are less than what is refreshed;
• Optimization of the use of non-renewable resources;
• Paying attention to the amount of waste and pollution to the extent that are absorbed in the environment from the local to the global scale;

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APPROACHES FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT OF MEGACITIES

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1. Considerations on the Necessity of Spatial Information Systems for Megacities.

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CONCEPTS AND CONCERNS OF URBAN SUSTAINABILITY

Monitoring urban growth processes in a multi-scale approach

AN EXAMPLE FOR THE DESIGN OF A SPATIAL INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR MEGACITIES AS A POWERFUL TOOL MITIGATE DISASTERS.

2. Models and Strategies of Sustainable Development

• spatial concept based on a decentralized structure

• comprehensive plan
• shift of urban policy and also of planning strategies

3. Land Use and Urban Management Strategies
1. reform of land tax
2. legal instruments for housing policy
3. planning techniques

4. Urban Infrastructure
1. public-private partnerships
2. public transit systems

5. Good Governance and Disaster Risk Reduction
1. Decentralization
2. capacity building

UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES OF THE NEO-TRADITIONAL CITY PLANNING MODEL

Issues related to diversity and unintended growth

The basic principles behind the neo-traditional movement include:

• enhanced walkability
• mixed land uses
• ease of access to public transit
• sustainability
• high density residential
• defined town/commerce centre
• mixture of housing types

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This tactical criteria of the Neo-traditional model, however, can create unintended

negative consequences. The criteria to which is refered includes:

• grid street patterns
• connectivity to adjacent neighbourhoods
• mixed, non-residential land uses
• alley access/rear roader house

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The inflexible application of these tactical criteria enhances

opportunities for criminal activities to occur.

• Predictable Criminal Behaviour
• Negative effects of Grid Street Patterns
• Common Destinations Attracting Non-Residents
• Alley Access

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INNER CITY – ISSUES AND PROBLEMS, APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT

INNER CITY PROBLEM CHARACTERISTIC

The Inner city problems emerged due to the process of growing urbanization. In developed countries, inner city was developed in the 19th and the early part of the 20th century while in the developing countries the development continued up to the 1960s and in some places is continuing as empty spaces occupied with illegal settlers, which have been redeveloped or consolidated. In addition to that, the development of inner city district began on the continued the ring around form of the historic district, and predominantly characterized by service and manufacturing activities as well as concentration of high-density residential development of relatively poor people. The major activities of industrial and commercial centres were developed in the inner city and led to the development in the periphery areas in which resulting to the inner city depopulation. On consequence, it leads to the problems in the inner city district such as abandoned areas from the former industrial sites and deprived situation in the city centers. The developing countries are increasingly facing the similar problems, the heavy concentrations of traditional manufacturing and transport-related activities in the inner cities now being decentralized through planned relocation dispersed to outer area or nearby towns. This process gives impact to the socio-economic situation in the inner city area. The significant problems in developing countries are the pressure of this regeneration approaches create mono functional land use zone in the inner city (e.g. commercial areas and offices). The effect of this upgrading of physical fabrics for the best area in the inner city is the social segregations for the low-income community, increase land and property values where in some degree brings to gentrification. This action may well preserve and revitalize the existing physical fabrics but can as well destroy the existing social fabric.

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Objectives

• The current trends of urban regeneration in developed countries.
• The importance of urban regeneration for inner city development.
• The present condition, problems, challenges, and potentials of Inner city development.
• A concept of strategic urban planning and design for the inner city regeneration, towards sustainable urban form and development.
• Concept and strategic action plan for Bandung Inner city regeneration, so Inner city can contribute a sustainable urban future.

Urban Planning and Design Strategy for Regenerating Inner City

• Revitalize the inner city;
• Focus development around the existing rail system;
• Discourage further urban sprawl;
• Extend the public transport system and build new urban villages in the suburbs.

Once inner city is regenerating, a city can then begin to take its ‘inner city’ qualities to the suburbs; include the traffic calming of neighbourhoods as well as include a process of beginning to provide sub centres with ‘inner city’ characteristics and linking them with good public transport system.

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City Development Plans

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The development plans should be prepared and passed by the Urban Development Authority as the main guidelines for urban development called the City Development Plan. It should be aimed to encompass all aspects of urban life such as culture; economic, traffic and appearance contain analysis of existing situation and set trends and target data for the next 10 years. City Development Plans is to retain the residential quarters adjacent to the inner city area; slowing down growth rate of the city; re-orientation of its traffic; extensive investments for rapid transit and underground system. It must remain possible in future to reach the inner city on foot from adjacent residential area and thus to keep the inner city alive. The development plans focused on the importance to reconstruct the inner city area and overcome problems from traffic caused by the influx of car ownership. In order to keep the centre of old city free of wheel-traffic a ring road should be built around the periphery. After the inner city had been freed from the wheel-traffic, they established the creation of pedestrian zone. The plan of pedestrian precinct in the inner city should be taken from the competition for pedestrian zone. The plan of pedestrian malls in the inner city contributes considerably to the general improvement in appearance and value of the Old City area noted that the urban townscape of is influenced intensively by the construction developments in its inner city. The people of inner city identify themselves with this general image of their hometown and they love their city.

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Compact-Urban-Green

Spatial development perspective compiled guiding principles for upgrading the city called ‘compact-urban-green’ strategy. Compact because dense development within well-packed sites saves unnecessary land take-up and uses available resources efficiently. Urban because the aim is a vital mix of homes, jobs, shops and leisure facilities. Green because an attractive arrangement of open spaces and vegetation improves the natural balance and enhances the quality of urban recreation.

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