Unit 7: Learning (Behaviorism)

Essential Task: Predict how practice, shaping through successive approximations, schedules of reinforcement (continuous, fixed ratio, variable ration, fixed interval, variable interval), motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic), contingency, and time influence the quality of learning.

AP Psychology

Learning� The process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior

Classical

Conditioning

The type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one stimulus becomes to be elicited by a different formally neutral stimulus

Operant

Conditioning

The type of learning in which behaviors are emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishments

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Social Cognitive Learning Theory

The type of learning in which behaviors are learned by observing a model

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Pavlov and Watson

B.F. Skinner

Albert Bandura

UCS, UCR, CS, CR

Reinforcement and Punishment

Modeling and Vicarious Learning

We are here

Essential Task 5-4:

• Improve quality of operant conditioning
• shaping through successive approximations
• Contingency
• Practice and time
• Schedules of reinforcement
• Continuous
• Intermittent
• fixed ratio
• variable ratio
• fixed interval
• variable interval
• motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic)
• Problems with punishment

Outline

Shaping through Successive Approximations

• You reinforce the organism as they get closer and closer to the target behavior instead of waiting until they do exactly what you want to reinforce them.
• You do not reward the organism if they do not progress toward the target behavior.

Animal Training

Schedules of reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.

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• Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.

An Example of Continuous Reinforcement

• Each instance of a smile is reinforced

Ratio vs. Interval

• Ratio Version – having to do with numbers of the behavior.
• Ex. – Reinforce or reward the behavior after a set number or x many times that an action or behavior is demonstrated.

• Interval Version – having to do with the passage of time.
• Ex. – Reinforce the participant after a set number or x period of time that the behavior is displayed.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

• Fixed-interval schedule – A schedule in which a fixed amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement will occur.
• No response during the interval is reinforced.
• The first response following the interval is reinforced.
• Produces an overall low rate of responding
• Ex. I get one pellet of food every 5 minutes when I press the lever

Shaping through Successive Approximations

• You reinforce the organism as they get closer and closer to the target behavior instead of waiting until they do exactly what you want to reinforce them.
• You do not reward the organism if they do not progress toward the target behavior.

Animal Training

Schedules of reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.

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• Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.

An Example of Continuous Reinforcement

• Each instance of a smile is reinforced

Ratio vs. Interval

• Ratio Version – having to do with numbers of the behavior.
• Ex. – Reinforce or reward the behavior after a set number or x many times that an action or behavior is demonstrated.

• Interval Version – having to do with the passage of time.
• Ex. – Reinforce the participant after a set number or x period of time that the behavior is displayed.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

• Fixed-interval schedule – A schedule in which a fixed amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement will occur.
• No response during the interval is reinforced.
• The first response following the interval is reinforced.
• Produces an overall low rate of responding
• Ex. I get one pellet of food every 5 minutes when I press the lever

Fixed Interval Reinforcement

Examples

Variable-Interval Schedule

• Variable-interval Schedule – A schedule in which a variable amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available.
• Produces an overall low consistent rate of responding.
• Ex. – I get a pellet of food on average every 5 minutes when I press the bar.

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Variable Interval Reinforcement

Examples

• Texting/Social Media
• You might check your phone at 9:00 a.m. and have 5 new messages, at 11:00 a.m. and have none, and then at 3:00 p.m. and have 7. As long as you periodically continue to receive messages, your checking behavior will continue; however, this behavior can be influenced by the number of messages received. If you don't receive any messages for 5 days, you may check less often. 

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

• Fixed-ratio Schedule – A schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses.
• These schedules usually produce rapid rates of responding with short post-reinforcement pauses
• The length of the pause is directly proportional to the number of responses required
• Ex. – For every 5 bar presses, I get one pellet of food

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An Example of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

• Every fourth instance of a smile is reinforced

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Examples

• Reward cards
• Grinding on an RPG

Variable-Ratio Schedule

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• Variable-ratio Schedule – A schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct responses.
• Produce an overall high consistent rate of responding.
• Ex. – On average, I press the bar 5 times for one pellet of food.

An Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement

• Random instances of the behavior are reinforced

Variable Ratio Reinforcement

An Example of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

• Every fourth instance of a smile is reinforced

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Examples

• Reward cards
• Grinding on an RPG

Variable-Ratio Schedule

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• Variable-ratio Schedule – A schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct responses.
• Produce an overall high consistent rate of responding.
• Ex. – On average, I press the bar 5 times for one pellet of food.

An Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement

• Random instances of the behavior are reinforced

Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Examples

Simple reinforcement-schedule responses

The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. The variable-ratio schedule is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambling). A fixed-ratio schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass sales). The variable-interval schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (e.g., fishing). The fixed-interval schedule yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement (e.g., hourly employment).

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�Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed interval

Reward on fixed time basis

Leads to average and irregular performance

Fast extinction of behavior

Fixed ratio

Variable ratio

Variable interval

Reward tied to specific number of responses

Leads quickly to very high and stable performance

Moderately fast extinction of behavior

SCHEDULE

FORM OF REWARD

Reward given after varying periods of time

Leads to moderately high and stable performance

Slow extinction of behavior

Reward given for some behaviors

Leads to very high performance

Very slow extinction of behavior

INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE

EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR

Simple reinforcement-schedule responses

The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns. The variable-ratio schedule is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambling). A fixed-ratio schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass sales). The variable-interval schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (e.g., fishing). The fixed-interval schedule yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement (e.g., hourly employment).

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Source: Boundless. “Schedules of Reinforcement.” Boundless Psychology Boundless, 20 Sep. 2016. Retrieved 09 Dec. 2016 from https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/learning-7/operant-conditioning-47/schedules-of-reinforcement-200-12735/

Learning and Personal Control

• Cope= alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.
• Problem-focused coping= attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.
• Emotion-focused coping = attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

• Emotion-focused coping

Rather than taking actions to change the stressor itself, the individual tries to control feelings using a variety of cognitive and behavioral tools, including meditation and other relaxation techniques, prayer, positive reframing, wishful thinking and other avoidance techniques: self-blame, seeking social support (or conversely engaging in social withdrawal), and talking with others (including mental health care professionals).

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It has been proposed that emotion-focused coping is used primarily when a person appraises a stressor as beyond his or her capacity to change.

Brain Hacking Smartphones

Part 1

Part 2

Part 3

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Video Game Design

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TED Presenter on Irresistible

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RAGjNe1YhMA

FI, VI, FR, or VR?

• When I bake cookies, I can only put one set in at a time, so after 10 minutes my first set of cookies is done. After another ten minutes, my second set of cookies is done. I get to eat a cookie after each set is done baking.
• After every 10 math problems that I complete, I allow myself a 5 minute break.
• I look over my notes every night because I never know how much time will go by before my next pop quiz.
• When hunting season comes around, sometimes I’ll spend all day sitting in the woods waiting to get a shot at a big buck. It’s worth it though when I get a nice 10 point.
• Today in Psychology class we were talking about Schedules of Reinforcement and everyone was eagerly raising their hands and participating. Miranda raised her hand a couple of times and was eventually called on.

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• FI

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FI, VI, FR, or VR?

6. Madison spanks her son if she has to ask him three times to clean up his room.

7. Emily has a spelling test every Friday. She usually does well and gets a star sticker.

8. Steve’s a big gambling man. He plays the slot machines all day hoping for a big win.

• Snakes get hungry at certain times of the day. They might watch any number of prey go by before they decide to strike.
• Mr. Bertani receives a salary paycheck every 2 weeks. (Miss Suter doesn’t ☹).
• Christina works at a tanning salon. For every 2 bottles of lotion she sells, she gets 1 dollar in commission.
• Mike is trying to study for his upcoming Psychology quiz. He reads five pages, then takes a break. He resumes reading and takes another break after he has completed 5 more pages.

FI, VI, FR, or VR?

13. Megan is fundraising to try to raise money so she can go on the annual band trip. She goes door to door in her neighborhood trying to sell popcorn tins. She eventually sells some.

14. Kylie is a business girl who works in the big city. Her boss is busy, so he only checks her work periodically.

15. Mark is a lawyer who owns his own practice. His customers makes payments at irregular times.

16. Jessica is a dental assistant and gets a raise every year at the same time and never in between.

17. Andrew works at a GM factory and is in charge of attaching 3 parts. After he gets his parts attached, he gets some free time before the next car moves down the line.

18. Brittany is a telemarketer trying to sell life insurance. After so many calls, someone will eventually buy.

Limits on Operant Conditioning

• Learned helplessness is a mental state that arises in an organism that believes punishment is inescapable.
• The organism stops trying even when success can be obtained.
• an animal is repeatedly exposed to an aversive stimulus which it cannot escape. Eventually, the animal stops trying to avoid the stimulus and behaves as if it is helpless to change the situation. When opportunities to escape become available, learned helplessness means the animal does not take any action.

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Even when they can be successful, they won’ try. Demo

Practice Handout

Another Practice Handout

Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

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Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

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Intrinsic Rewards

• "Intrinsic motivation occurs when we act without any obvious external rewards. We simply enjoy an activity or see it as an opportunity to explore, learn, and actualize our potentials."�(Coon & Mitterer, 2010)
• �"Intrinsic motivation refers to the reason why we perform certain activities for inherent satisfaction or pleasure; you might say performing one of these activities in reinforcing in-and-of itself."�(Brown, 2007)

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Outline