MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

McElhaney

AP Outline

• VIII. Motivation and Emotion (7–9%)
• Biological Bases
• Theories of Motivation
• Instinct, Drive Reduction, Optimal Arousal, Incentive Theories
• Hunger- Eating Disorders; Thirst, Sex, Social Cultural Factors, Sexual Orientation and Pain
• Social Motives, Achievement Motivation,
• Theories of Emotion, James-Lange Theory, Cannon-Cognitive Theory; Characteristics, Biology of Emotion, Emotional Expressions
• Stress

Basics of Motivation

• Our behavior is energized and directed by motives and emotions

​

• There are links between motives and emotions
• Basic motives- Hunger-thirst are monitored within the brain

​

• Activities/motives are related to needs for stimulation and to maintain arousal

​

Definition of Motivation:�

• The factors that influence🡪 initiation, direction, intensity + persistence of behavior

• Why do we do what we do?
• Behavior is based partly on the desire to feel certain emotions.

​

• How is motivation exemplified by Hunger, sexual desire and Need for Achievement?

​

• Motivation 🡪 effects emotion example- hunger and irritability

​

​

Motive:

• A reason or purpose that provides a single explanation for diverse behaviors.

​

• Some psychologists think of motivation as an “intervening variable”-
• Intervening variable is something that is used to explain the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.

Sources of motivation: 4 basic categories

1. Biological Factors- Autonomic Nervous System
2. Emotional Factors- panic, fear, anger, love, hatred
3. Cognitive Factors- perceptions, beliefs, expectations
4. Social Factors – other people, influence from parents, friends, teachers, TV, Siblings…Factors-

​

Theories of Motivation (web)

• Instinct- Evolution=genetic predispostion

​

• Drive Reduction -biological, focus on how our inner pushes and external pulls interact

​

• Optimal Arousal- finding the right level of stimulation

​

• Maslow- Hierarchy of Needs- describes how some of our needs take priority

​

Basic Model of Motivation

• Dynamics of behavior in the way actions are:
• Initiated
• Sustained
• Directed
• Terminated

​

Example of Food Seeking

• Initiated by bodily need
• Search was sustained
• Action directed by possible sources
• Terminated by attained goal

The Model (Motives)

• Motivational Activities- begin with needs
• Need is an internal deficiency
• Needs cause -🡪 Drive= energized state that facilitates a need
• Drives --🡪activate a response = an action or series of actions to attain a goal
• Goals are targets of motivational behavior

Difference between Needs and Drives

• Need - A state of deficiency
• Drives - Psychological states activated to satisfy needs, Often associated with some kind of arousal, Increased physiological and/or autonomic activity,
• For many biological needs, drive satisfaction is regulated by homeostatic mechanisms and
• are stronger than drives

​

External Stimuli

• Motivated behavior can be energized by the pull of External Stimuli

​

• And push of internal needs

​

​

Action is a Mix

• Internal needs and External Incentives
• (types of conflicts are associated)

​

• Incentive value of goals helps us understand motives that don’t come from internal needs
• Example success = status-approval

Types of Motives: 3 Categories

​

• 1. Primary-(innate)
• Based on biological needs
• Must be met for survival
• Hunger, thirst, pain avoidance
• Air, sleep
• Elimination of waste

2. Stimulus Motives (not necessarily for survival)

• Need for stimulation
• Need for information
• Activity
• Curiosity
• Exploration
• Manipulation
• Physical contact

​

• Not necessary for survival
• Stimulus Drives= reflect need for:
• Need for stimulation
• Need for information
• Activity – curiosity
• Exploration- manipulation
• Physical contact
• Sensory input (sex)

​

3. Secondary Motives (learned motives)

​

• Learned needs or drives and goals
• Making music
• Competing
• Learned needs for power
• For affiliation
• Status
• Security
• Approval
• Achievement
• Fear + Aggression are learned

10 minutes to address the following in relation to motivation:�

1. Factors to motivation
• Biological Factors
• Emotional Factors
• Cognitive Factors
• Social Factors

​

​

• Needs Vs. Drives

​

3. Stimulus Motives

​

4. nACh (characteristics)

​

5 Incentive Value

​

Drive Reduction Theory

• Physiological need creates an arousal state that drives an organism to reduce a need.
• Eating/drinking example

​

• As a need 🡪 increases
• A drive increases🡪
• (a drive is an aroused motivated state)

​

​

Instinct theory

• Unlearned
• Evolutionary psych
• Genes predispose species typical behavior
• Example:
• Rooting reflexes
• , aggression, (maybe Phobia)
• Helping behaviors
• Romantic attractions, mate selection

Arousal Theory

• Says ideal levels of activation exist for various activities

​

• Arousal refers to activation of body + nervous system
• Zero@death.com = no arousal=death
• Low during sleep or boredom
• Moderate during daily activities
• High at times of excitement, emotion, panic, fear and anxiety

​

​

Levels of Arousal

• We perform best when we have a Moderate level of Arousal

​

• Not too passive/not too anxious=Performance

​

• Inverted U Function
• Says at low levels of arousal=decrease performance
• More arousal= improved performance

​

Levels of Arousal 2

• Ideal level arousal depends on complexity of the task

​

​

Simple tasks--🡪Best for arousal to be high

​

Complex tasks 🡪 best for low/moderate arousal

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Sensation Seekers

• People learn to seek particular levels of arousal
• Sensation seeking scale+ Thrill +adventure seeking
• Experience seeking
• Disinhibition
• Boredom Susceptibility

stuff

• 19. Drive Reduction Theory
• 20. Instinct Theory
• 21. Arousal Theory
• 22. Yerkes Dodson Law
• 23. Sensation Seekers
• 24. Hunger, Homeostasis,
• 25. External Aspects,
• 26. internal aspects,
• 27. Glucose/Hypoglycemia
• 28. Hypothalamus
• 29. Lateral/Ventro-Medial
• 30. Paraventricular Nucleus/Neuropeptide/GLP1
• 31. Blood Chemistry/Set Point/Ghrelin/Orexin/Insulin/Leptin
• 32. Situational Factors
• 33. Obesity/Bulimia/Anorexia
• 34. Psychological Aspects of Hunger

​

Primary Motive is Homeostasis

• Biological needs- direct much of our behavior
• Are used to maintain body balance= Homeostasis

​

• Hunger (motive) is a regular cycle each day
• Good example of how internal and external factors direct behavior
• Liver affects hunger

​

Hunger 2

• Stomach size some indication of hunger

​

• Glucose- level in blood and
• hypoglycemia = low blood sugar level
• Feeling of hunger causes stomach contractions

​

• Liver sends nerves signal to brain 🡪 desire to eat

Brian Mechanisms

• There are many parts of brain associated with motivation

​

​

Hypothalamus

• does regulate motivation and emotion
• Thirst, hunger, sexual behavior
• Is sensitive to sugar in the blood
• Receives neural messages from liver and stomach
• One part signals hunger =feeding system
• Which initiates eating

​

• Lateral hypothalamus- (hunger feelings)
• When electrified causes animals to eat
• Secretes Appetite stimulating hormones
• If destroyed = no eating
• Marijuana-”Mary-Jane” causes a hypothalamic response= “Munchies”

​

​

​

Ventro-Medial Hypothalamus

• Part of Hypothalamus relates directly to Satiety (fullness) feelings= stop mechanism
• If destroyed = overeating
• Appetite surprising hormones
• (Bottom medium part of the hypothalamus)

​

​

Paraventricular Nucleus of Hypothalamus

• Affects hunger= helps keep blood sugar level steady
• Both- starts and stops eating
• Sensitive to Neuropeptide Y (NPY)
• Large amount = hunger

​

​

Glucagon -Like Peptide 1 (GLP1)

• Causes eating to cease
• Released by intestines
• After eating a meal
• In blood then to brain
• 10 minutes after eating- (eat slow = eat less)

Set Point and Metabolic Rate

• Weight Thermostat
• Low weight 🡪body increases appetite

​

• Metabolic Rate- regulates energy use of the body
• (Basal) energy use at rest

​

• Set Point= Point at which the weight thermostat is set increases or deceases metabolism

​

​

​

• The body is homeostatic when we are at the set point and then it is activated to reach the set point when we fall below.

Blood Chemistry

• hunger arousing
• Ghrelin- secreted by empty stomach hormone, signals brain
• Orexin- hormone secreted by hypothalamus

​

• Insulin- hormone secreted by pancreas controls blood glucose
• Leptin- protein in hormone secreted by fat cells increases metabolism and decreases hunger
• Pyy- digetstive tract hormone send satiety signals to brain

​

Situational Influences

• Social- Presence of other = more eating
• B/C other people amplify natural behavior tendencies

​

• Unit Basis- large size meals = more eating
• Food Variety- stimulates eating (more choices and more food)

​

​

Obesity

• Social Issues:
• Lower psychological well being
• Especially Women
• Increase in depression
• Fat Storage- when food scarce
• Body Mass Index

​

• Physical Health Risks
• Diabetes
• High Blood Pressure
• Heart Disease
• Arthritis
• Some cancer
• Lowers life expectancy
• Women late life cognitive decline (Alzheimer's/dementia from brain tissue loss)

​

Obesity Cont.

• Set Point – is very low
• Need less food to maintain weight
• Body burns fewer calories when we are burning fat
• Energy conservation
• Lean people burn more calories- not conserving energy

• Genetic factors similar to parents
• Environmental factors
• Sleep Loss- less sleep = lower leptin = more food
• And more Ghrelin = more food

Waist Management

1. Eating Habits & exercise
2. Minimize exposure to tempting food cues
3. Simple meals limit food variety-grains, fruits, veggies
4. Healthy Fat= olive oil, fish
5. Crispy greens
6. Reduce portion size
7. Don’t starve
8. Monitor eating

Eating Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa
• Adolescent Females <5-10% male>
• Severe Dieting
• Compulsive attempt to lose weight
• Do not seek or desire food
• 1 in 20 die of malnutrition

• Bulimia Nervosa
• Gorge on food then vomit
• Take laxatives to avoid weight gain

Causes of Bulimia Anorexia

• Women dissatisfied with bodies (Perception)
• Distorted view of themselves
• “They think they’re fat, exaggerated fears of becoming fat.”
• Distorted Messages from media (Social)
• Compulsion- comparing to models
• Distorted body image
• Perfect daughter control issues
• Shame, guilt, self contempt, anxiety (Abnormal)

Treatment of Eating Disorders

• Medical diet
• Behavioral Counseling- self monitoring of food intake
• Extinction training (to end the learned behavior) urge to vomit
• Cognitive approach-
• Change the thinking patterns & belief system about weight + body image
• Usually people need outside support and urging from family

​

Write a synthesis paragraph explaining how all of these mechanisms should be understood. (In other words, what do we learn about eating motivation from these mechanisms?)

Hypoglycemia

Liver affects hunger-How?

Hypothalamus:

Lateral Hypothalamus

Para-ventricular Hypothalamus

Brain Mechanisms:

Lateral Hypothalamus

Ventro-Medial Hypothalamus

Glucagon like peptide 1

 Set Point

Leptin-

​

Psychology of Hunger�Factors that influence hunger

• Taste Aversion is conditioned
• Tense and Depressed
• We crave carbohydrates and sweets
• Why- boosts serotonin = calming effects

​

• Evolutionary-Spicy food inhibit bacteria growth…
• Pregnant women food dislikes and nausea peak at 10^th week when developing embryo is not susceptible to toxins

​

​

Pain-

• Drive to avoid pain=episodic
• Takes place at certain episodes when body is or is about to be damaged

​

• Prompts us to avoid pain

​

• Pain tolerance- is learned- raise of lower tolerance

Abraham �Maslow

Self actualizing = Full use of personal potential

Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc.

Described a Hierarchy of Human needs that motivate behavior

• Maslow’s Hierarchy = Motivation
• Self Transcendence
• Meta Needs
• Syndrome of decay
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
• Affiliation and social motivation
• Brain Reward System
• Attachments
• Isolation/Ostracism/Rejection/Physical Pain
• Need for Achievement=nAch

​

​

​

​

Revised Maslow

Maslow Humanist Interpretation

• Self-Transcendence new level
• People strive for meaning/purpose
• Beyond the self-higher level meaning
• Helping others achieve self-actualization

​

• Growth needs-
• Positive- life enhancing for personal growth.
• Meta needs-
• Higher needs, Tendency for self-actualization

​

Maslow and Motivation

• Progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.
• Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs.

Meta Needs

• We tend to move up to Meta needs

​

• A person who meets survival needs then moves to meta needs if these are unfulfilled

​

• They are in a “ Syndrome of Decay”
• Characterized by despair, apathy, and Alienation

Maslow's Meta-Needs:�

• Wholeness (unity)
• Perfection (balance and harmony)
• Completion (ending)
• Justice (fairness)
• Richness (complexity)
• Simplicity (essence)
• Liveliness (spontaneity)≈

​

​

• Beauty (rightness of form)
• Goodness (benevolence)
• Uniqueness (individuality)
• Playfulness (ease)
• Truth (reality)
• Autonomy (self-sufficiency)
• Meaningfulness (values).

Syndrome of decay-

• When we cannot reach our higher other needs
• Most people are concerned with esteem, love, security, but they don’t get much past that.

​

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motives

• Intrinsic motivation- we act without any obvious external rewards. You are motivated on your own part.= high achievers
• Extrinsic- external rewards enhance motivation- ex money, grades, approval

Next: Motivation Emotion

• Social Motives
• Affiliation
• Brain Rewards
• Attachment Connection
• Isolation
• Ostracism

• Need For Achievement
• nAch
• Characteristics
• Parents and achievements
• Role of self confidence

​

​

​

Social Motivation

• Major motive for affiliation
• Adaptive, reproduction, attachments, cooperation for survival.
• “Rich and satisfying relationships are very important”
• Meaning/satisfaction/self-esteem associated with other people.

​

​

​

Psych Aspects of Affiliation

• Relatedness, Autonomy, Competence, Self Esteem
• All grow with positive relationships
• All are related to how valued or accepted we feel.

• Social behavior aims to increase our feelings of belonging/acceptance
• We conform to group standards
• We behave to obtain acceptance and love

​

Brain Reward System

• Activate when we see loved ones
• Also help relieve pain
• Even ending a bad relationship causes suffering

​

Attachments

• Developmentally:
• Harlow
• Attachments-
• Children who have difficulty experiencing secure attachments may have difficulty forming later attachments.

​

• Insecure Attachments 2 forms
• Insecure Anxious Attachment
• Constantly craving acceptance
• But remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection
• Insecure Avoidant Att…
• “Feeling such discomfort over getting close to others that they employ avoidant strategies to maintain their distance.”

​

​

Isolation/Ostracism/Rejection

• Very natural to experience anxiety loneliness/jealousy/ guilty
• When something threatens or dissolves our social ties.
• Worst life moments happen when close relationships end.

​

• Ostracism- social exclusion
• Emotionally damaging

​

• Brain Areas:
• Anterior Cingulate

Brain Areas Active:�

• Anterior Cingulate Cortex
• Responds to ostracism and physical pain similarly
• Tylenol helps emotional and physical pain

​

Need For Achievement (nAch)

• A desire to meet an internal standard of excellence

​

• People strive to do well- in any situation which evaluation takes place

​

• People for high need for achievement enjoy challenges + chances to test abilities

Need For Achievement (NACH)

• Mclelland- could predict behavior of high and low achievers.
• Characteristics of:
• People with high (nAch) don’t seek goals that are too easy
• Avoid goals that are too risky
• Complete difficult tasks to get grades
• Excel in occupations
• Work harder when they don’t do well
• Have Self-efficacy “According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (1995, p. 2). In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel (1994)”

​

Achievers- Key To Success

• Benjamin Bloom
• Identified via a study
• Found 🡪 drive and determination = success

​

Achievers- Parents Support Success in Children

• Tends to be learned in early childhood from parents
• Correlation between parent behavior + achievement motivation
• Kids with low Achievement
• Parents interfered with child difficulty
• Parents became annoyed by lack of success of kid

​

• Parents expose children to music, swimming, science, (ideas for fun) (Stimulating environment= more synapses)
• Talent is nurtured by dedication + hard work
• Support child’s special interest
• Emphasize doing one’s best at all times
• Coaching and encouraging practice

Achievers- Self Confidence=�people believe they can reach a goal

• Set goals that are specific and challenging but attainable
• Visualize the steps you need to reach your goal
• Advance with small steps
• Get expert instruction

• Find skilled models to emulate

​

• Get support + encouragement

​

• If you fail- regard it as a sign you need to try harder

Self Confidence affects Motivation--- “Duh”

Next: Sexual Motivation

• Sex Researchers
• Kinsey
• Masters and Johnson
• “Masters of Sex” TV
• Human Sex Drive
• Characteristics of Human Sex Motivation
• Biology of Sex Details of Masters and Johnson studies

​

​

• Sex Hormones
• Ovulation
• Psychology of Sex
• Social Cultural Factors
• Gender Differences
• Chicago Sex Study
• Opponent Process Theory

​

​

Sex Researchers

• Kinsey 1940’s and 1950s used surveys to study sexual practices (video)
• (Problem of Courtesy Bias)
• Masters and Johnson 1966, in a laboratory, measured sexual arousal and behavior
• Wanted to solve sexual dysfunctions
• Measured over 8000 sexual cycles
• Volunteers received natural and artificial stimulation🡪 problem -conclusions, may not be representative of larger population (limited population sample) (Masters of Sex)

​

Sex “Drive”

• Sex Drive= one’s motivation to engage in sexual behavior
• Mammals- female-hormone- Estrus = “Heat”

​

​

• Male animals
• Ready to mate
• sex drive= aroused by behavior + scent of receptive female

​

​

Human Sex “Drive” really Motivation

• Non-Homeostatic- it works independent of bodily need

​

• Sex motivation in men is related to 🡪amount of Androgens= male hormone
• Produced by testes
• (puberty- increases supply of androgens)

​

Characteristics�Human Sex Motivation

• Human sex Motivation can be aroused at anytime

​

• Sexual activity- does not prevent sexual desire

​

• Sex drive can be aroused + Reduced

​

• “The Coolidge Effect” Habituation
• Male sex drive can be aroused repeatedly with new sexual partners.

Biology of Sex:

• Master’s and Johnson identified Sexual Response Cycle:
• The Pattern of physiological arousal during + after sexual arousal
• Both men and women
• Excitement
• Plateau
• Orgasm
• (evolutionary in women to facilitate conception)
• Resolution
• Men have 1 pattern
• Resolution=relaxation
• Refractory= men unresponsive
• (Women don’t have this they are capable of repeating cycle)

​

Sex Hormones:

• Estrogens
• Progestins-Progesterone-
• Androgens = Testosterone
• Each Hormone flows in blood of each Male and Female
• Average man has more androgens
• Women have more Estrogen + Progesterone
• Organizational Effects on Brain:
• Permanent changes that alter brain’s response
• Occur at birth
• Create male and female patterns
• Sexually Dimorphic (sex differences)
• Area of Hypothalamus
• Rising level of sex hormone in puberty
• Women- Estrogen + Androgens (ovaries and testes- secrete)

​

Hormones motivate us

• Activational Effects: Activates behavior

​

• Effects behavior when hormone is in blood stream

​

• Associated with fertility
• Female is sexually receptive = estrogen level high
• Peaks at ovulation
• Stimulate sexual interest (androgens and estrogens in female) (androgens only in males)

​

• Sexual desire rises at ovulation
• Ovulation is one part of the female menstrual cycle whereby a mature ovarian follicle (part of the ovary) discharges an egg (also known as an ovum, oocyte, or female gamete). It is during this process that the egg travels down the fallopian tube where it may be met by a sperm and become fertilized.
• Women to mates
• Day 14 (since the last period)
• Every 28 days

​

• Decrease in hormones = decrease in sex drive

Ovulation

Psychology of Sex

• Sex is not a biological need

​

1. Similar to hunger
2. Internal physical mechanism
3. Excitatory response
4. Cultural aspects

• Men and women respond to external stimuli
• Example: the amygdala more active in men
• Learned behavior
• Sexual models influence perceptions
• Example of devaluing partners
• Dreaming both male and female have sexual dreams
• Habituation occurs

​

Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality:

• Learned Gender Roles- Differences
• Men and porno
• MRI Study shows activity of amygdala + hypothalamus in men

​

• Sexual Orientation:
• Defined: A person’s enduring, emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others
• Hetero, Homo, Bi-sexual
• 1973 Homosexuality was dropped from the DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (used for making diagnosis for abnormal behavior)
• Dropped in china as a mental disorder 2001
• Estimated 2-21 % of population is gay

​

• What shapes sexual orientation?
• • Genes may influence sexual orientation.
• • Identical twin studies show, 52% correlation one gay other one is too.
• • Also, twins were raised apart.
• • One reason too much hormone in utero
• • May also be associated with increase in androgens and altered structure

​

Gender Differences in sex Motivation

• Consistent Gender Differences:
• Men tend to have stronger interest in and desire for sex than women
• Women more likely than men to associate sexual activity with a committed relationship

​

• Women with sexual dysfunction are greatly correlated to emotional relationships problems.

​

University of Chicago Sex Survey:

• Surveys found:
• People generally have sex = 1x per week, with a partner in stable relationship.
• Some a few times or not at all in the past year
• Average male had only 6 partners entire life
• Average female = lifetime 2 partners
• People in committed one partner relationships had the most frequent and satisfying sex
• Majority of heterosexual couples engaged in traditional intercourse
•  
• Nearly one quarter of U.S. women prefer to achieve sexual satisfaction without partners of either sex
•  
• Findings did not address pornography or sexual deviations, and sample was only in USA

​

Opponent Process Theory

• Richard Solomon (1980)
• Explains learned motives
• 2 assumptions
• 1. Any reaction to a stimulus is followed by an opposite reaction – the “Opponent Process”
• 2. After repeated exposure to the same stimulus, the initial reaction weakens, and the opponent process becomes quicker and stronger”
• Example drug addiction
• “If a stimulus causes a strong emotion <Fear or Pleasure> an opposite emotion tends to occur when stimulus ends”

​

• Stimulus of pain + Pain ends =🡪relief

​

Opponent Process Theory 2

• Pleasure + Drug use – end of drug use=
• Pleasure ends – craving & discomfort develops

​

• In love + feel good when lover is present
• Take away lover = discomfort when they are not there
• If stimulus is repeated- our response is habituated (gets weaker)

​

• Emotional after affects get stronger with repetition (example- depression when drug use ends)

Quiz: Opponent Process Theory

• Address the following:
• Richard Solomon (1980)
• Learned Motives
• How does the Opponent Process theory relate to motivation?
• What other connections to AP outline can we make?
• Role of Stimulus
• Give Examples

​

​

Emotion

• Connection Motivation and Emotion
• Emotion Defined
• Adaptive behavior
• Psychological Connections to Emotion
• Physiological Connections to Emotion

​

​

​

• Action Tendency
• Positive and Negative Emotions
• Biology of Emotion
• Theories of Emotion

​

Connection Between Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation can intensify emotion.
• Emotions can also create motivation.
• People engage in activities that create or lead to emotions they desire

​

Emotion Defined

• Emotion (defined) (emotion means to move)
• Physiological arousal and changes in facial expression, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings
• We are motivated by fear + Joy
• Emotions cause us to action, to get enjoyment and action to avoid pain

​

• Emotions are linked to adaptive behavior (recall we adapt to our environment, situation, by Attacking, fleeing, seeking, comfort, helping others, reproducing-

​

​

Definition of Emotion

• Emotions are:
• Organized Psychological and Physiological reactions to changes
• Subjective (Private, a psychological judgement about emotion )
• Objective = Measurable (physical manifestations)
• Characteristics:
1. Emotions are temporary short duration
2. Moods are longer lasting
3. Emotions can be positive or negative or mixed
4. Emotions can alter thought processes by directing attention
5. Negative emotions = fear can narrow attention
6. Positive- can widen our thinking (think broadly)
• Emotions can trigger action tendency or the motivation to behave in certain ways
• Positive emotions joy, pride🡪 lead to playfulness and creativity and exploration of the environment:
• Negative Emotions- sadness and fear promote withdrawal from threatening situations; anger might lead to actions that lead to revenge…

​

​

Biology of Emotion

• Biology of Emotion:
• Involved in
• Generation of Emotion
• Experience of Emotion
•  
• Autonomic Nervous System
• ANS is not connected to brain areas affecting consciousness
• Arousal accompanies emotions
•  
• Sensory information alerts the brain to emotion- evoking situation
• Through the thalamus
• Hippocampus- is involved in interpretation of sensory input
• Output- amygdala
• Hypothalamus
• Autonomic nervous system (locus coeruleus)

​

Brain and Emotion

• Positive emotion= left hemisphere. Sense of humor
• Negative emotion= right hemisphere.
• Some emotional processing= cerebral cortex
• Amygdala= fear, strong emotion

Brain and Emotion Web

Sympathetic nervous system

​

• ANS= responses to emotion. Sympathetic= activates emotion, arousal, fight or flight
• Parasympathetic- opposite. Slows down the reaction and conserves energy.

Theories of Emotion

Theories of Emotion

• Zajonic
• Automatic processing High Road and Low Road
• James-Lange
• Emotion depends on Arousal
• Cannon-Bard
• Simultaneous emotion depends on arousal
• Schacter-Singer
• 2 Factors Arousal and Cognition
• Lazarus-
• Cognition and sometimes subliminal

Theories of Emotion:

• Questions:
• Do autonomic experience create emotion?
• Or, Are autonomic responses due to emotion?
• QUIZ:
• Which theory regarding the initiation of emotion is most persuasive and why?

Explain why the other theories are not persuasive.

• Main Theories are:
• Biological:
• William James
• Walter Cannon
• Cognitive:
• Stanley Schacter
• Richard Lazarus

​

James-Lange Peripheral Theory

Explained how physiological responses relate to emotional experiences.

“Experience of emotion depends on Feedback from physiological responses outside the brain.”

• Physical arousal 🡪 then emotion
• You see a bear and you run- said you are afraid because you run
• Activity of the peripheral nervous system is a cause of emotional experience.
•  
• Perception of the bear, causes physiological response and then the fear follows.
• “once you strip away all physiological responses, nothing remains of the experience. Emotion, must therefore be the result of experiencing a particular set of physiological responses.”

​

Cannon-Bard Theory Central Theory

• Cannon-Bard Theory Central Theory

Arousal and Emotion occur separately but simultaneously

• We see a Bear- we feel fear- you feel fear at the sight of Bear even before you run.
• Emotional experience starts in central nervous system specifically in the Thalamus
• Thalamus- is the structure that relays information from most sense organs to cortex.

• Central Theory says
• “When thalamus receives sensory information about emotional events and situations, it sends signals to ANS and at some time to the cerebral Cortex when emotions become conscious.”
• Updated Version: Says really the “Amygdala seat of emotion”

​

• Cannon said that the experience of emotion appears directly in the brain with or without feedback from peripheral responses (contradicts James)

​

• “Emotion occurs through the activation of specific circuits in the central nervous system.”

Schacter 2 Factor Theory (early 1960s) Arousal then emotion but need Cognitive Interpretation

• “The emotions we experience everyday are shaped partly by how we interpret the arousal we feel.”
• Response to James Theory- said physiology is too simplistic an explanation, it does not address all the shades of emotion.

​

• He argued that emotions emerge from a combination of feedback from 1^st factor peripheral responses and the
• 2^nd Factor cognitive interpretation of the nature and cause of those responses.”
• You notice the arousal then interpret the cause of the arousal.
• Physio and Cognitive interpretation – you do have arousal but there is a label the bodily reaction as a specific emotion.
• Attribution- is the process of identifying the cause of an event
• Physiological arousal might be attributed to several emotions depending on the situation
• Spill Over Effect: Excitation Transfer:
• “A phenomenon in which physiological arousal from one experience carries over to affect emotion in an independent situation.”
• Example: “When people have been aroused by physical exercise become more angry when provoked, or experience more intense sexual feelings when in the company of an attractive person, than do people who are less physically active.”

​

Zajonic

• Said cognition may not precede emotion
• Some of our emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking.”
• Said it could be automatic and cognitive

1. Top Down Processing
2. Bottom up Processing

​

​

​

Lazarus�Cognitive Appraisal Theory

• It is cognitive interpretation of events themselves that determine emotional experiences
• Example: a person’s interpretation of a grade on a test will be determined by the grade itself.
• How we think events will affect our personal well being
• A cognitive appraisal (evaluation)
• If the event is relevant to our wellbeing we experience an emotional reaction
• Positive or negative based on our appraisal depending whether we see the event as advancing our personal goals or obstructing them.

​

Top Down Processing (cognitive)

• Complex processing
• Hatred
• Love
• Stimulus 🡪 thalamus 🡪 to cortex to be analyzed and labeled.
• Command is sent out via amygdala = response.

Bottom Up Processing

• Emotion occurs Automatic speedy processing
• Reflexive
• Simple likes and dislikes
• Fears
• “Low Road”
• Short cut

• Fear provoking
• 1. Stimulus
• 2. Thalamus
• 🡪 fast response of emotion= no cortex first.

​

Subliminal Emotion

• “The amygdala sends more neural projections yp to the cortex than it receives back…

​

• which makes it easier for our feelings to hijack our thinking than for our thinking to rule over emotion.”

​

• So this is really why it’s so hard to consciously control our emotions.

Plutchik

• Plutchik’s 8 primary emotions:

Fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, and trust/ acceptance

• They fluctuate in intensity and can be mixed and yield to another emotion (hybrid emotion)
• Moods are tied to circadian rhythms.

Emotion

• Connection Motivation and Emotion
• Emotion Defined
• Adaptive behavior
• Psychological Connections to Emotion
• Physiological Connections to Emotion

​

​

​

• Action Tendency
• Positive and Negative Emotions
• Biology of Emotion
• Theories of Emotion
• New
• Cultural and Emotion
• Ekman Facial Expressions
• Detecting Deception

​

​

Cultural Differences in Emotion

• Asian cultures- group harmony is important
• -🡪 Anger is not a public emotion

​

• America and Western Europe= Anger is common
• 🡪reflects values of independence + rights
• justice

Facial Expressions Ekman

Expressing Emotions: Ekman

“Psychologists believe that emotional expressions evolved to communicate our feelings to others which aids survival”

People more sensitive to angry, scheming thinking, faces…

Basic Facial expressions seem to be universal

• Ekman Study: “I can see it all over your face.”

• Non-verbal communication
• “Are facial expressions of emotion universal? Yes
• “Constants across cultures in the face and emotion”
• “Facial expressions coincide with specific emotions.”

​

​

Facial Feedback Theory:

• “Theory states that the expression on your face actually feeds information back to your brain to assist you in interpreting the emotion you are experiencing.”

​

Detecting Deception Video

•  
• Deception and how the face and body ‘leak’ information to others about whether someone is telling the truth…. However when allowed to observe another’s entire body, participants were much more successful in detecting lies, indicating that the body may provide better clues to certain states of mind.”

​

​