CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

Definitions

• Sociology is a branch of the social sciences that uses systematic methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop and refine a body of knowledge about human social structure and activity.
• A goal to study sociology is to apply the knowledge to the pursuit of social welfare.
• Definitions:
• “The science of society” (Ward and Graham Sumner)
• “Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social behavior” (Ian Robertson)
• “The study of social action” (Max Weber)

Origins

• Foundation was laid by Allama Ibn-i-Khaldoon, a Muslim historian of Tunis. He named this new science “Ilmul-Imran” – study of people.
• In the 19^th century, systematic attempts were made by a series of sociologists to study society and establish a science of sociology:
• Auguste Comte
• Herbert Spencer
• Emile Durkheim
• Max Weber

Nature of Sociology

• Sociology is an independent science
• Not a branch of any other science or discipline
• Sociology is a social science, not a physical science
• Focus is on man, his behavior and society
• Sociology is relatively abstract and general
• Forms and patterns
• Sociology is both rational and empirical
• Solid facts
• Experiences
• Experimentations

Branches of Sociology

• Sociological Theory
• Historical Sociology
• Sociology of Family
• Sociology of Community
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Political Sociology
• Sociology of Law
• Sociology of Economic Life
• Sociology of Knowledge
• Sociology of Terrorism
• Social Psychology
• Social Psychiatry
• Social Disorganization
• Human Ecology and Demography

Major Theoretical Perspectives

1. The Evolutionary Perspective
• Earliest perspective on the works of August Comte and Herbert Spencer
• “It focuses on how human societies originate and grow over a period of time”
2. The Functionalist or Order Perspective
• The functionalist perspective in sociology is a view of society that various parts of the society have functions that maintain the stability of the whole society.
• “Functionalist perspective is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability”
• Functional theory focuses on equilibrium and stability in a society.
• If something exists in the society, no matter how negative it is, it will definitely be functional for society.

Major Theoretical Perspectives

3. The Conflict Perspective
• Conflict perspective assumes that societies are in a constant state of change, in which conflict is a permanent feature.
• Conflict includes outright violence, tension, hostility, competition and disagreement over values and goals.
• Conflict theorists do not see social conflict as destructive, although they admit it sometimes may have that effect.
• Conflict can have positive results e.g. women protesting for their rights, suffrage movement, etc.
• Karl Marx also argues that the conflict between economic classes is a source of social change in the society when the lower class starts to stand up for their rights and stop being exploited by the upper class.

Major Theoretical Perspectives

4. The Interactionist Perspective
• The interactionist perspective in sociology is a view of society that focuses on the way in which people act toward, respond to, and influence one another.
• The important difference between other perspectives and this perspective is that where they focus on large structures of society, this perspective focuses on everyday social interaction.
• Symbolic Interaction: is the interaction that takes place between people through symbols. Examples would be language, symbols, breaking a red light, etc. Essentially, some sort of interactions which have a symbolic meaning to them.
• The interactionist perspective provides insight into the mechanics of everyday life which other perspectives overlook. It has a personal touch to it.

Importance of Sociology

• People are facing social issues due to social changes especially after industrial and technological revolutions.
• Sociology explains these problems and tries to find a solution for them.
• Pakistani society is also facing such problems due to illiteracy, unemployment, pollution, unrest, real estate issues, crime, etc.
• These problems can only be solved in the light of sociological knowledge by:
• Researching
• Planning
• Solving

CHAPTER 2 – SOICIOLOGICAL THEORIES

Types of Theories

• Speculative vs. Grounded
• Speculative: concepts and theories
• Grounded: empirical generalization
• Grand vs. Miniature
• Grand: broad concepts
• Miniature: specific
• Macro vs. Micro
• Macro: broader and encompasses an extended range of laws
• Micro: narrow frame and limited range of phenomena

Major Theorists – Allama Ibn-i-Khaldoon

Ibn-i-Khaldoon was a great think of the Middle Age and he was an evolutionary theorist of sociology.

1. Theory of Al-Asabiya (Social Solidarity)
• Invented the concept of Al-Asabiya (solidarity).
• A force which unites people with one another; this force leads to the creation of a state.
• It is the emotions of similarity which keep the people of a group united together having a common effective action.
• Spirit of cohesion among group of people.
• No religious movement can succeed without solidarity.
• Basically, man is like an animal and he becomes human with mutual cooperation.

Major Theorists – Allama Ibn-i-Khaldoon

2. Theory of Rural and Urban Society
• Society is divided into two types: urban and rural.
• Rural society has a strong force of solidarity as compared to the urban society.
• This is because rural people need to depend on each other much more to survive as compared to the luxuries of an urban society.
3. Theory of Social Change
• Human society is ever changing and the cause of this change is solidarity.
• Societies which lose the power of solidarity become disorganized which results in change and problems.

Major Theorists – Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer was a prominent British social thinker and often called ‘the second founding father of sociology’. He is also an evolutionary sociologist.

1. Theory of Evolution
• Spencer saw evolution as “a set of stages through which all the societies moved from simple to complex and from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous.”
• Evolutionary principle could be applied to society and it is analogous to an organism. Both the organism and society move from simple to complex.
• Stages of society:
• Simple Society – primitive society consisting of several families
• Compound Society – large number of simple societies together
• Doubly Compound Society – several compound societies (tribal)
• Trebly Compound – present form of the world (nations)

Major Theorists – Herbert Spencer

2. Theory of Organic Analogy
• Secondary theory that human society is like a living organism.
• There are parts of a living body which are interdependent and provide survival for the whole body. If one part loses life, the whole body stops functioning.
• In the same way, society is divided into various parts such as economy and judiciary and these parts are dependent on each other. If one part stops functioning, it hurts the whole society.
3. Theory of Social Darwinism
• Survival of the fittest
• Non-interference of the state
1. Classification of Society:
• Simple -> Complex
• Militant -> Industrial

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Major Theorists – Auguste Comte

Auguste Comte is an order sociologist who was born in France and thought heavily of the social issues of the French Revolution. He developed a new science which became known as ‘sociology’.

1. The Law of Three Stages
• Theological – religious and supernatural explanations
• Metaphysical – philosophical explanations
• Positive – scientific observation and experimentations
2. Theory of Social Static and Social Dynamic
• Social Static: Study of society and social order
• Social Dynamic: Study of society and social change

Major Theorists – Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim was a French philosopher and a follower of Comte.

1. Theory of Social Facts
• Individuals are influenced from external forces to bring internal change – these forces are the social facts.
• This pressure forces the individual to follow these patterns in life and not deviate from them.
2. Theory of Social Solidarity
• Traditional society -> Mechanical solidarity
• Advanced society -> Organic solidarity

Major Theorists – Emile Durkheim

3. Theory of Suicide
• Egoistic Suicide – individual stops taking interest in society and in turn, society stops taking interest in individual. The individual feels isolated and commits suicide.
• Anomic Suicide – individual experiences sudden changes that are unexpected which they cant cope up with. This leads to suicide
• Altruistic Suicide – sacrificing oneself to benefit others.
4. Theory of Religion
• According to Durkheim, the origin of collective life lies in religion. Religion will remain till the society exists.

Major Theorists – Max Weber

German thinker of the 20^th century.

1. Theory of Social Action
• Social action is the type of behavior in which there are meanings of the action for the actor. There are many different types of actions.
• Purposeful Logical Action – based on logic and capability
• Value Oriented Action – maximizing value
• Affective Action – emotion based action
• Traditional Action – action based on previous traditions and history
2. Theory of Authority
• Bureaucratic Authority
• Traditional Authority
• Charismatic Authority
3. Theory of Bureaucracy
• Structure of government and its offices
• Rules, selection, appointments, promotions, transfers of officers, etc
• Ranks of officers e.g. Pakistan from scale 1 to scale 22.

Major Theorists – Karl Marx

One of the most influential social thinkers of the 19^th century, he is known to the world as the architect of socialism and the champion of communism.

1. Theory of Economic Interpretation
• The material or economic conditions are important than ideological and spiritual things.
• Economy determines the form of a society.
2. Theory of Social Change
• Social change through class conflict
• Concept of exploitation
• Concept of alienation

CHAPTER 3 – SOCIAL RESEARCH

Steps in Research

Methods of Social Research

1. Observation
2. Questionnaire
3. Interview
4. Social Surveys
5. Other Methods

Observation

• Observation is a systematic, direct and definite experience of the event at the time of its occurance.
• Types:
• Non-controlled, participant observation – sociologist disguises himself as part of the group under study
• Non-controlled, non-participant observation – sociologist performs the observation from the sidelines
• Systematic controlled observation – observation in a systematic way

Questionnaire

• A tool for data collection
• Types:
• Structured questionnaires (close ended + open ended)
• Unstructured questionnaires (flexible ‘interview guides)

Interview

• Another tool for data collection
• Types:
• The Non-Directive Interview: uncontrolled/unguided interview/open-ended interview
• The Directive Interview: guided/inflexible interview
• The Focused Interview: interviewee is given considerable freedom to discuss
• The Repeated Interview: interview again to find patterns
• The Depth Interview: lengthy interview which focuses on problem, motivations, emotions, etc.

Social Surveys

• Very popular technique to gather data in sociology
• A systematic collection of facts about people living in a specific geographic, cultural, or administrative area.
• Types:
• Official
• Semi-official
• Private
• Wide-spread
• Limited
• Generalized
• Specialized

Other Methods

• Statistical Method
• Case-study Method
• Historical Method
• Experimental Method