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Journey of a Civilization Study Circle

Early Indians by Tony Joseph

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Chapter 3: The First Urbanites

March 14^th (9 pm EST) and March 15^th (6:30 AM IST)

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Current Reading – Tony Joseph’s Book

Chapter 1 – The First Indians (48 p) [Bama]

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Chapter 2 – The First Farmers (38 p) [Mani]

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Chapter 3 – The First Urbanites: The Harappans (62 p) [I]

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Chapter 4 – The last Migrants: The “Aryans” (42 + 20 p) [Arasu]

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Hunters/Gatherers

Farming/Herding

Village settlements

Urban settlements

Trade/social organization

Ch 1

Ch 2

Ch 3

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Birdseye view of Ch. 3 –

The First Urbanites: The Harappans

1. Trade connectivity with Mesopotamia - seals, “Meluhha”
2. A Civilization like no other
3. Public infrastructure, no palaces
4. The Uruk example
5. Key question – why different?
6. The language of the Harappans
7. Proto-Zagrosian and Proto-Dravidian
8. Deciphering the Harappan script
9. Route to the South
10. Austro-Asiatic Language speakers

Features

Language

Out/In

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300,000 years ago - Earliest human remain found in Morocco

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180,000 years ago - Earliest human fossil found outside Africa in Israel

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70,000 years ago – Estimate of Out of Africa (OoA) migration

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60,000 years ago – OoA migrants reach India and “meet” archaic humans, and move onto East Asia and Australia

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50,000 years ago – Descendants of OoA migrants populate Central Asia and Europe

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45,000 to 20,000 years ago – The First Indians, descendants of OoA migrants use microlithic technology and their population expands dramatically in central and eastern India. South Asia becomes “most of humanity”.

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16,000 years ago – Modern humans reach the Americas

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7000 BCE – Mehrgarh in Baluchistan becomes an agricultural settlement

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7000 – 3000 BCE – Iranian farmers from Zagros region migrate into South Asia and mix with First Indians

Background - Timeline

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5500 – 2600 BCE - Early Harappan era- agricultural settlement, towns, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and many others

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3700 – 1500 BCE – Early Agriculture settlements in various parts of India- eastern Rajasthan, Southern India, Vindhya region, Eastern India, Swat Valley of Kashmir

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2600 – 1900 BCE – Mature Harappan period, sites re-built, standard weights, etc

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2300 – 1700 BCE – Period of Bactria-Margiana Archeological complex (BMAC) on Oxus River. Northern Afghanistan-Southern Uzbekistan and Western Tajikistan. BMAC and Harappan interacted

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2100 BCE – Steppe pastoralists migrate into South Asia after a brief interaction with BMAC, but mostly bypass it; this migration took place right thru second millennium BCE (2000 – 1000 BCE); brings in Indo-European language into South Asia

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2000 BCE - Migration of people with origin in China, brings in Austro-Asiatic languages and a “new” variety of Rice

Background - Timeline

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Archeological Terms and timeline

Paleolithic Time Period

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The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) lasted from about 2.5 million years ago to around 10,000 BCE. It is typically divided into three phases:

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1. Lower Paleolithic (≈2.5 million – 300,000 years ago): Early stone tools (Oldowan and Acheulean).

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• Middle Paleolithic (≈300,000 – 50,000 years ago): More advanced flake tools, associated with Homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthals elsewhere, and early Homo sapiens.

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• Upper Paleolithic (≈50,000 – 10,000 BCE): Complex tools, art, and behavioral modernity in Homo sapiens.

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Paleolithic period in India

Extensive evidence of early human activity in India has been found in various regions.

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Key Paleolithic Sites in India (there are many!)

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1. Bhimbetka Rock Shelters (Madhya Pradesh)
• UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Contains Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic artifacts.
• Prehistoric cave paintings.
2. Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu)
• One of the oldest Acheulean tool sites in India (dating to 1.5–1.0 million years ago).
• Provides evidence of early Homo erectus occupation.
3. Didwana (Rajasthan)
• Acheulean stone tools from the Lower Paleolithic.
4. Narmada Valley (Madhya Pradesh)
• Narmada hominin skull was discovered (possibly an archaic Homo sapiens or Homo ?)
• Associated with Lower and Middle Paleolithic stone tools.
5. Kurnool Caves (Andhra Pradesh)
• Evidence of Paleolithic and Mesolithic human habitation.
• Discovery of ancient fire-use.
6. Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh)
• Contains tools from Lower Paleolithic to Neolithic periods.
• Associated with gradual technological evolution.

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The First Urbanites: The Harappans

Mud-brick homes of Mehrgarh (7000 BCE)

Urban Civilization

Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, etc

(5500) 2600 – 1900 BCE

4500 years

150 generations

Harappa

Mehrgarh

Mohenjo-Daro

Chanhu-Daro

“continuous”

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Urban settlement – a natural development of Agriculture

Agriculture productivity is a precursor to urban development

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Excess production is traded, free time during non-growing season leads to “civilization”

What is “Civilization” – page 117 – “Childe definition”

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• Etymologically linked to “City”
• Hundred times larger population than a village
• Full time specialists – craftsmen, merchants, officials, ruling class, large public buildings, artistes (sculptors, painters, seal engravers), writing and record keepers
• First city of the world – Uruk in Lower Mesopotamia, capital city of Gilgamesh, 3200 BCE, tens of thousands of people, similar to Harappan cities of 2600 BCE

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1. Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan)

• One of the largest and most well-planned cities.
• Featured the Great Bath, granaries, and a well-organized drainage system.
• Likely a major administrative and trade center.

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2. Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan)

• The first Indus city discovered.
• Granaries, public wells, and standardized brick houses.
• Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia.

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3. Dholavira (Gujarat, India)

• Water conservation system, including reservoirs and stepwells.
• Divided into three parts: citadel, middle town, and lower town.
• Important center for inscriptions (Harappan script found here).

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4. Lothal (Gujarat, India)

• Famous for its dockyard, one of the earliest.
• A hub for trade, particularly with Mesopotamia.
• Evidence of bead-making, shell-working, and metallurgy.

5. Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India)

• Had ploughed fields, showing early agricultural planning.
• Fire “altars” - ritualistic practices (?).

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6. Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India)

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• One of the largest Indus Valley sites, possibly even bigger than Mohenjo-Daro.
• Skeletons found with DNA evidence, providing insights into Harappan ancestry.
• Major residential and industrial center.

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7. Banawali (Haryana, India)

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• Known for defensive walls and well-planned streets.
• Evidence of agriculture and domesticated animals.
• Pottery styles similar to both Harappan and pre-Harappan cultures.

Major IVC Urban Centers – Partial list

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Mohenjo-Daro

Visuals of one site: Mohenjo-Daro

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There were many settlements surrounding the major Harappan cities

Ansumali Mukhopadhyay, B. Semantic scope of Indus inscriptions comprising taxation, trade and craft licensing, commodity control and access control: archaeological and script-internal evidence. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10, 972 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02320-7

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• From 8000 BCE to 3000 BCE – multiple farming villages grew from Kacchi plains (Balochistan) to Indus Valley, the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, Gujarat, Rajasthan and further beyond.

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• Archeological evidence indicates continuous evolution from villages to walled cities/towns. At the peak, it included current day Pakistan, eastern Afghanistan and Northwest India. They were almost a contemporary to Mesopotamian Civilization. [2600 BCE vs. 3200 BCE]

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• Residents were the “First Indians” (Chapter 1) blended with Agriculturists from Zagros Mountain region of Iran (Chapter 2)

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• Trade Contacts with Mesopotamians – evidence presented by Tony Joseph includes seals, inscriptions, hair style, clothing style and others

Key Points made by the author

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Akkadian cylinder seal – buffaloes –

2350 – 2000 BCE (Mature Harappan)

Buffaloes were domesticated in IVC region

Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) remains have been discovered at Mehrgarh, providing evidence of their presence during the Neolithic period. While the initial inhabitants primarily herded sheep, goats, and cattle, faunal remains from the site also include wild animals such as gazelle, water buffalo, wild pig, and elephant.

Patel, A.K., & Meadow, R.H. (1998). "The exploitation of wild and domestic water buffalo in prehistoric northwestern South Asia." In The Archaeozoology of the Near East III: Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on the Archaeozoology of Southwestern Asia and Adjacent Areas (pp. 180-199)

[page 102]

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Akkadian cylinder seal – Buffalo and Lion –

2250 – 2150 BCE (Mature Harappan)

“Bull” man in combat with a lion. On the right is a bearded nude hero subduing as water buffalo that is standing its hind legs

[page 103]

Side story - Cheeses Made from Buffalo Milk

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Mozzarella di Bufala (Italy) → World-famous buffalo mozzarella.

Paneer (India)

Ricotta & Burrata (Italy)

Domiati (Egypt)

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Gebel el-Arak Knife

Egypt, 3300 - 3200 BCE – [2750 BCE in book]

Some similarities between IVC and Egypt/Mesopotamian influence

Page 105

Master of Beast portrayal

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Mohenjo-Daro man wearing his hair in a double-bun style

Stele of Vultures from Mesopotamia

2450 BCE

IVC

Mesopotamia

P 106

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Closer look at the hairdo – same?

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Clothing similarity

Wear their upper cloth over left shoulder and under the right arm

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Distinctive trefoil design (three leaf clover) on the rob by “Priest King” is also found in Mesopotamia as well

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No Temples and Palaces have been found at IVC sites, but cultures that were in contact with – Mesopotamia, Babylon, Elamite did have large Ziggurats (temples)

• Ziggurat of Ur (Iraq), built around 2100 BCE, Sumerian for Nanna (Moon God) by King Ur-Nammu (3^rd dynasty of Ur)

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• Etemenanki (Heavan and Earth) Ziggurat (Babylon, Iraq); The Legendary "Tower of Babel”; Babylonian, Dedicated to Marduk (Chief God of Babylon); Originally built by King Hammurabi (c. 1750 BCE), but later rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar II (c. 600 BCE).

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• Ziggurat of Chogha Zanbil (Iran). Built around 1250 BCE. Elamites for their deity Inshushinak by the King Untash-Naprisha (Elamite King)- [there were more ancient Ziggurats in Elam, direct evidence is lacking]

No special funeral monuments such as those found in Egypt and Mesopotamia have been found at IVC

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No elaborate burials have been discovered thus far

Thus far discovered: 32 Ziggurats in Mesopotamia and 28 in Iraq and 4 in Iran

Examples

Differences

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Kalibangan cylinder seal

Interpretation varies with viewers

Love quarrel ? Human sacrifice?

Kenoyer: During 700 years of Harappan - no evidence of war.

War weapons were absent in Harappan cities, but hunting weapons were excavated

Largely a peaceful society among the several hundred settlements who traded with each other and traded overseas.

Differences

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Othe features of IVC urban sites

• Public infrastructure included well designed water harvesting and drainage system

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• Cities were well planned- streets were in intersecting grid pattern

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• Over 700 wells and the great bath of Mohenjo-Daro indicate awareness and design

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• Many houses or groups of houses had separate bathing areas and toilets

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• Drains from such areas sloped down towards the street to sewage drain lines

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• Recent excavations showed that commodes were made of big pots sunk into the floor

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• The pots had small holes at the bottom, presumably for material to seep out to ground

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• Dr. Singh notes that ”lotas” were found at the bottom of internal latrines

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• Use of standard weights

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• Jewelry made of seashells, semi-precious stones (Carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli, turquoise, jasper, and steatite), Terracotta, Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze; thousands of bangles

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IVC Jewelry from Harappa.com site

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IVC Bangles

Kenoyer comments: Bangles found at IVC is multiple times more at IVC than all other ancient cities combined

Terracotta Bangles

p115

"Faience bangle made in the shape of a shell bangle or the stylized "womb" motif," writes Dr. Mark Kenoyer describing this exceptional piece. Traces of blue green glaze was found on the high points and edges, but not in the deeply carved portions. A matching pair was found with this bangle near the large covered building (granary) on Mound F [at Harappa]."

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IVC Timeline – From farmers to city dwellers

• Early Food Producing Era – 7000 to 5500 BCE
• Regionalization (Early Harappa) – 5500 – 2600 BCE
• Mature Harappan – 2600 – 1900 BCE
• Localization or Late Harappan – 1900 – 1300 BCE

Quetta valley – 5000 BCE

Damb Sadaat – 3500 BCE

Mundigak - 4000 – 3500 BCE

Amri - 3600 BCE

Rahman Dheri (HK) – 3300 BCE

Kunal - 4500 - 3600 BCE

Rakigarhi - 4500 - 3600 BCE

Bhirrana (Haryana) - pre 4500 BCE

Pottery style varied

Some were fortified (not all!)

• Some mature sites had no early Harappan level
• Many early Harappan showed no mature level
• Some that had both showed upheaval (fire?) as an intermediate period

p120

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The Uruk example and Key questions

• Tony Joseph describes the development of Mesopotamian civilization using the narratives provided by Liverani – “Uruk: The First City”

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• Irrigation – high farm productivity – temple building – temples becoming central organizing element of society – growth of chieftains – and kingdoms

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• Attributes canal irrigation combined with animal tracking (ploughing, load transport) to growth

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• Temples – “House of God” played a central role. Providing for temples was seen as offerings to the Gods

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• “Debate poems” were popular – between the ewe and wheat, summer and winter, etc

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• Literary output (Epic – Gilgamesh), poems, records

Compare with IVC

Differences

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Mesopotamian Debate Poems:

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• "Debate Between Sheep and Grain" – A foundational myth where Sheep and Grain argue over which is more beneficial to humanity. The gods eventually decide that both are necessary.

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• "Debate Between Bird and Fish" – Bird and Fish engage in a dispute about which is more important. The god Enki judges in favor of the Bird.

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• "Debate Between the Pickaxe and the Plow" – The Pickaxe and Plow argue over their significance in agriculture, with each boasting about its contributions.

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• "Debate Between Silver and Copper" – A reflection on economic value, where Silver and Copper argue about their worth.

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• "Debate Between Summer and Winter" – The seasons argue over their importance to agriculture and human survival.

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These texts were likely used in scribal training, demonstrating skill in rhetoric, poetry, and logical argumentation. They also offer valuable insights into Mesopotamian worldview, particularly their understanding of balance and interdependence in nature and society.

(circa 2600–1800 BCE)

Compare with IVC

Differences

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Excerpt from "Debate Between Sheep and Grain")

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Sumerian (Transliterated) -- Grain's Argument Against Sheep:

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𒌉𒉈𒊒 𒁕 𒈠𒂵 𒄑 𒋼𒋗𒈠𒌑�𒉈𒊒 𒉏𒀴𒉡𒁲 𒄑 𒆠𒃲𒉏�𒀭𒂗𒆠 𒄑𒉡𒁕 𒀭𒌓𒀀𒁕 𒉌𒉈𒆠

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English Translation (Grain to Sheep):

"O Sheep, you are but a creature of the open field, roaming without a house or storehouse.�You do not stand in the temple, nor do you fill the baskets of the great shrines.�Enki has given me the power to nourish the people and bring prosperity to the land.”

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Sumerian (Transliterated) -- Sheep's Response to Grain:

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𒌉𒊏𒈠 𒊺𒄠 𒁕 𒄑 𒊕𒊭𒄠𒆠�𒁍𒍣𒆠 𒀀𒈾𒆠 𒈨𒌍𒌌𒀀�𒀭𒂗𒆠 𒄑𒉡𒁕 𒊺𒄠𒆠 𒊭𒀀𒈠

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English Translation (Sheep to Grain):

"O Grain, though you may fill the storehouses, what would people wear if not for my wool?�What offerings would they make to the gods without my milk and lambs?�Enki has blessed me, too, for the warmth and sustenance I bring."

(circa 2600–1800 BCE)

Compare with IVC

Differences

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The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the earliest known works of literature, composed in Mesopotamia around 2100–1200 BCE, with earlier Sumerian versions dating back to circa 2100 BCE and the most complete Akkadian version from the 12th century BCE.

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It follows Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, as he embarks on epic quests, forming a deep friendship with the wild man Enkidu, battling monsters, and ultimately seeking immortality after Enkidu's death. The poem explores themes of mortality, friendship, kingship, and the limits of human ambition, reflecting Mesopotamian beliefs about the gods and the afterlife.

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The best-preserved version comes from the Library of Ashurbanipal (7th century BCE) in Nineveh, recorded in Akkadian cuneiform. The epic shares similarities with later biblical and mythological traditions, particularly in its flood story, which parallels the biblical Noah’s Ark.

Epic of Gilgamesh

Compare with IVC

Differences

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Language of the Harappans

• One script- but many languages(?)

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• Current IVC region is home to some 7 or 8 languages, thus very likely during mature Harappan phase, several language were spoken

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• Many scholars indicate the language to be proto-Dravidian. Genetic evidence is used by the author to indicate “Dravidian”

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• Genetic evidence: Indus Periphery Outliers (two of them) had 14 and 42% Genomes of First Indians (folks who came in 60,000. years ago); rest had Anatolian ancestry and no First Indian ancestry [Indus Periphery: Shahr-i-Sokhta (Iran) and Gonur (Turkmenistan)]

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• The outliers were interpreted as Harappan folks who migrated to Indus Periphery 4700 – 3000 BCE

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• The Indus Periphery individuals serve as a genetic proxy for the IVC population. They represent a mix of Iranian-related farmers and South Asian hunter-gatherers, providing a crucial missing link in South Asian prehistory.

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p134

-- Archeological evidence comes to the same conclusion as ancient DNA evidence: there is a strong connections between the Zagrosians and the people of the Harappan Civilization region, dating back to a period when agriculture was only beginning in Mehrgarh”.

2019 Shinde et al paper provided a different interpretation

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Rakhigarhi Ancient Genome - 2500 BCE

Skeletal DNA from a member of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization shows ancestry from ancient Iranians before their adoption of farming and from Southeast Asian hunter-gatherers, while completely lacking Steppe pastoralist ancestry.

Shinde et al.  An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers.  Cell. 2019. 179(3): 729–735. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.048 

Several Neolithic sites in Iran (Zagros Mountains) have yielded genetic data.

An isolated community – much work was from CCMB, Hyd. K. Thangaraj

Seven dates from charcoal at depths of 9–23 m - 2800–2300 BCE

Cultural contact with Gonur and Shahr-i-Sokhta

North-South Burial

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Proto-Zagrosian and Proto-Dravidian

McAlpin-Southward Premise/Hypothesis

• Brahui is linguistically close to Elamite

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• “Herders from Southern and Central Zagros region, speakers of Proto-Elamite or related language migrated to SA sometime after 7000 BCE mixed with First Indians, and this mixed population sparked agricultural revolution and created the Harappan Civilization”

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• Some Zagrosian migrants to SA may have remained herders to this day, like the Brahui-speakers of Balochistan.

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• “The reconstructed vocabulary of PD reflects a society engaged in animal husbandry, with some knowledge of agriculture. Words for sheep, goat and cattle, all inherited from Proto-Zagrosian [the parent language of Proto-Elamite] along with verbs referring to “driving” and “gazing” animals, words for “herd”, ”flock”, “Shepard” and several words for ”herd”, “flock”, “Shepard”; words that mean “house/dwelling” and “animal/stall” – indicate importance of herding. No specific words for grains, digging, seed, irrigation are re-constructable – [Examples given]

P136-7

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p142

Professor Southward in “Linguistic Archeology of South Asia”, says “the sharing of a word for sesame between Mesopotamia (Akkadian ellu) and South Dravidian “ellu” reinforces the hypothesis of the presence of Dravidian speakers in the pre-historic Indus Valley”

Ancient DNA and genetic studies indicate Steppe pastoralists reached India only in the Late Harappan period, bringing with them an early version of Sanskrit and ritual sacrifices. The newly arrived Indo-European language speakers called themselves as “Aryans”. What this means is Harappan civilization had nothing to do with “Aryans” or Sanskrit or the Vedas, and was pre-Aryan or pre-Vedic

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Deciphering Indus Script

• Quotes primarily the work of Irwatham Mahadevan and Asko Parpola

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• Mahadevan: Indus script is Dravidian, pre-Aryan

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• Vedic society was pastoral and rural (Harappan was city settlement)

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• Indus seals display many animals, but not horse

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• Tiger is often displayed on Indus seals; no Tiger in Rig Veda

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• Worship of buffalo-horned male god, mother goddess, the peepul tree, the serpent and possibly the phallic symbol – not from Vedas but from pre-Vedic culture, and that continues to current times

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• Both IM and AP suggest seals bear proper names, names of persons. Astronomy symbols (?)

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• “Chola, Chera and Panti” were brothers who lived together in ancient times; Chola the advisor, Chera the high officials, Panti the commoner

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Harappans’ Route to the South

• Dominant language of Harappan Civilization was Proto-Dravidian

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• Author suggests – it may have reached South India around 2800 BCE, well before Harappan peak period; evidence not referenced

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• First migrants to the South may not have been urbanites, but pastoralists (McAlpin-Southworth linguistic analysis)

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• Southward’s toponym analysis indicate Harappans took a coastal route to South India [Balakrishnan’s voluminous detailed toponymic analysis of the broader IVC sites indicate connectivity to South India]

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• Southward : “palli”- is village in proto-Dravidian, “-vali” or “-oli” in Maharashtra village names, over 800 of them, mostly near the coast

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• “by early first Millennium CE, extensive areas of Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra and southern Maharashtra were occupied by a population that used a Dravidian language for daily interaction – either as a primary home language and/or lingua franca” [Southworth: Marathi has a Dravidian foundation!]

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1. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: hit- (to herd goats, goat)

• Achaemenid Elamite: hidu (adult female goat, goats in general)
• Proto-Dravidian: it- (to herd goats)
• Tamil: இடை (iṭai) (herdsman caste)
• Malayalam: ഇടയൻ (iṭayan) (a caste of shepherds and cowherds)
• Interpretation: In Tamil, "iṭai" is associated with herding and caretaking of livestock, showing continuity with the Proto-Dravidian root.

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2. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: pot (young animal)

• Achaemenid Elamite: putu (lamb)
• Proto-Dravidian: pōt (young animal or plant)
• Tamil: பொட்டு (pōṭṭu) (sapling)
• Interpretation: Tamil "pōṭṭu" is used for saplings, which aligns with the idea of youth and growth, though its application to young animals may have diminished over time.

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3. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: vari- (to fix, tie, hold)

• Middle Elamite: mari- (to seize, grasp, capture)
• Proto-Dravidian: vari- (to bind, tie, fasten)
• Tamil: வரி (vari) (to bind, tie, fasten)
• Interpretation: Tamil "vari" retains the original Proto-Dravidian meaning of tying or fastening, showing strong linguistic continuity.

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4. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: um- (to process grain)

• Achaemenid Elamite: umi- (to grind grain)
• Proto-Dravidian: um (husk, chaff)
• Tamil: உமி (umi) (husk, to become chaff)
• Telugu: ఉమక (umaka) (husk, chaff)
• Interpretation: Tamil "umi" refers to husk or chaff, a residue from processing grain, closely matching its Proto-Dravidian root.

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5. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: ni (you)

• Old Elamite: ni (you)
• Proto-Dravidian: ni (you)
• Tamil: நீ (nī) (you)
• Interpretation: Tamil "nī" remains identical to its ancient root, showing an unbroken linguistic inheritance from Proto-Dravidian.

This analysis strongly suggests that Tamil has preserved several Proto-Dravidian and Proto-Elamo-Dravidian words with minimal phonetic changes. The presence of these words in Tamil highlights the deep linguistic heritage linking Dravidian languages to Elamite and early Harappan languages.

p141

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6. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: naḷ (day)

• Middle Elamite: nā, nana (days)
• Proto-Dravidian: naḷ (day)
• Tamil: நாள் (nāḷ) (day)
• Interpretation: Tamil "nāḷ" retains the exact meaning from Proto-Dravidian, showing continuity in meaning and pronunciation.

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7. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: toḷ- (to perforate, bore)

• Middle Elamite: tullin (breach, cut, slice)
• Proto-Dravidian: toḷ- (to perforate, bore)
• Telugu: tolucu (to bore, perforate)
• Interpretation: While Tamil does not have an exact match, related words like தொளி (toḷi) (scraping, polishing) and தொலை (toḷai) (hollowing out, disappearing) share a related sense of cutting, eroding, or making a hole.

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8. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: cah- (to die)

• Middle Elamite: sa- (his life should be cut off)
• Proto-Dravidian: caH- (to die)
• Tamil: சாக (cāka), சாவு (cāvu) (to die, death), சே (cē) (to perish, be blighted)
• Malayalam: ചാകുക (cākuka), ചാ (cā) (to die)
• Interpretation: Tamil "cāka", "cāvu", and "cē" all maintain the core meaning of death or perishing, directly linking to the Proto-Dravidian root.

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9. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: ul (inside, interior, mind, heart, to think)

• Middle Elamite: ulhi (dwelling place, residence, sanctuary)
• Tamil: உள்ளம் (uḷḷam) (mind, thought, heart)
• Interpretation: Tamil "uḷḷam" still means mind, thought, heart, and interior, aligning perfectly with the Proto-Elamo-Dravidian meaning of an inner space or thought.

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10. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: kaṭ (bed, throne)

• Royal Achaemenid Elamite: kat (place, throne)
• Proto-Dravidian: kaṭṭil (cot, bedstead, throne of distinction)
• Tamil: கட்டில் (kaṭṭil) (cot, bedstead)
• Interpretation: Tamil "kaṭṭil" retains the meaning of a cot, bed, or a raised structure, closely matching the Proto-Dravidian term and the Achaemenid Elamite word "kat" for place or throne.

This set of words again shows strong linguistic continuity from Proto-Elamo-Dravidian to Tamil, particularly in fundamental concepts like day (nāḷ), death (cāku/cāvu), mind (uḷḷam), and bed (kaṭṭil). Many of these words have survived almost unchanged in Tamil, indicating a deep historical connection between Dravidian languages and early Elamite linguistic influences.

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Four Major Language Groups of India

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Austro-Asiatic Language – enters 2000 BCE

• Two sub-families: Munda and Khasi. Related to Mon-Khmer languages of Cambodia

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• Mundari, Santali and Ho are mainly spoken in Jharkhand. Korku is spoken in MP and MH

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• Khasi spoken in Meghalya and Assam

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• Genetic studies - migration from East Asia (Origin: China) – 2000 BCE

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• Brought rice cultivation methods (originally from China)

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• Paternal Y Haplogroup is O2a, maternal mtDNA Haplogroup is Indian

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• Rice at Lahuradewa (San Kabir Nagar dist.), UP is dated 7000 BCE

[--- recently in India rice grains and early pottery found at the site of Lahuradewa in Uttar Pradesh dating to ca. 6500 BC, have been suggested to indicate very early rice cultivation about 4000 years earlier than has often been assumed for this region. However, other scholars contend that these early rice finds may have been collected from wild stands and further evidence is needed to prove cultivation or domestication.]

Reich: Rice and Millet entered peninsular India, 3000 BCE, from China. Bellwood, 2005

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Bhimbetka Rock Shelters - UNESCO World Heritage Site

The Bhimbetka Rock Shelters, located in MP have been inhabited for at least 100,000 years, with some evidence suggesting hominin presence dating back to 300,000 years ago. The site has continuous hominin occupation from the Paleolithic period (Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic) through the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and historical periods.

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Evidence Found

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1. Stone Tools (Archaeological Evidence)

• Lower Paleolithic tools: Hand axes and cleavers from Acheulean culture (~300,000 years old).
• Middle Paleolithic tools: Flakes and scrapers (~100,000 years old).
• Upper Paleolithic tools: Blades and microliths (~50,000 years old).
• The tools confirm continuous human presence from the Lower Paleolithic onwards.

2. Rock Art and Cave Paintings

• The earliest paintings date back to at least 30,000 years ago (Upper Paleolithic).
• Mesolithic and later paintings (from 10,000 BCE to historical periods) depict hunting, dancing, and daily life.
• The paintings are dated based on:
• The style of artwork (simple drawings in early phases, complex ones later).
• The overlapping of paintings (showing different time periods).

3. Fossils and Animal Remains

• Fossilized bones of animals from the Pleistocene epoch (~100,000 years ago) have been found.
• Remains suggest hunting and gathering activities.

4. Geological Dating (Stratigraphy & Thermoluminescence)

• Layers of deposits with human activity are analyzed to determine relative age.
• Thermoluminescence dating has been used to date sediments containing ancient tools.

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Acheulian tools represent a major advancement in prehistoric technology, characterized by bifacial shaping, standardized design, and widespread use. They are significant in understanding the early cognitive and technological capabilities of human ancestors.

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Peer-reviewed publications that detail the archaeological findings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in India. Notable among them are:​

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1. "The Acheulian Industry of Rock Shelter IIIF-23 at Bhimbetka, Central India – A Preliminary Study" by V. N. Misra (1978). This study, published in the Australian Archaeology journal, examines the Acheulian stone tool assemblages discovered in one of Bhimbetka's prominent rock shelters, highlighting its significance in understanding early human technology in the region. ​tandfonline.com

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• "The Rock Art of the Bhimbetka Area in India" by Meenakshi Dubey-Pathak. This paper, featured in the Adoranten journal, provides an in-depth analysis of the rock art found in the Bhimbetka region, discussing its stylistic features and cultural implications. ​

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• "A Review on Rock Paintings of India: Technique, Pigment and Conservation" by Anjali Sharma and Manager Rajdeo Singh (2022). Published in the Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy, this paper offers an overview of Indian rock paintings, including those at Bhimbetka, focusing on their techniques, pigments used, and conservation challenges. ​researchgate.net

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https://www.jstor.org/stable/40286300

The Acheulian Industry of Rock Shelter IIIF-23 at Bhimbetka, Central India - A Preliminary Study. V. N. Misra. Australian Archaeology, No. 8 (Sep., 1978), pp. 63-106 (44 pages)

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THE INDIAN LOWER PALAEOLITHIC

SHEILA MISHRA

Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Vol. 66/67 (2006-2007), pp. 47-94 (48 pages)

https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931441

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Short "செ (ce)" vs. Long "சே (cē)"

1. செ (ce) [short e]:
1. Commonly used in Tamil, but does not mean "to die" or "to perish" in any known usage.
2. Example: "செலவு" (celavu – expense), "செல்" (cel – to go).
3. Not related to death.
2. சே (cē) [long ē]:
• Means "to perish, wither, be blighted" (especially for plants, crops, or things that deteriorate).
• Example:
1. "மரம் சேந்து போகிறது" (maram cēntu pōkiṟatu) – "The tree is withering."
• This meaning aligns well with the Proto-Dravidian *"caH-" (to die) but in a weakened/metaphorical sense.

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"சே (cē)" (long ē) is correct.

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The short "ce" (செ) does not match the meaning of "to die."

The long "cē" (சே) is the correct form that fits the Proto-Dravidian meaning of "caH-" (to die, to perish).

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The Attirampakkam site in Tamil Nadu, India, is one of the most significant prehistoric archaeological sites in South Asia.

Dating of Attirampakkam:

1. Earliest Evidence of Human Presence:
1. Acheulean tools (Lower Paleolithic stone tools) at Attirampakkam date back to ~1.5 million years ago.
2. This makes it one of the oldest known Paleolithic sites outside Africa.
3. These findings suggest that early humans (possibly Homo erectus) were present in India much earlier than previously believed.
2. Middle Paleolithic Transition (~385,000 years ago):
• In 2018, a study using cosmogenic nuclide dating (Aluminum-26 and Beryllium-10 isotopes) revealed that Attirampakkam saw the transition from Acheulean to Middle Paleolithic tool technology around 385,000 years ago.
• This is much earlier than in Europe and aligns more closely with African Middle Stone Age developments.

Significance of Attirampakkam:

• It challenges the earlier Out-of-Africa migration timelines, showing that Middle Paleolithic technologies appeared in India well before modern humans (Homo sapiens) were believed to have migrated out of Africa (~60,000 years ago).
• Suggests early hominin presence and cultural continuity in the Indian subcontinent for over a million years.

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Early Pleistocene Presence of Acheulian Hominins in South India�This study, published in Science in 2011 by Shanti Pappu and colleagues, presents evidence of Acheulian tools at Attirampakkam dating back to approximately 1.5 million years ago, suggesting an early presence of hominins in South India.

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Early Middle Palaeolithic Culture in India Around 385–172 ka Reframes Out of Africa Models�Published in Nature in 2018, this research by Kumar Akhilesh, Shanti Pappu, and their team reveals that the Middle Paleolithic phase at Attirampakkam began around 385,000 years ago, challenging existing models of human migration out of Africa.

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Excavations at the Palaeolithic Site of Attirampakkam, South India�This article in Antiquity (2003) by Shanti Pappu and colleagues provides an overview of the stratigraphy and cultural sequence at Attirampakkam, offering insights into the site's significance in understanding early human occupation in the region.

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Attirampakkam | Sharma Centre for Heritage Education India�The Sharma Centre for Heritage Education provides detailed information about their ongoing research and findings at Attirampakkam, including updates on excavation methodologies and chronological assessments.

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From David Reich’s book:

Who We Are: How We Got Here

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Dancing girl’s hairdo

Bangles and Necklaces

Thick lips and flat nose, shortish face

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Standing girl