VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Some information Adapted from Ormrod’s Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 2011

LEV VYGOTSKY �(1896-1934)

• Russian psychologist/developmentalist
• Born in what was the Russian Empire
• Severe anti-Semitism at the time
• Quota system for Jews at universities; had to enter a lottery
• Vygotsky was lucky and allowed to go to university, but banned from formally studying philosophy
• Graduated from Moscow University with a law �degree in 1917, but also studied history and philosophy
• Began seriously studying psychology at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow in 1924; became researcher there

VYGOTSKY & THE �REVOLUTION

• Pre-revolutionary Russia:
• Largely feudalistic; widespread poverty, frequent food �shortages, poor working conditions
• Russian revolution in 1917 – Tsar Nicholas II �overthrown; Lenin and Bolsheviks take power
• Year Vygotsky graduated from law school
• Vygotsky strongly supported revolution
• Believed socialism would be a positive change resulting �in a classless society
• Worked to recreate psychology along Marxist Socialism lines
• No clear separation between individual or social development
• Applied psychology to confront problems in education in the new Soviet state

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VYGOTSKY & STALIN

• Stalin came into power in 1924 upon �death of Lenin
• In the 30’s, Stalin “purged” elite in his own party as well as most intellectuals, not trusting those with a higher education
• Depleted Soviet Union’s brainpower; left Stalin the sole intellectual and “expert” on everything
• Vygotsky died of tuberculosis just before political climate changed, but still was a victim of Stalin:
• For 20 years after Vygotsky’s death, it was forbidden to discuss, disseminate, or reprint any of his writings
• Works could only be read in one Moscow library by special permission of the secret police
• Only after Stalin’s death were Vygotsky’s writings rediscovered

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VYGOTSKY’S WORK

• Worked the same time as Piaget (20’s - 30’s)
• Worked to research and reform education
• Instituted special education in Soviet schools
• Developed theories of cognitive �development
• Prolific writer, wrote 6 books in 10 years
• Focused on child development and education; also language development
• Writings were eventually translated and brought to U.S. in 1960’s; not much attention paid until late 70’s
• Theories very popular today; large influence on schools

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BIG IDEAS FROM VYGOTSKY’S THEORY

• All learning is social
• Knowledge is always socially constructed
• Culture shapes our learning & cognitive development
• Culture ensures each new generation learns from the previous
• Provides lens through which we see and make sense of world
• What is valued in one culture may not be in another
• Learning is tied to the culture and situation where it was learned
• Challenge is important to learning
• Learning happens best within our ZPD
• A more knowledgeable other knows what will challenge us
• Learning leads development
• Learning pushes us towards more advanced cognitive development

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VYGOTSKY’S THEORY

• Known by any one of the following names or variations of these names:
• Sociocultural - learning is a social process tied to and driven by our specific culture
• Sociohistoric - learning is a social process tied to and driven by our our specific history (culture)
• Situative – learning is tied to the context or situation (culture) where it was learned

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VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

• Adults convey to children (formally & informally) the ways their culture sees the world
• Adults share meanings they attach to objects, events (culture)
• Adults should describe discoveries of previous generations, help connect children to their history
• We don’t have to “discover” what those before us have learned
• Culture “shapes” our learning and development
• Learning is both social and culturally based and tied to the situation where it was learned

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VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

• Every culture passes down physical and cognitive tools
• Physical Tools (pencil, scissors, computer, etc.) or cognitive (language, math, symbols, etc.)
• These should be passed on to children to make learning and development easier
• Again, see the social, cultural, and historic connection
• Learning is connected with these tools -

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VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

• Thought & language become increasingly interdependent in first few years of life
• For adults and older children, thought & language are closely connected
• Separate functions for babies/toddlers; language a means to communicate not thoughts
• Thought and language intertwine around 2 (think in words) and self-talk emerges to guide child through a task
• Self-talk turns into inner Speech – mentally guiding oneself
• A culture’s language is a tool passed on to new generation (cultural and historical connection)

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VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

• Complex mental processes begin as social activities, gradually evolve into independent, internal mental activities
• As children discuss events/objects with a “more knowledgeable other”, begin to incorporate this talk into their own thinking
• Internalization – process through which social activities evolve into internal mental activities (ex: self-talk to inner speech)
• Peers and older children can also be “more knowledgeable others”
• Discussions, debates, arguments teach children that there are multiple ways to see same situation; process becomes internalized
• All learning is social

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VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

• Children can perform more challenging tasks when helped by “more knowledgeable other”
• Child’s actual development level – upper limits of tasks that learner can successfully perform alone
• Child’s level of potential development – upper limits of tasks that learner can successfully perform with help from more knowledgeable other
• Learning is a social process

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VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

• Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth
• Child’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) – range of tasks a learner can perform with help, but not alone
• Children learn little by performing tasks they can already do alone
• Develop by trying tasks they can do only with help – within their ZPD
• In teaching: some tasks should require more knowledgeable other, some should be worked on together by students of equal ability
• Each child has unique ZPD

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VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

• Play allows children to cognitively “stretch” themselves
• “In play a child always behaves beyond his average age, above his daily behavior” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102)
• Play is valuable training for adult world and culture
• Play is often social in nature and each culture determines what is acceptable play

CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: �SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION

• Social Construction of Meaning – adults help children attach meaning to object/events
• Mediated Learning Experience – discussion between adult/child where adult helps child make sense of event they both experienced; helps child learn more than would alone, ex. P. 212
• Child can accomplish more with help from others
• Also happens with peers, but may serve different functions
• “Two heads are better than one”
• All learning is social

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CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: SCAFFOLDING

• Scaffolding – guidance or structure the more knowledgeable other provides to help the learner perform tasks in his/her ZPD
• Scaffolds should be used until leaner has internalized behavior than fade away
• Examples of scaffolding in school:
• Outlines, guidelines, checklist
• Hints, guiding questions, reminders
• Strategies, plans
• Modeling, demonstrating
• Tools: calculator, technology
• Feedback
• Attempts to focus attention and�motivate

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CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: GUIDED PARTICIPATION

• When a child, through support and guidance, participates in adult activities
• Gradual entry into adult world: begins with child on fringe of activity until eventually child plays more central role
• Think of young child helping adult cook: allowed to stir and measure at first; as child gets older he is gradually allowed to do more
• Participation is mediated, scaffolded, modeled, and supervised by adult
• Guided Participation in classroom:
• Scientific experiments
• Writing letters to local paper, government, etc.
• Search the internet
• Any activity which is beyond the child’s world

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EXAMPLE OF GUIDED PARTICIPATION

• A mother sitting with her toddler singing, “Baa, baa black sheep have you any wool, yes sir, yes sir ….” at this point the mother pauses and the child sings loudly, “THREE BAGS FULL!”.

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• How is this Guided Participation?
• Mother guided the child through song, aware of the child’s ZPD
• Mother knew the child can’t sing the song by himself, so she provided a scaffold by starting the song for him
• Mother modeled how the song should be sung
• Eventually, the child will internalize the process and be able to sign whole song alone

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EXAMPLE OF GUIDED PARTICIPATION

• A 5-year old lost her security blanket & asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the blanket; the child says , “I can’t remember.” The father then asks a series of questions – “Did you have it in your room? Outside?” To each question the child answers “No”. When he asks, “In the car?”, she says “I think so” and finds the blanket in the car.

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• How is this guided participation?
• Father guided child through process, aware of her ZPD
• Father modeled the thinking process of an adult
• Each question the father asked was a scaffold
• Eventually the child will internalize this behavior, at first through self-talk, and then inner speech

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CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: APPRENTICESHIPS

• Apprenticeship: Intensive form of guided participation, novice works with an expert to learn a task in a particular domain;
• Much structure & guidance to slowly introduce novice to work
• Gradual fading to give novice independence and responsibility
• Trades: plumber, electrician; Professional: internship, student teaching, law clerk, medical intern

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• Cognitive Apprenticeship: Mentor provides guidance to novice about how to think about a task
• Teacher talks with student about task/problem, analyze problem, decide on best approach
• Teacher models effective ways of thinking about situation, coaches student through task, provides scaffolds

CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS: DYNAMIC ASSESSMENT

• Rather than assess what students can do alone, assessing what they can do with scaffolding – Assess students’ ability

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• Dynamic Assessment provides info about the child’s thinking process and ability to learn, allowing teacher to better guide future instruction
• Not to be used all the time, but can be helpful

SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY’S VIEW ON MOTIVATION

• We’re motivated by a particular situation (situated motivation)
• We’re motivated to become part of a group that we see as desirable (soccer team, honor society, skateboarders, etc.)
• We become part of the group by participating in the group’s activities, culture, language, behavior
• Our identity is tied to the groups we participate in (soccer player, smart kid, skateboarder, etc.)

SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY’S VIEW ON MOTIVATION

We often join the group through peripheral participation (start on the fringe/edge of group)

• Observe group & its culture: language, activities, dress, behavior, etc.
• Practice aspects of the culture (may be apprenticeship learning)
• Work to become integrated into the group; full community participation; group passes on knowledge to the novice

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VYGOTSKY’S WORDS…

• “It is through others that we become ourselves”

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• “What a child can do in �co-operation today he can do �alone tomorrow”

scaffolding