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Electrons in Atoms

Section 5.1 Light and Quantized Energy

Section 5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom

Section 5.3 Electron Configuration

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Section 5-1

Section 5.1 Light and Quantized Energy

• Compare the wave and particle natures of light.

radiation: the rays and particles —alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays—that are emitted by radioactive material

• Define a quantum of energy, and explain how it is related to an energy change of matter.
• Contrast continuous electromagnetic spectra and atomic emission spectra.

Section 5-1

Section 5.1 Light and Quantized Energy (cont.)

electromagnetic radiation

wavelength

frequency

amplitude

electromagnetic spectrum

Light, a form of electronic radiation, has characteristics of both a wave and a particle.

quantum

Planck's constant

photoelectric effect

photon

atomic emission spectrum

Section 5-1

The Atom and Unanswered Questions

• Recall that in Rutherford's model, the atom’s mass is concentrated in the nucleus and electrons move around it.

• The model doesn’t explain how the electrons were arranged around the nucleus.
• The model doesn’t explain why negatively charged electrons aren’t pulled into the positively charged nucleus.

Section 5-1

The Atom and Unanswered Questions (cont.)

• In the early 1900s, scientists observed certain elements emitted visible light when heated in a flame.

• Analysis of the emitted light revealed that an element’s chemical behavior is related to the arrangement of the electrons in its atoms.

Section 5-1

The Wave Nature of Light

• Visible light is a type of electromagnetic radiation, a form of energy that exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space.

• All waves can be described by several characteristics.

Section 5-1

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

• The wavelength (λ) is the shortest distance between equivalent points on a continuous wave.

• The frequency (ν) is the number of waves that pass a given point per second.
• The amplitude is the wave’s height from the origin to a crest.

Section 5-1

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

• The speed of light (3.00 × 10⁸ m/s) is the product of it’s wavelength and frequency c = λν.

Section 5-1

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

• Sunlight contains a continuous range of wavelengths and frequencies.

• A prism separates sunlight into a continuous spectrum of colors.
• The electromagnetic spectrum includes all forms of electromagnetic radiation.

Section 5-1

The Wave Nature of Light (cont.)

Section 5-1

The Particle Nature of Light

• The wave model of light cannot explain all of light’s characteristics.

• Matter can gain or lose energy only in small, specific amounts called quanta.
• A quantum is the minimum amount of energy that can be gained or lost by an atom.
• Planck’s constant has a value of �6.626 × 10^–34 J ● s.

Section 5-1

The Particle Nature of Light (cont.)

• The photoelectric effect is when electrons are emitted from a metal’s surface when light of a certain frequency shines on it.

Section 5-1

The Particle Nature of Light (cont.)

• Albert Einstein proposed in 1905 that light has a dual nature.

• A beam of light has wavelike and particlelike properties.
• A photon is a particle of electromagnetic radiation with no mass that carries a quantum of energy.

E_photon = hν E_photon represents energy.� h is Planck's constant.� ν represents frequency.

Section 5-1

Atomic Emission Spectra

• Light in a neon sign is produced when electricity is passed through a tube filled with neon gas and excites the neon atoms.

• The excited atoms emit light to release energy.

Section 5-1

Atomic Emission Spectra (cont.)

Section 5-1

Atomic Emission Spectra (cont.)

• The atomic emission spectrum of an element is the set of frequencies of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the atoms of the element.

• Each element’s atomic emission spectrum is unique.

Section 5-1

• A
• B
• C
• D

Section 5.1 Assessment

What is the smallest amount of energy that can be gained or lost by an atom?

A. electromagnetic photon

B. beta particle

C. quanta

D. wave-particle

Section 5-1

• A
• B
• C
• D

Section 5.1 Assessment

What is a particle of electromagnetic radiation with no mass called?

A. beta particle

B. alpha particle

C. quanta

D. photon

End of Section 5-1

Section 5-2

Section 5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom

• Compare the Bohr and quantum mechanical models of the atom.

atom: the smallest particle of an element that retains all the properties of that element, is composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons.

• Explain the impact of de Broglie's wave article duality and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle on the current view of electrons in atoms.
• Identify the relationships among a hydrogen atom's energy levels, sublevels, and atomic orbitals.

Section 5-2

Section 5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom (cont.)

ground state

quantum number

de Broglie equation

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Wavelike properties of electrons help relate atomic emission spectra, energy states of atoms, and atomic orbitals.

quantum mechanical model of the atom

atomic orbital

principal quantum number

principal energy level

energy sublevel

Section 5-2

Bohr's Model of the Atom

• Bohr correctly predicted the frequency lines in hydrogen’s atomic emission spectrum.

• The lowest allowable energy state of an atom is called its ground state.
• When an atom gains energy, it is in an excited state.

Section 5-2

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

• Bohr suggested that an electron moves around the nucleus only in certain allowed circular orbits.

Section 5-2

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

• Each orbit was given a number, called the quantum number.

Section 5-2

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

• Hydrogen’s single electron is in the n = 1 orbit in the ground state.

• When energy is added, the electron moves to the n = 2 orbit.

Section 5-2

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

Section 5-2

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

Section 5-2

Bohr's Model of the Atom (cont.)

• Bohr’s model explained the hydrogen’s spectral lines, but failed to explain any other element’s lines.

• The behavior of electrons is still not fully understood, but it is known they do not move around the nucleus in circular orbits.

Section 5-2

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

• Louis de Broglie (1892–1987) hypothesized that particles, including electrons, could also have wavelike behaviors.

Section 5-2

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom (cont.)

• The figure illustrates that electrons orbit the nucleus only in whole-number wavelengths.

Section 5-2

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom (cont.)

• The de Broglie equation predicts that all moving particles have wave characteristics.

Section 5-2

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom (cont.)

• Heisenberg showed it is impossible to take any measurement of an object without disturbing it.

• The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is fundamentally impossible to know precisely both the velocity and position of a particle at the same time.
• The only quantity that can be known is the probability for an electron to occupy a certain region around the nucleus.

Section 5-2

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom (cont.)

Section 5-2

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom (cont.)

• Schrödinger treated electrons as waves in a model called the quantum mechanical model of the atom.

• Schrödinger’s equation applied equally well to elements other than hydrogen.

Section 5-2

The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom (cont.)

• The wave function predicts a three-dimensional region around the nucleus called the atomic orbital.

Section 5-2

Hydrogen Atomic Orbitals

• Principal quantum number (n) indicates the relative size and energy of atomic orbitals.

• n specifies the atom’s major energy levels, called the principal energy levels.

Section 5-2

Hydrogen Atomic Orbitals (cont.)

• Energy sublevels are contained within the principal energy levels.

Section 5-2

Hydrogen Atomic Orbitals (cont.)

• Each energy sublevel relates to orbitals of different shape.

Section 5-2

Hydrogen Atomic Orbitals (cont.)

Section 5-2

• A
• B
• C
• D

Section 5.2 Assessment

Which atomic suborbitals have a “dumbbell” shape?

A. s

B. f

C. p

D. d

Section 5-2

• A
• B
• C
• D

Section 5.2 Assessment

Who proposed that particles could also exhibit wavelike behaviors?

A. Bohr

B. Einstein

C. Rutherford

D. de Broglie

End of Section 5-2

Section 5-3

Section 5.3 Electron Configuration

• Apply the Pauli exclusion principle, the aufbau principle, and Hund's rule to write electron configurations using orbital diagrams and electron configuration notation.

electron: a negatively charged, fast-moving particle with an extremely small mass that is found in all forms of matter and moves through the empty space surrounding an atom's nucleus

• Define valence electrons, and draw electron-dot structures representing an atom's valence electrons.

Section 5-3

Section 5.3 Electron Configuration (cont.)

electron configuration

aufbau principle

Pauli exclusion principle

Hund's rule

valence electrons

electron-dot structure

A set of three rules determines the arrangement in an atom.

Section 5-3

Ground-State Electron Configuration

• The arrangement of electrons in the atom is called the electron configuration.

• The aufbau principle states that each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available.

Section 5-3

Ground-State Electron Configuration (cont.)

Section 5-3

Ground-State Electron Configuration (cont.)

• The Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single orbital, but only if the electrons have opposite spins.

• Hund’s rule states that single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the same energy level orbitals.

Section 5-3

Ground-State Electron Configuration (cont.)

Section 5-3

Ground-State Electron Configuration (cont.)

• Noble gas notation uses noble gas symbols in brackets to shorten inner electron configurations of other elements.

Section 5-3

Ground-State Electron Configuration (cont.)

• The electron configurations (for chromium, copper, and several other elements) reflect the increased stability of half-filled and filled sets of s and d orbitals.

Section 5-3

Valence Electrons

• Valence electrons are defined as electrons in the atom’s outermost orbitals—those associated with the atom’s highest principal energy level.

• Electron-dot structure consists of the element’s symbol representing the nucleus, surrounded by dots representing the element’s valence electrons.

Section 5-3

Valence Electrons (cont.)

Section 5-3

• A
• B
• C
• D

Section 5.3 Assessment

In the ground state, which orbital does an atom’s electrons occupy?

A. the highest available

B. the lowest available

C. the n = 0 orbital

D. the d suborbital

Section 5-3

• A
• B
• C
• D

Section 5.3 Assessment

The outermost electrons of an atom are called what?

A. suborbitals

B. orbitals

C. ground state electrons

D. valence electrons

End of Section 5-3

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Study Guide

Chapter Assessment

Standardized Test Practice

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Concepts in Motion

Study Guide 1

Section 5.1 Light and Quantized Energy

Key Concepts

• All waves are defined by their wavelengths, frequencies, amplitudes, and speeds. c = λν

• In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light.
• All electromagnetic waves have both wave and particle properties.
• Matter emits and absorbs energy in quanta.Equantum = hν

Study Guide 1

Section 5.1 Light and Quantized Energy (cont.)

Key Concepts

• White light produces a continuous spectrum. An element’s emission spectrum consists of a �series of lines of individual colors.

Study Guide 2

Section 5.2 Quantum Theory and �the Atom

Key Concepts

• Bohr’s atomic model attributes hydrogen’s emission spectrum to electrons dropping from higher-energy to lower-energy orbits.� ∆E = E higher-energy orbit - E lower-energy orbit = E photon = hν

• The de Broglie equation relates a particle’s wavelength to its mass, its velocity, and Planck’s constant. λ = h / mν
• The quantum mechanical model of the atom assumes that electrons have wave properties.
• Electrons occupy three-dimensional regions of �space called atomic orbitals.

Study Guide 3

Section 5.3 Electron Configuration

Key Concepts

• The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the atom’s electron configuration.

• Electron configurations are defined by the aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule.
• An element’s valence electrons determine the chemical properties of the element.
• Electron configurations can be represented using orbital diagrams, electron configuration notation, and electron-dot structures.

Chapter Assessment 1

• A
• B
• C
• D

The shortest distance from equivalent points on a continuous wave is the:

A. frequency

B. wavelength

C. amplitude

D. crest

Chapter Assessment 2

• A
• B
• C
• D

The energy of a wave increases as ____.

A. frequency decreases

B. wavelength decreases

C. wavelength increases

D. distance increases

Chapter Assessment 3

• A
• B
• C
• D

Atom’s move in circular orbits in which atomic model?

A. quantum mechanical model

B. Rutherford’s model

C. Bohr’s model

D. plum-pudding model

Chapter Assessment 4

• A
• B
• C
• D

It is impossible to know precisely both the location and velocity of an electron at the same time because:

A. the Pauli exclusion principle

B. the dual nature of light

C. electrons travel in waves

D. the Heisenberg uncertainty � principle

Chapter Assessment 5

• A
• B
• C
• D

How many valence electrons does neon have?

A. 0

B. 1

C. 2

D. 3

STP 1

• A
• B
• C
• D

Spherical orbitals belong to which sublevel?

A. s

B. p

C. d

D. f

STP 2

• A
• B
• C
• D

What is the maximum number of electrons the 1s orbital can hold?

A. 10

B. 2

C. 8

D. 1

STP 3

• A
• B
• C
• D

In order for two electrons to occupy the same orbital, they must:

A. have opposite charges

B. have opposite spins

C. have the same spin

D. have the same spin and charge

STP 4

• A
• B
• C
• D

How many valence electrons does boron contain?

A. 1

B. 2

C. 3

D. 5

STP 5

• A
• B
• C
• D

What is a quantum?

A. another name for an atom

B. the smallest amount of energy � that can be gained or lost by � an atom

C. the ground state of an atom

D. the excited state of an atom

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CIM

Figure 5.11 Balmer Series

Figure 5.12 Electron Transitions

Table 5.4 Electron Configurations and Orbital �Diagrams for Elements 1–10

Table 5.6 Electron Configurations and �Dot Structures

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