Homo sapiens In Africa

How did modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolve in Africa? Did Homo sapiens originate in one place in Africa? What does the evidence say? Put in slideshow mode and click the skulls on the map to see what the fossil record tells us.

Jebel Irhoud, Morocco: Homo sapiens skull

At a site near Morocco’s Atlantic coast, archaeologists uncovered skull, face, and jaw bones from early members of Homo sapiens, dated to about 315,000 years ago—over 100,000 years earlier than what many earlier estimates proposed.

The teeth, while larger than in modern humans, more closely resemble Homo sapiens than Neanderthals or other archaic humans. The skulls are elongated and differ in brain shape from more recent H. sapiens, suggesting differences in brain organization.

These fossils were found alongside Middle Stone Age tools (see Slide 10), which are typically linked to early Homo sapiens behavior.

This evidence points to humans in this region showing a mix of modern and more primitive features—sometimes labeled “archaic Homo sapiens.”

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Fossils of early members of Homo sapiens found in Morocco (left) display a more elongated skull shape than do modern humans (right). Credit: NHM London

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The Florisbad Skull, South Africa

The Florisbad Skull was found in South Africa and dated to between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago. Originally it was classified as Homo heidelbergensis (one of our closest ancestors, along with Neanderthals), but recent researchers believe it is an early Homo sapiens. It has a small face similar to modern humans and a larger cranial capacity (1400 cc) despite some primitive features sometimes found in Neanderthals and Homo heidelbergensis.

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Herto Skulls, Ethiopia

Discovered in 1997 near Herto Cave in Ethiopia, these fossils include two adult skulls and one child’s skull, dated to about 160,000 years ago. At the time they were discovered, they were the oldest known fossils of Homo sapiens, so many researchers pointed to East Africa as the likely origin of our species.

The Herto skulls show a mix of features, including some more archaic traits, like a large face and robust brow ridgel, not typical of modern humans. However, they also exhibit traits associated with Homo sapiens, such as a larger brain size (1450 cc), a rounded skull, and a flatter face. �

Researchers also uncovered Middle Stone Age tools, including hand axes and blades, alongside cut-marked animal bones, suggesting these early humans hunted or butchered large animals and even exhibited ritualist behaviors characteristic of later Homo sapiens.

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Omo Skulls, Ethiopia

In 1967, archaeologists in East Africa found the Omo Skulls. Early dating techniques estimated their age at about 130,000 years, but newer methods have revealed the skulls are actually around 195,000 years old.

The Omo I skull has more modern features, especially in its facial features. The Omo II skull exhibits more primitive/archaic features, similar to the slightly younger Herto Skull that was also found in Ethiopia. They are both, however, classified as Homo sapiens.

A reconstruction of the Omo I Skull

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Ngaloba, Tanzania (Southeastern Africa)

A team led by Mary Leakey discovered the Ngaloba Skull in 1976 and was dated to be about 120,000 years old. It has some archaic traits, like a longer skull shape rather than the rounder shape seen in more recent humans. However, it also displays more modern characteristics, such as a smaller, flatter face and a less prominent brow ridge. Its brain size fits within the modern human range, but on the smaller side (1200-1300 cc). This combination places them between archaic (older) Homo sapiens and modern Homo sapiens.

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The Ngaloba Skull

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Katanda Harpoons

Around 100,000 years ago, early humans in the Democratic Republic of the Congo made complex barbed harpoons carved from bone. These tools, found near the Semliki River alongside many catfish bones, were likely used for spearfishing. At this time, catfish were about 150 lbs and could feed 80 people for 2 days.

At first, researchers thought the harpoons were too advanced for their age, but dating confirmed they are about 100,000 years old. They would have required both planning and dexterity (expertise) to create.

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Middle Stone Age Tools, North Africa

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) began in Africa over 300,000 years ago. Unlike earlier Acheulean tools, MSA tools used prepared core technology: stones were shaped in advance to remove sharper, more controlled flakes. This technology required advanced planning and abstract visualization as well as precision. The technique produced more uniform, sharp, and useful tools, making hunting, butchering, and other tasks easier and more effective.

These flakes were often attached to handles or spear shafts for more effective hunting and daily tasks. The North African tools shown here date to the same era as similar tools found in South Africa. Although typically linked to modern humans, they’ve also been found alongside more archaic Homo sapiens.

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Middle Stone Age Tools, South Africa

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) emerged in Africa more than 300,000 years ago. Human ancestors had been making tools for years in what was called Acheulean culture. But in the MSA, ancient humans began to use prepared core technologies (hand tools made of rocks like flint that were pre-shaped by flaking off small pieces, before larger flakes were removed). This technology required advanced planning and abstract visualization as well as precision. The technique produced more uniform, sharp, and useful tools, making hunting, butchering, and other tasks easier and more effective.

These stone and bone tools were often attached to handles and spear shafts to improve hunting prowess and intricate tool use. These stone and bone tools were found in South Africa and date to roughly the same time as tools found in North and Central Africa. They are typically associated with the most modern humans, yet they have also been found alongside more archaic Homo sapiens.

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Mitochondrial Eve

Using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA, which only traces DNA through the maternal side), researchers traced all living people to a hypothetical matrilineal ancestor: Mitochondrial Eve. This simply means that all humans alive today inherited some of their Mitochondrial DNA from her, through their mother’s side (mother to daughter). She was NOT the first woman in history or the only woman living at the time—just the only one whose direct maternal line still survives today.

This finding does not necessarily mean “Eve” had a lot of children. It simply means her daughter(s) kept having daughters, who then had daughters, etc all the way to the present, passing along their mtDNA in the process. Other women were alive at the time, but eventually their maternal lineages died out because only daughters continue to pass mtDNA to the next generation.

Research traced Mitochondrial Eve’s home to modern day Botswana about 160,000 years ago.

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Y-Chromosome Adam

Y-Chromosome Adam is the most recent common male ancestor of all living males today, meaning all living males inherited their Y-chromosome (only found in males) from his paternal (father to son) line. He was not the only male alive at the time; nor was he the first man. He is simply the only male whose direct line of male (patrilineal) line of descent (father to son) continued unbroken to the present. His sons had sons, who then had sons, etc. Other males at the time had sons as well, but eventually their male (patrilineal) lines died out.

Y-Chromosome Adam likely lived between 200,000 and 300,00 years ago in Central or West Africa. Thus, he was not alive at the same time as Mitochondrial Eve.

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