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Chapter 1: Neurological Processing

This purpose of this chapter is to draw attention to the neurological networks and processes that underlie listening.

The chapter describes listening as the coordination of several neural networks, beginning with the reception of sound waves, connecting with language processing centers, activating memory systems, and engaging higher-order inferencing and reasoning processes.

The chapter outlines each of these networks and shows their importance in the overall listening process. Utilizing images of each stage, the chapter previews key concepts that will be explored in detail in subsequent chapters.

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Chapter Outline

1.1 Introduction: Listening as a coordination of networks

1.2 Reception: the role of hearing�Figure 1.1 The Hearing Circuit

1.3 Transmission: the role of the inner ear�Figure 1.2 The Transmission Process

1.4 Connectivity: the role of the auditory cortex�Figure 1.3 The Auditory Processing Circuit

1.5. Orientation: the role of attention�Figure 1.4 The Stages of Attention

1.6 Agency: the role of consciousness�Figure 1.5 Neural Correlates of Consciousness

1.7 Comprehension: the role of language processing�Figure 1.6 Language Comprehension Pathways

1.8 Connectivity: the role of memory �Figure 1.7 Distribution of Memory Centers

1.9 Interpretation: the role of inferencing and reasoning�Figure 1.8 Inferencing and Reasoning Processes While Listening

1.10 Complexity: The role of individual differences

1.11 Summary: The value of understanding neurological processing

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1.1 Introduction�Listening as a coordination of networks

Why study the neurological processes of listening?

It is useful for language teachers and linguistic researchers
to become familiar with these processes and neural networks
in order to better understand individual differences in listening performances.

Listening: a perceptual process and a cognitive process

Listening is coordinated by interconnected neural networks

https://cdn.discordapp.com/attachments/1291885571857317960/1291885572024958998/2.jpg?ex=67026272&is=670110f2&hm=aaa1baadcc54ef5f266db1011e4493c28c0eb597e28b2b1d606557fb38de765f&

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1.2 Reception�The role of hearing

temporal=sequential

holistic=complete image

Hearing begins with distal perception: the sensation�of sound waves

Sound perception

(vibration of the eardrum) initiates the process of audition

Hearing involves detecting patterns�through a fusion of

temporal (sequential) processing and spectral (holistic) processing

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Figure 1.1�The Hearing Circuit

Hearing is a circuit involving the ear, the auditory nerve, and the auditory cortex

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1.3�Transmission: The role of the inner ear

The cochlea contains a concentrated mass of microscopic fibers.

Each fiber responds to particular sensory stimulation.

Auditory nerves each have a high degree of specialization.

The pattern of auditory nerve activity is called an “excitation pattern”

How an individual hearer perceives the excitation patterns

will be influenced by a wide range of personal and contextual differences

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Figure 1.2�The Transmission Process

When sound waves enter the ear, they create vibrations that are transmitted to the cochlea.

As the fluid inside the cochlea moves in response to the vibrations, it causes the basilar membrane to flex. This movement causes a conversion of mechanical vibrations into electrical signals. These electrical signals are then transmitted to the auditory nerve, which carries the signals as neural impulses to the auditory cortex.

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1.4�Coordination: The role of the auditory cortex

The auditory cortex is the region of the brain responsible for the initial processing of complex information.

Signals from the right ear travel to the left auditory cortex.
Signals from the left ear travel to the right auditory cortex.

The auditory cortices sort, process, interpret, and file information.

This is a basic model of dual-stream auditory processing in the human brain.

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1.5�Orientation: The role of attention

Attention enhances perception, memory, and decision-making

Attention is a process that activates specific brain regions and neurological processes needed for responding: planning, organizing, initiating, and completing tasks.

The attention mechanism focuses on the stimulus in order to activate parts of the brain that are equipped to process it.

Attention is considered to be the beginning of involvement in understanding

Attention is a timed process requiring three neurochemical reactions:

Arousal
Orientation
Focus

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Figure 1.4�The stages of attention

Arousal begins when impulses from the senses enter the reticular formation (RF), the lowest area of the brain stem. Orientation is triggered in the superior colliculus area of the midbrain; Focus and distribution of attention occur in the thalamus.

Once aroused, the RF releases a flood of neurotransmitters to fire neurons throughout the brain.

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1.6�Agency: The role of consciousness

Agency is triggered by attention.

The hearer needs to exercise a conscious degree of agency in order to find relevance in what is being processed

Agency is achieved when the listener intends to interact with the input for a purpose

Intention is initiated through:

An acknowledgment of a distal source (recognition)
A willingness to be influenced by this source (openness)
A desire to understand its value (discrimination)

Agency

>>leads to>> awareness (becoming cognizant of something new)
>> allows for>> mindfulness (being attentive to the current moment
>> enables>> active listening (making a deliberate effort to understand)

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Figure 1.5�Neural Correlates of Consciousness

Consciousness cannot be easily measured, but we know it involves connections between four regions: The amygdala (emotional processing), the thalamus (relay locus for sensory information,) the insula (interoceptive awareness), and the prefrontal cortex (coordinates cognition and emotions). Emotion and consciousness are closely intertwined, and emotional experiences contribute to conscious feelings.

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1.7�Comprehension: the role of language processing

Bottom-up processes��involving phonological�decoding and morphosyntactic categorization are�performed first

Top-down processes��involving analysis of semantic relations (lexical access and background knowledge activation) are then activated

An interaction of�bottom-up and top-down processing

Comprehension refers to the parallel interaction of�bottom-up and top-down processes, often called “parallel processing”

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Figure 1.6�Language Comprehension Pathways

Multiple regions of the brain are activated during the listening process. There are four important pathways that are directly involved in�listening comprehension.

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1.8�Connectivity: The role of memory

Several networks of the brain are involved in the retrieval and formation of memories during listening.

Short-term memory (STM)

→ is a cognitive rehearsal system. Short-term memory provides time to recognize words and calculate syntactic relationships.

Long-term memory (LTM)

→ is a network of knowledge stores,

including declarative memory and procedural memory:

Declarative memory: memory for general knowledge�It is often considered to be divided into two systems:
Semantic memory involves storing a vast amount of information we each accumulate over a lifetime, related to general knowledge, concepts, facts, and meanings of words and symbols.
Episodic memory consists of encoded personal experiences involving people, places, and sequential events, as well as emotional experiences we have encoded as if part of our own lives.
Procedural memory: memory for skills, habits, and automatized behaviors that are learned through trial and error, repetition, and practice

Memory networks

Purpose is to connect with prior knowledge and arrive at a coherent understanding.

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Figure 1.7�Distribution of Memory Centers

Memory connections are distributed throughout the brain and are not technically stored in any one area, though there is often one neural area that is highly activated during the encoding and recall of certain types of memories.

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1.9�Interpretation: The role of inferencing and reasoning

Inferencing and reasoning are closely related as both processes involve: making sense of evidence and arriving at logical or plausible conclusions.

Inferencing and reasoning work in conjunction with comprehension processes during the interpretation of auditory input to build a coherent, relevant interpretation of what the listener is monitoring

Inferencing involves making informed guesses or drawing conclusions based on the information provided in the input.

Reasoning refers to using formal logic and critical thinking strategies to evaluate information create hierarchies, draw conclusions, and make judgments

Interpreting involves reasoning processes

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Figure 1.8�Inferencing & Reasoning Processes While Listening

Inferencing and reasoning involve deciding on an outcome or conclusion.�The inferencing and reasoning processes make associations with previous�problems, evaluate alternative solutions, and decide on strategies and rules�to use to reach conclusions.

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1.10 �Complexity: The role of individual differences

Differences are displayed across multiple domains:

Reception: the structure and function of the�auditory system
Transmission: sensitivities to different frequencies of sound
Coordination: connections of brain regions involved in language,�memory, and emotion
Comprehension: ability to hold and manipulate auditory information while listening
Agency: capacity to become engaged and intentional in understanding
Attention: ability to provide mental focus and cognitive effort; bias toward certain types of auditory stimuli
Connectivity: memory capacity can hold and process more information simultaneously
Interpretation: ability to identify patterns and infer relationships

Individuals exhibit cognitive differences and personal preferences when they listen.

While the neurological processing system has the potential for maximal information processing efficiency, each individual uses this neurological system differently.

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1.11 Summary:�The value of understanding the neurological basis of listening

We can develop instructional strategies to target development of specific listening processes.

We can focus on research processes that isolate specific processes and behavior.

+ Neurological processes in listening are intricately specialized yet highly coordinated�Understanding the nature of neurological processing is�helpful for teachers and researchers:

Assessment and diagnosis of listening abilities and learning processes

To develop �

instructional strategies that target the development of particular processes

To focus on �

Research strategies that analyze specific cognitive processes & behaviors

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